Balhae ( ko, 발해, zh, c=渤海, p=Bóhǎi, russian: Бохай, translit=Bokhay, ), also rendered as Bohai, was a multi-ethnic kingdom whose land extends to what is today
Northeast China
Northeast China or Northeastern China () is a geographical region of China, which is often referred to as "Manchuria" or "Inner Manchuria" by surrounding countries and the West. It usually corresponds specifically to the three provinces east of t ...
, the
Korean Peninsula
Korea ( ko, 한국, or , ) is a peninsular region in East Asia. Since 1945, it has been divided at or near the 38th parallel, with North Korea (Democratic People's Republic of Korea) comprising its northern half and South Korea (Republic o ...
and the
Russian Far East
The Russian Far East (russian: Дальний Восток России, r=Dal'niy Vostok Rossii, p=ˈdalʲnʲɪj vɐˈstok rɐˈsʲiɪ) is a region in Northeast Asia. It is the easternmost part of Russia and the Asian continent; and is admini ...
. It was established in 698 by
Dae Joyeong
Dae Joyeong (died 719) (; or in Korean) or Da Zuorong (大祚榮, 大祚荣, in Chinese), also known as King Go (; in Korean; Gao in Chinese), established the state of Balhae, reigning from 699 to 719.
Life Early life
Dae Joyeong wa ...
(Da Zuorong) and originally known as the Kingdom of Jin (Zhen) until 713 when its name was changed to Balhae.
Balhae's early history involved a rocky relationship with the
Tang dynasty
The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, t= ), or Tang Empire, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907 AD, with an Zhou dynasty (690–705), interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dyn ...
that saw military and political conflict, but by the end of the 8th century the relationship had become cordial and friendly. The Tang dynasty would eventually recognize Balhae as the "Prosperous Country of the East".
Numerous cultural and political exchanges were made. Balhae was conquered by the
Khitan-led
Liao dynasty
The Liao dynasty (; Khitan: ''Mos Jælud''; ), also known as the Khitan Empire (Khitan: ''Mos diau-d kitai huldʒi gur''), officially the Great Liao (), was an imperial dynasty of China that existed between 916 and 1125, ruled by the Yelü ...
in 926. Balhae survived as a distinct population group for another three centuries in the Liao and
Jin dynasties before disappearing under
Mongol rule.
The history of the founding of the state, its ethnic composition, the nationality of the ruling dynasty, the reading of their names, and its borders are the subject of a
historiographical dispute between Korea, China and Russia. Historical sources from both China and Korea have described Balhae's founder, Dae Joyeong, as related to the
Mohe people
The Mohe, Malgal, or Mogher, or Mojie, were an East Asian Tungusic people who lived primarily in the modern geographical region of Northeast Asia. The two most powerful Mohe groups were known as the Heishui Mohe, located along the Amur River, a ...
and
Goguryeo
Goguryeo (37 BC–668 AD) ( ) also called Goryeo (), was a Korean kingdom located in the northern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula and the southern and central parts of Northeast China. At its peak of power, Goguryeo controlled most ...
.
Name
Balhae was founded in 698 by
Dae Joyeong
Dae Joyeong (died 719) (; or in Korean) or Da Zuorong (大祚榮, 大祚荣, in Chinese), also known as King Go (; in Korean; Gao in Chinese), established the state of Balhae, reigning from 699 to 719.
Life Early life
Dae Joyeong wa ...
(Da Zuorong) under the name (진, Jin), read as ''tsyinH'' in
Middle Chinese
Middle Chinese (formerly known as Ancient Chinese) or the Qieyun system (QYS) is the historical variety of Chinese recorded in the '' Qieyun'', a rime dictionary first published in 601 and followed by several revised and expanded editions. The ...
. The kingdom's name was transcribed as in
Chinese
Chinese can refer to:
* Something related to China
* Chinese people, people of Chinese nationality, citizenship, and/or ethnicity
**''Zhonghua minzu'', the supra-ethnic concept of the Chinese nation
** List of ethnic groups in China, people of ...
, with the same
Middle Chinese
Middle Chinese (formerly known as Ancient Chinese) or the Qieyun system (QYS) is the historical variety of Chinese recorded in the '' Qieyun'', a rime dictionary first published in 601 and followed by several revised and expanded editions. The ...
reading as .
In 713, the
Tang dynasty
The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, t= ), or Tang Empire, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907 AD, with an Zhou dynasty (690–705), interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dyn ...
bestowed the ruler of Jin with the noble title "Prince of
Commandery
In the Middle Ages, a commandery (rarely commandry) was the smallest administrative division of the European landed properties of a military order. It was also the name of the house where the knights of the commandery lived.Anthony Luttrell and G ...
of
Bohai (Balhae)" (渤海郡王). In 762, the Tang formally elevated Balhae to the status of a kingdom.
The kingdom's territories did not overlap with the Bohai Commandery. According to Jin Yufu, the Tang referred to the state as
Mohe (Malgal, name of the ethnic group) until 713, and "Balhae" was possibly used as a different transcription of the same name. According to the ''
New Book of Tang
The ''New Book of Tang'', generally translated as the "New History of the Tang" or "New Tang History", is a work of official history covering the Tang dynasty in ten volumes and 225 chapters. The work was compiled by a team of scholars of the So ...
'', the state was called Mohe before it received investiture from China and assumed the name Bohai. Linguists
Karl Heinrich Menges
Karl Heinrich Menges (April 22, 1908 – September 20, 1999) was a German linguist known for his advocacy of the Altaic hypothesis. He was a faculty member at Columbia University in New York and subsequently at the University of Vienna.
Menges ...
and
Roy Andrew Miller
Roy Andrew Miller (September 5, 1924 – August 22, 2014) was an American linguist best known as the author of several books on Japanese language and linguistics, and for his advocacy of Korean and Japanese as members of the proposed Altaic ...
raised another theory, suggesting that the name Balhae had an underlying native name which was cognate to
Manchu
The Manchus (; ) are a Tungusic East Asian ethnic group native to Manchuria in Northeast Asia. They are an officially recognized ethnic minority in China and the people from whom Manchuria derives its name. The Later Jin (1616–1636) and ...
''butha'' ("hunting").
The transcriptions Bohai (Chinese
pinyin
Hanyu Pinyin (), often shortened to just pinyin, is the official romanization system for Standard Mandarin Chinese in China, and to some extent, in Singapore and Malaysia. It is often used to teach Mandarin, normally written in Chinese for ...
romanization), Po-hai (Chinese
Wade–Giles
Wade–Giles () is a romanization system for Mandarin Chinese. It developed from a system produced by Thomas Francis Wade, during the mid-19th century, and was given completed form with Herbert A. Giles's '' Chinese–English Dictionary'' of ...
romanization), and Parhae
(Korean
McCune–Reischauer
McCune–Reischauer romanization () is one of the two most widely used Korean language romanization systems. A modified version of McCune–Reischauer was the official romanization system in South Korea until 2002, when it was replaced by the Re ...
romanization) are also used in modern academia. Most Western-language scholarship have opted for Bohai except in the field of Korean studies, however some scholars have chosen the Korean romanization to avoid a "Chinese" narrative spread by the usage of ''pinyin'' romanization. According to
Pamela Kyle Crossley
Pamela K Crossley (born 18 November 1955) is a historian of modern China, northern Asia, and global history and is the Charles and Elfriede Collis Professor of History, Dartmouth College. She is a founding appointment of the Dartmouth Society of ...
, neither Chinese or Korean transliterations can be correct. She chose to use modern Chinese transliteration "to indicate that the only referent we have is Chinese characters". Jesse D. Sloane chose to use "Parhae" because it was not covered in depth in the state-mandated curriculum of China, but used Chinese romanization for all other terms related to Balhae that appeared in Chinese sources first. Neither Crossley or Sloane meant to depict Balhae as essentially Chinese but used Chinese romanization out of convenience and to acknowledge the transnational origins of Balhae discourse.
History
Origin
In 696,
Li Jinzhong
Li, li, or LI may refer to:
Businesses and organizations
* Landscape Institute, a British professional body for landscape architects
* Leadership Institute, a non-profit organization located in Arlington, Virginia, US, that teaches "political tec ...
(Wushang Khan) of the
Khitans
The Khitan people (Khitan small script: ; ) were a historical nomadic people from Northeast Asia who, from the 4th century, inhabited an area corresponding to parts of modern Mongolia, Northeast China and the Russian Far East.
As a people desce ...
along with his brother-in-law
Sun Wanrong
Sun Wanrong () (died 697) was a khan of the Khitans who, along with his brother-in-law Li Jinzhong, rose against Wu Zhou hegemony in 696, with Li Jinzhong as khan, and they further invaded Wu Zhou territory. After Li Jinzhong's death later in 696, ...
rebelled against Tang (Wu Zetian's
Zhou Dynasty
The Zhou dynasty ( ; Old Chinese ( B&S): *''tiw'') was a royal dynasty of China that followed the Shang dynasty. Having lasted 789 years, the Zhou dynasty was the longest dynastic regime in Chinese history. The military control of China by th ...
) hegemony, killed an abusive Tang commander, and attacked
Hebei
Hebei or , (; alternately Hopeh) is a northern province of China. Hebei is China's sixth most populous province, with over 75 million people. Shijiazhuang is the capital city. The province is 96% Han Chinese, 3% Manchu, 0.8% Hui, an ...
. Li died soon after and Sun succeeded him, only to be defeated by the
Second Turkic Khaganate
The Second Turkic Khaganate ( otk, 𐱅𐰇𐰼𐰰:𐰃𐰠, Türük el, State of the Turks, , known as ''Turk Bilge Qaghan country'' ( otk, 𐱅𐰇𐰼𐰝:𐰋𐰃𐰠𐰏𐰀:𐰴𐰍𐰣:𐰃𐰠𐰭𐰀, Türük Bilgä Qaγan eli) in Bai ...
. The population of Yingzhou (營州, modern-day
Chaoyang,
Liaoning
Liaoning () is a coastal province in Northeast China that is the smallest, southernmost, and most populous province in the region. With its capital at Shenyang, it is located on the northern shore of the Yellow Sea, and is the northernmost ...
) fled eastward toward the
Liao River
The Liao River () is the principal river in southern Northeast China, and one of the seven main river systems in China. Its name derived from the Liao region, a historical name for southern Manchuria, from which the Liaoning province, Liaodong P ...
during the turmoil. The Tang tried to appease
Dae Jungsang (Da Zhongxiang) and
Geolsa Biu
Geolsa Biu was a 7th-century military leader of Baishan Mohe ancestry. Geolsa Biu took an active part in Balhae's effort for autonomy against the Tang Dynasty. Geolsa Biu died in the Battle of Tianmenling, in which Balhae achieved victory and dec ...
(Qisi Biyu), two local leaders, by granting them the titles of Duke of Zhen (Jin) and Duke of Xu (Heo) respectively. Geolsa Biu rejected the offer but was soon defeated by a Tang force led by
Li Kaigu, while Dae Jungsang fled with his followers but also died around the same time. Dae Jungsang's son,
Dae Joyeong
Dae Joyeong (died 719) (; or in Korean) or Da Zuorong (大祚榮, 大祚荣, in Chinese), also known as King Go (; in Korean; Gao in Chinese), established the state of Balhae, reigning from 699 to 719.
Life Early life
Dae Joyeong wa ...
(Da Zuorong), left the Liao River valley for Mt. Tianmen (in modern
Jilin Province
Jilin (; alternately romanized as Kirin or Chilin) is one of the three provinces of Northeast China. Its capital and largest city is Changchun. Jilin borders North Korea (Rasŏn, North Hamgyong, Ryanggang and Chagang) and Russia (Prim ...
). There, he dealt a heavy defeat to the Tang forces at the
Battle of Tianmenling
The Battle of Tianmenling (), or the Battle of Cheonmun-ryeong in Korean (), was a battle fought between Dae Jo-yeong, later founder of Balhae, and Li Kaigu (), a Khitan commander of the Chinese Tang dynasty and Wu Zhou dynasty.
After the fall o ...
(Cheonmunnyeong), after which he led his followers to set up a state. In 698, Dae Joyeong declared himself King of Zhen (Jin).
Another account of the events suggests that there was no rebellion at all, and the leader of the
Sumo Mohe
The Mohe, Malgal, or Mogher, or Mojie, were an East Asian Tungusic people who lived primarily in the modern geographical region of Northeast Asia. The two most powerful Mohe groups were known as the Heishui Mohe, located along the Amur River, a ...
(Songmal Malgal) rendered assistance to the Tang by suppressing Khitan rebels. As a reward the Tang acknowledged the leader as the local hegemon of a semi-independent state.
In diplomatic communications between
Silla
Silla or Shilla (57 BCE – 935 CE) ( , Old Korean: Syera, Old Japanese: Siraki2) was a Korean kingdom located on the southern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula. Silla, along with Baekje and Goguryeo, formed the Three Kingdoms of K ...
and Jin, Silla attempted to confer investiture to Dae Joyeong with the title of a fifth rank official: "Dae Achan". The people of Jin did not know the system of ranks used in Silla and thus accepted the title. After a while, Dae Joyeong realized the meaning of the title and sought to change Balhae's international status. In 713 or 714, the Tang dynasty recognized Dae Joyeong as the "Prince of Bohai (Balhae)", the name for the sea surrounding
Liaodong
The Liaodong Peninsula (also Liaotung Peninsula, ) is a peninsula in southern Liaoning province in Northeast China, and makes up the southwestern coastal half of the Liaodong region. It is located between the mouths of the Daliao River (the ...
and
Shandong
Shandong ( , ; ; alternately romanized as Shantung) is a coastal province of the People's Republic of China and is part of the East China region.
Shandong has played a major role in Chinese history since the beginning of Chinese civilizati ...
.
Neither the Tang or Silla recognized Balhae as the successor of
Goguryeo
Goguryeo (37 BC–668 AD) ( ) also called Goryeo (), was a Korean kingdom located in the northern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula and the southern and central parts of Northeast China. At its peak of power, Goguryeo controlled most ...
. The Tang considered it a dukedom while Silla considered it their vassal. The Tang later recognized it as a kingdom in 762.
Between 713 and 721, Silla constructed a northern wall to maintain active defences along the border.
Ethnic identity
The ethnic identity of Balhae's founder is
controversial
Controversy is a state of prolonged public dispute or debate, usually concerning a matter of conflicting opinion or point of view. The word was coined from the Latin ''controversia'', as a composite of ''controversus'' – "turned in an opposite ...
and disputed. Many Chinese, Korean, Russian, and Japanese scholars of Balhae believe its population was composed of Goguryeo remnants and Mohe tribes. Chinese scholars consider that Mohe people form the ethnic majority of Balhae, and arguments for this opinion are also viewed positively in Russia and in the West.
While modern Korean scholars usually consider Balhae a Korean state and one of the
Northern and Southern States of Korea, Russian and Chinese scholars reject this notion, echoing the position of historical Korean scholars such as
Gim Busik
Kim Bu-sik, or Gim Busik (; 1075–1151) was a statesman, general, Confucian scholar and writer during Korea's Goryeo period. He was a scion of the Silla royalty and a member of the Gyeongju Kim clan. Later he was the supreme chancellor from 1136 ...
, author of the ''
Samguk Sagi
''Samguk Sagi'' (, ''History of the Three Kingdoms'') is a historical record of the Three Kingdoms of Korea: Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla. The ''Samguk Sagi'' is written in Classical Chinese, the written language of the literati of ancient Korea, ...
''.
Some historians view this dispute as the polemics reflecting modern politics rather than historical evidence.
Historical sources give different accounts of Dae Joyeong's ethnicity and background.
Among the official dynastic history works, the ''
New Book of Tang
The ''New Book of Tang'', generally translated as the "New History of the Tang" or "New Tang History", is a work of official history covering the Tang dynasty in ten volumes and 225 chapters. The work was compiled by a team of scholars of the So ...
'' refers to Dae Joyeong and his state as
Sumo Mohe
The Mohe, Malgal, or Mogher, or Mojie, were an East Asian Tungusic people who lived primarily in the modern geographical region of Northeast Asia. The two most powerful Mohe groups were known as the Heishui Mohe, located along the Amur River, a ...
(related to
Jurchens
Jurchen (Manchu language, Manchu: ''Jušen'', ; zh, 女真, ''Nǚzhēn'', ) is a term used to collectively describe a number of East Asian people, East Asian Tungusic languages, Tungusic-speaking peoples, descended from the Donghu people. They ...
and later
Manchus
The Manchus (; ) are a Tungusic East Asian ethnic group native to Manchuria in Northeast Asia. They are an officially recognized ethnic minority in China and the people from whom Manchuria derives its name. The Later Jin (1616–1636) and Q ...
) affiliated with Goguryeo. The ''
Old Book of Tang
The ''Old Book of Tang'', or simply the ''Book of Tang'', is the first classic historical work about the Tang dynasty, comprising 200 chapters, and is one of the Twenty-Four Histories. Originally compiled during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdo ...
'' also states Dae's ethnic background as Mohe but adds that he was "高麗別種" (''gaoli biezhong''). Literally speaking, ''biezhong'' means "separate kind." The term is interpreted as meaning "a branch of the Goguryeo people" by South and North Korean historians, but as "distinct from Goguryeo" by Japanese and Chinese researchers. According to Sloane, Tang sources divided Balhae's population into two categories, Goguryeo and Mohe. The royalty and upper class were composed of Goguryeo remnants while the majority of Balhae's population were Mohe. In a diplomatic mission to Japan in 727 or 728, the Balhae envoy said that Balhae has "recovered the lost land of Goguryeo and inherited the old traditions of Buyeo."
Some consider this divide to be a cause of tension that contributed to Balhae's eventual downfall. Chinese scholars have made claims that
Han Chinese
The Han Chinese () or Han people (), are an East Asian ethnic group native to China. They constitute the world's largest ethnic group, making up about 18% of the global population and consisting of various subgroups speaking distinctive va ...
were a part of the Balhae population, but apart from Goguryeo and Mohe, no other group is associated with the foundation of Balhae in Chinese, Korean, or Japanese sources.
According to
Choe Chiwon
Choe Chiwon (; 857–10th century) was a Korean philosopher and poet of the late medieval Unified Silla period (668-935). He studied for many years in Tang China, passed the Tang imperial examination, and rose to the high office there before r ...
(b. 857), the people of Balhae were Mohe. In the conflict between the joint Tang-Silla forces against Balhae, Silla described Balhae as "rebellious barbarians." Sillan aristocracy tended to view the Balhae population as consisting of solely Mohe people, but this could be due to the antagonistic relations between the two states causing the Sillan nobility to ignore Goguryeo elements of Balhae ethnic composition. The ''
Ruijū Kokushi
is a historical text that categorizes and chronologizes the events listed in the ''Six National Histories''. It was compiled by Sugawara no Michizane and completed in 892. The text was commissioned by Emperor Uda.
Contents
The text was originall ...
'', a 9th-century Japanese text, says that when Balhae was founded, it spanned 2,000 ''li'' and was filled with villages, each of which were Mohe tribes. Japanese diplomatic communications with Balhae recognized it as a "state of Go
uyeo."
The ''
Samguk sagi
''Samguk Sagi'' (, ''History of the Three Kingdoms'') is a historical record of the Three Kingdoms of Korea: Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla. The ''Samguk Sagi'' is written in Classical Chinese, the written language of the literati of ancient Korea, ...
'', written in the 12th century by
Gim Busik
Kim Bu-sik, or Gim Busik (; 1075–1151) was a statesman, general, Confucian scholar and writer during Korea's Goryeo period. He was a scion of the Silla royalty and a member of the Gyeongju Kim clan. Later he was the supreme chancellor from 1136 ...
, did not consider Balhae a Korean state. The ''
Samguk yusa
''Samguk yusa'' () or ''Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms'' is a collection of legends, folktales and historical accounts relating to the Three Kingdoms of Korea (Goguryeo, Baekje, and Silla), as well as to other periods and states before, duri ...
'', a 13th-century collection of Korean history and legends, describes Dae as a Sumo Mohe leader. However, it gives another account of Dae being a former Goguryeo general, citing a now-lost Sillan record. Alexander Kim considers this unlikely since Goguryeo fell in 668 while Dae died in 719, and young men could not receive the rank of general.
Russian scholars argue that the ethnic composition of Balhae cannot be determined with great precision because no materials exist that can confirm either the Chinese or Korean claims. Some Russian scholars claim Balhae as part of Manchurian history while others believe Balhae was neither a Korean state or Chinese province and there is no direct link between Balhae and either modern China or Korea. E. V. Shakunov believes that Balhae's population also consisted of elements from
Central Asia
Central Asia, also known as Middle Asia, is a subregion, region of Asia that stretches from the Caspian Sea in the west to western China and Mongolia in the east, and from Afghanistan and Iran in the south to Russia in the north. It includes t ...
such as
Sogdians :''This category lists articles related to historical Iranian peoples''
Historical
Peoples
Iranian
Iranian
Iranian
Iranian may refer to:
* Iran, a sovereign state
* Iranian peoples, the speakers of the Iranian languages. The term Iranic peoples ...
and
Tocharians
The Tocharians, or Tokharians ( US: or ; UK: ), were speakers of Tocharian languages, Indo-European languages known from around 7600 documents from around 400 to 1200 AD, found on the northern edge of the Tarim Basin (modern Xinjiang, China). ...
. Many
Uyghurs
The Uyghurs; ; ; ; zh, s=, t=, p=Wéiwú'ěr, IPA: ( ), alternatively spelled Uighurs, Uygurs or Uigurs, are a Turkic ethnic group originating from and culturally affiliated with the general region of Central and East Asia. The Uyghur ...
fled to Balhae after the destruction of the
Uyghur Khaganate
The Uyghur Khaganate (also Uyghur Empire or Uighur Khaganate, self defined as Toquz-Oghuz country; otk, 𐱃𐰆𐰴𐰕:𐰆𐰍𐰕:𐰉𐰆𐰑𐰣, Toquz Oγuz budun, Tang-era names, with modern Hanyu Pinyin: or ) was a Turkic empire that e ...
in 840 but they failed to adapt to Balhae society and caused social unrest.
It is evident that Balhae had a diverse population, including other minorities such as
Khitan and
Evenk peoples.
Archaeological evidence suggests that the Balhae culture was an amalgamation of High Tang Chinese, Korean, and Tungusic cultures.
Expansion and foreign relations
Dae Joyeong
Dae Joyeong (died 719) (; or in Korean) or Da Zuorong (大祚榮, 大祚荣, in Chinese), also known as King Go (; in Korean; Gao in Chinese), established the state of Balhae, reigning from 699 to 719.
Life Early life
Dae Joyeong wa ...
died in 719 and was succeeded by his son,
Dae Muye (Da Wuyi, r. 719–737). While Muye accepted Tang gifts and title upon his succession, he showed his independence by giving his father a posthumous
temple name
Temple names are posthumous titles accorded to monarchs of the Sinosphere for the purpose of ancestor worship. The practice of honoring monarchs with temple names began during the Shang dynasty in China and had since been adopted by other dynas ...
, Gowang/Gaowang (high king). Muye adopted his own reign title in 720. In 721, the Tang asked Balhae for military support against the
Khitans
The Khitan people (Khitan small script: ; ) were a historical nomadic people from Northeast Asia who, from the 4th century, inhabited an area corresponding to parts of modern Mongolia, Northeast China and the Russian Far East.
As a people desce ...
but they refused. To check Balhae's influence, the Tang appointed a chieftain of the
Heishui Mohe
The Heishui Mohe (; mnc, Sahaliyan i Aiman or ), also known as the , rendered in English as Blackriver Mohe or Blackwater Mohe, were a tribe of Mohe people in Outer Manchuria along the Amur River () in what is now Russia's Khabarovsk Krai, Amur Ob ...
(Heuksu Malgal) as prefect of Bozhou (in modern
Khabarovsk
Khabarovsk ( rus, Хабaровск, a=Хабаровск.ogg, r=Habárovsk, p=xɐˈbarəfsk) is the largest types of inhabited localities in Russia, city and the administrative centre of Khabarovsk Krai, Russia,Law #109 located from the China ...
) in 722. In 725, the
Andong Protectorate
The Protectorate-General to Pacify the East () was an administrative division of the Chinese Tang dynasty in Manchuria and the northern part of the Korean Peninsula. It was established after the Tang dynasty defeated Goguryeo and annexed its ter ...
suggested stationing an army in the region. In response, Tang officials dispatched an administration staffed by the leaders of smaller tribes under the command of the
Youzhou
You Prefecture or You Province, also known by its Chinese name Youzhou, was a prefecture ('' zhou'') in northern China during its imperial era.
"You Province" was cited in some ancient sources as one of the nine or twelve original provinces ...
governor-general. Muye was convinced that the Heishui Mohe and the Tang were plotting to attack him and required a preemptive strike. He ordered his brother,
Dae Munye (Da Wenyi), to attack the Heishui Mohe. Munye, who had stayed at the Tang capital as a hostage and understood the implications of attacking a Tang ally, was reluctant to carry out the order. He advised Muye to abandon the plan twice.
Muye paid his brother no heed and used his reluctance as pretext to remove Munye from command. Munye fled to the Tang dynasty. A Balhae envoy arrived at the Tang court in 732 requesting the execution of Munye. In response, the Tang secretly sent Munye to
Central Asia
Central Asia, also known as Middle Asia, is a subregion, region of Asia that stretches from the Caspian Sea in the west to western China and Mongolia in the east, and from Afghanistan and Iran in the south to Russia in the north. It includes t ...
while informing Muye that his brother had been banished to
South China
South China () is a geographical and cultural region that covers the southernmost part of China. Its precise meaning varies with context. A notable feature of South China in comparison to the rest of China is that most of its citizens are not n ...
. The reality of events, however, leaked out, enraging Muye. A Balhae naval force led by
Jang Mun-hyu (Zhang Wenxiu) attacked Dengzhou on the north shore of the
Shandong Peninsula
The Shandong (Shantung) Peninsula or Jiaodong (Chiaotung) Peninsula is a peninsula in Shandong Province in eastern China, between the Bohai Sea to the north and the Yellow Sea to the south. The latter name refers to the east and Jiaozhou.
G ...
and killed its prefect. The Tang ordered Gim Chungsin, the nephew of
Seongdeok of Silla
Seongdeok Daewang (reigned 702–737) was the thirty-third king of the ancient Korean kingdom of Silla. He was the second son of King Sinmun, and the younger brother of King Hyoso. In 704 Seongdeok married Lady Baeso 陪昭夫人 (Queen Se ...
and courtier in the Tang court, to return to
Silla
Silla or Shilla (57 BCE – 935 CE) ( , Old Korean: Syera, Old Japanese: Siraki2) was a Korean kingdom located on the southern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula. Silla, along with Baekje and Goguryeo, formed the Three Kingdoms of K ...
and organize an attack on Balhae. Chungsin excused himself from the request by asking to remain in China as the emperor's bodyguard. In his place, the Tang sent Gim Saran, a low ranking Sillan diplomat, and a Tang eunuch. Munye was also recalled to recruit soldiers in Youzhou. In the meantime, Balhae struck again, sacking the town of Mt. Matou (northwest of modern
Shanhaiguan
Shanhai Pass or Shanhaiguan () is one of the major passes in the Great Wall of China, being the easternmost stronghold along the Ming Great Wall, and commands the narrowest choke point in the Liaoxi Corridor. It is located in Shanhaiguan Di ...
), and killing 10,000 Tang soldiers. The Balhae force raided and pillaged along the Liao River and the coast of the
Liaodong Peninsula
The Liaodong Peninsula (also Liaotung Peninsula, ) is a peninsula in southern Liaoning province in Northeast China, and makes up the southwestern coastal half of the Liaodong region. It is located between the mouths of the Daliao River (the ...
. In 733, Tang and Sillan forces attempted a joint attack on Balhae but were accosted by a blizzard that blocked all roads and killed half of the 100,000 Tang-Silla army, forcing them to abort the invasion. Muye continued to try to kill his brother. He sent an agent to
Luoyang
Luoyang is a city located in the confluence area of Luo River (Henan), Luo River and Yellow River in the west of Henan province. Governed as a prefecture-level city, it borders the provincial capital of Zhengzhou to the east, Pingdingshan to the ...
to plot the assassination of his brother. Munye was attacked in broad daylight near the Tianjin Bridge outside the imperial palace but escaped unharmed.
In 734, Silla attacked Balhae with no success. In an effort to curb Balhae's ambitions, the Tang granted Silla's request to place troops in the
Paegang region
In geography, regions, otherwise referred to as zones, lands or territories, are areas that are broadly divided by physical characteristics (physical geography), human impact characteristics (human geography), and the interaction of humanity and t ...
in 735.
The strategic landscape began to turn on Balhae in 734–735, when the
Khitan chieftain, Ketuyu, and his Turkic allies were defeated by Tang forces. In addition a force of 5,000
Kumo Xi
The Kumo Xi (Xu Elina-Qian, p.296b), also known as the Tatabi, were a Mongolic steppe people located in current Northeast China from 207 CE to 907 CE. After the death of their ancestor Tadun in 207, they were no longer called Wuhuan but joined t ...
cavalrymen surrendered to the Tang. The defeat of the Khitans and
Turks
Turk or Turks may refer to:
Communities and ethnic groups
* Turkic peoples, a collection of ethnic groups who speak Turkic languages
* Turkish people, or the Turks, a Turkic ethnic group and nation
* Turkish citizen, a citizen of the Republic o ...
, and the submission of the Kumo Xi removed the buffer zone that had formed between Balhae and the Tang. Sensing the change in strategic developments, Muye decided to reconcile with the Tang. In 737, Tang sailors and civilians detained in Balhae were repatriated. In 738, an envoy from Balhae requested Tang ritual codes and dynastic histories in a symbolic gesture towards peace. Muye died soon after.
Muye's son and successor,
Dae Heummu
DAE or Dae may refer to:
As an acronym
* DAE (chemotherapy), a chemotherapy regimen consisting of Daunorubicin, Ara-C (cytarabine) and Etoposide
* Daporijo Airport, the IATA code for an airport in India
* Daxing Airport Express, the airport tran ...
(Da Qinmao, r. 737–793), continued the course of reconciliation with the Tang. At the same time, trouble with the
Tibetan Empire
The Tibetan Empire (, ; ) was an empire centered on the Tibetan Plateau, formed as a result of imperial expansion under the Yarlung dynasty heralded by its 33rd king, Songtsen Gampo, in the 7th century. The empire further expanded under the 38 ...
to the west forced the Tang to withdraw all military forces from
Korea
Korea ( ko, 한국, or , ) is a peninsular region in East Asia. Since 1945, it has been divided at or near the 38th parallel, with North Korea (Democratic People's Republic of Korea) comprising its northern half and South Korea (Republic o ...
and adopt a defensive stance. Heummu cemented the geopolitical balance by sending an envoy to the Japanese court, which his father had done as well in 728 to threaten Silla with an ally from the southeast. Balhae kept diplomatic and commercial contacts with Japan until the end of the kingdom. Balhae dispatched envoys to Japan 34 times, while Japan sent envoys to Balhae 13 times. In 755, the
An Lushan Rebellion
The An Lushan Rebellion was an uprising against the Tang dynasty of China towards the mid-point of the dynasty (from 755 to 763), with an attempt to replace it with the Yan dynasty. The rebellion was originally led by An Lushan, a general office ...
broke out, causing the Tang to lose control of the northeast, and even after the rebellion's end in 763, warlords known as
jiedushi
The ''jiedushi'' (), or jiedu, was a title for regional military governors in China which was established in the Tang dynasty and abolished in the Yuan dynasty. The post of ''jiedushi'' has been translated as "military commissioner", "legate", ...
controlled the former northeastern part of the Tang empire. In 762,
Emperor Daizong of Tang
Emperor Daizong of Tang (9 January 727 According to Daizong's biography in the ''Old Book of Tang'', he was born on the 13th day in the 12th month of the 14th year of the Kaiyuan era of Tang Xuanzong's reign. This date corresponds to 9 Jan 727 i ...
formally recognized Balhae as a state and Heummu as its king. Although China recognized him as a king, Balhae itself referred to him as the son of heaven (emperor) and a king. The consort of the ruler was also called empress. A record in 834 says that Balhae had both kings and great kings. The epitath of Princess Jeonghyo (Zhenxiao), daughter of Heummu, states that his father was a "great king."
During Heummu's reign, a trade route with Silla, called "Sillado" (), was established. King Mun moved the capital of Balhae several times. He also established
Shangjing/Sanggyeong, the permanent capital near
Lake Jingpo
Jingpo Lake or Lake Jingpo (; ''Pinyin'': Jìng Pō Hú) is a lake located in the upper reaches of the Mudan River among the Wanda Mountains in Ningan County, Heilongjiang Province, in the People's Republic of China. Earlier names for the lake ...
in the south of today's
Heilongjiang
Heilongjiang () formerly romanized as Heilungkiang, is a province in northeast China. The standard one-character abbreviation for the province is (). It was formerly romanized as "Heilungkiang". It is the northernmost and easternmost province ...
province around 756; stabilizing and strengthening central rule over various ethnic tribes in his realm, which was expanded temporarily. He also authorized the creation of the ''Jujagam''/''Zhouzijian'' (), the national academy, based on the
national academy of Tang.
The bilateral relationship between the Tang and Balhae grew friendlier. From 766 to 779, 25 missions from Balhae paid respect to Daizong. By the end of Heummu's reign in 793, princes from Balhae's royal family were serving as guards at the court of
Emperor Dezong of Tang
Emperor Dezong of Tang (27 May 742According to Li Kuo's biography in the ''Old Book of Tang'', he was born on the ''guisi'' day in the 4th month of the 1st year of the Tianbao era of Tang Xuanzong's reign. This date corresponds to 27 May 742 in ...
of their volition. Peace with the Tang allowed Balhae to further expand its territory. After the death of Heummu, who was
posthumously known as
Mun of Balhae
Mun may refer to:
People
* Mun (Korean name), a Korean surname
* Mun Bhuridatta (1870–1949), Thai bhikkhu
* Thomas Mun (1571–1641) English writer on economics
Places
* Mun, Hautes-Pyrénées, a commune in the Hautes-Pyrénées, France
* M ...
(Wen, r. 737–793), Balhae experienced a succession crisis. As a result, Balhae lost territory and bordering Mohe tribes rebelled. Both the reigns of
Seon of Balhae
Dae Insu, also known as King Seon (r. 818–830) was the 10th king of the kingdom of Balhae. He restored national strength, and is remembered today as the last of the great Balhae rulers before its fall.
Background
Dae Insu was a 4th-generati ...
(Xuan, r. 818–830) and
Dae Ijin
Dae Ijin (r. 830–857) was the 11th king of the Balhae kingdom, which existed from AD 698 to 926 and occupied parts of Manchuria and northern Korea. The era name of his reign was ''Hamhwa'' (咸和, 함화).New Book of Tang,北狄,"子新德蚤 ...
(Da Yizhen, r. 830–857) saw intrusions by Mohe tribes. Seon annexed the Yuexi Mohe and other tribes along the Amur valley in the north. In 818-820, he also invaded Liaodong and parts of Silla on Balhae's southern border. In 826, Silla mobilized tens of thousands of people to fortify the border with Balhae. In the middle of the 9th century, Balhae completed its local administrative system, which was composed of five capitals, 15 prefectures and 62 counties.
Fall
In 907, Balhae came into conflict with the Khitan
Liao dynasty
The Liao dynasty (; Khitan: ''Mos Jælud''; ), also known as the Khitan Empire (Khitan: ''Mos diau-d kitai huldʒi gur''), officially the Great Liao (), was an imperial dynasty of China that existed between 916 and 1125, ruled by the Yelü ...
because of the decision of the
Khitans
The Khitan people (Khitan small script: ; ) were a historical nomadic people from Northeast Asia who, from the 4th century, inhabited an area corresponding to parts of modern Mongolia, Northeast China and the Russian Far East.
As a people desce ...
near modern
Chifeng
Chifeng ( zh, s=赤峰市), also known as Ulanhad ( mn, (Улаанхад хот), ''Ulaɣanqada qota'', , "red cliff"), is a prefecture-level city in Southeastern Inner Mongolia, People's Republic of China. It borders Xilin Gol League to the ...
and
Tongliao
Tongliao (; mn, ''Tüŋliyou qota'', Mongolian Cyrillic: Байшинт хот) is a prefecture-level city in eastern Inner Mongolia, People's Republic of China. The area is and as of the 2020 census, its population was 2,873,168 (3,139,153 i ...
, who recognized the supremacy of Balhae, to become part of the Liao dynasty. The Liao ruler
Abaoji
Abaoji (872–6 September 926), posthumously known by his temple name as the Emperor Taizu of Liao, was a Khitan leader and the founding emperor of the Liao dynasty of China, ruling from 916 to 926. He had a sinicised name, Yelü Yi; some sou ...
took possession of the
Liao River
The Liao River () is the principal river in southern Northeast China, and one of the seven main river systems in China. Its name derived from the Liao region, a historical name for southern Manchuria, from which the Liaoning province, Liaodong P ...
basin, which led to a long conflict.
In 911, Silla allied with Balhae against the Khitans. In 924, Balhae attacked the Khitans. The next year, a Balhae general, Sindeok, surrendered to
Goryeo
Goryeo (; ) was a Korean kingdom founded in 918, during a time of national division called the Later Three Kingdoms period, that unified and ruled the Korean Peninsula until 1392. Goryeo achieved what has been called a "true national unificati ...
. In 925, Silla allied with the Khitans and helped them in their war against Balhae. Afterwards, warriors from Silla were rewarded by the Khitan ruler. In 926, the Khitans laid siege to the Balhae capital
Shangjing/Sanggyeong and forced their surrender. In Balhae's place, the Khitans established the autonomous kingdom of
Dongdan ruled by the Liao crown prince
Yelü Bei
Yelü Bei () (899''History of Liao'', vol. 72. – January 7, 937''Zizhi Tongjian'', vol. 280. Academia Sinicabr>Chinese-Western Calendar Converter), also known as Yelü Tuyu (耶律突欲 or 耶律圖欲), posthumously honored Emperor Wenxian Q ...
. Its independence ended in 929 when a new Liao ruler ordered the relocation of its population. It was soon absorbed into the Liao in 936.
The name of Balhae was officially removed in 982. Meanwhile, a series of nobilities and elites led by key figures such as crown prince
Dae Gwang-hyeon
Dae Gwang-hyeon (대광현, 大光顯, ? ~ ?) was the last Crown Prince of Balhae and a member of the Balhae Royal Family, and was the leader of the Balhae refugees who sought refuge in the Korean Kingdom of Goryeo.
Biography
Dae Gwang-hyeon ...
, were absorbed into
Goryeo
Goryeo (; ) was a Korean kingdom founded in 918, during a time of national division called the Later Three Kingdoms period, that unified and ruled the Korean Peninsula until 1392. Goryeo achieved what has been called a "true national unificati ...
. Some Balhae aristocrats were forced to move to Liaoyang, but Balhae's eastern territory remained politically independent in
Later Balhae
Later Balhae or Later Bohai (927–935) was a state hypothesized to have existed in Manchuria. It emerged after Balhae(Bohai) was destroyed by the Liao dynasty. Later Balhae is considered by some to be the first of several successor states to Bal ...
, which was later renamed to
Jeongan
Jeongan or Ding'an (; ko, 정안국; 938–986) was a successor state of Balhae (Bohai) founded by Yeol Man-hwa (Lie Wanhua).
Establishment and Downfall
The early history of Jeongan is mostly unknown. Large number of rebels emerged on the f ...
(Ding'an). The Liao invaded Jeongan in 975 but failed to conquer them. In 985–6, the Khitans attacked
Jeongan
Jeongan or Ding'an (; ko, 정안국; 938–986) was a successor state of Balhae (Bohai) founded by Yeol Man-hwa (Lie Wanhua).
Establishment and Downfall
The early history of Jeongan is mostly unknown. Large number of rebels emerged on the f ...
again, this time successfully.
[據《渤海国记》:“定安国王大氏、乌氏迭见其理不可晓。渤海亡,始建国,下讫淳化二年,凡六十四年。”]
Some scholars consider that
the eruption of Mount Baekdu in 930–940s dealt a final blow to the surviving forces of Balhae, based on records of massive population displacement of Balhae people to the Liaodong peninsula of the Khitan empire and the Korean peninsula of Goryeo. However this theory has lost popularity in Korea in recent times and Russian scholars do not consider it a plausible reason for Balhae's collapse. The most paramount reason seems to have been military confrontation with a superior power, the Khitans.
At its start, the ''Old Book of Tang'' stated that the kingdom had around 100,000 households and tens of thousands of soldiers, suggesting a population of around 500,000.
At the time of its fall, its soldiers numbered "hundreds of thousands" according to the ''
History of Liao
The ''History of Liao'', or ''Liao Shi'' (''Liáo Shǐ''), is a Chinese historical book compiled officially by the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty (1271–1368), under the direction of the historian Toqto'a (Tuotuo), and finalized in 1344.Xu Elina-Qian, ...
''. The kingdom's total population in its last years is variously estimated at between 1.5 to 4 million by historians today.
Later history
Goryeo
Though Balhae was lost, a great portion of the royalty and aristocracy fled to Goryeo, including
Dae Gwang-hyeon
Dae Gwang-hyeon (대광현, 大光顯, ? ~ ?) was the last Crown Prince of Balhae and a member of the Balhae Royal Family, and was the leader of the Balhae refugees who sought refuge in the Korean Kingdom of Goryeo.
Biography
Dae Gwang-hyeon ...
, the last
crown prince
A crown prince or hereditary prince is the heir apparent to the throne in a royal or imperial monarchy. The female form of the title is crown princess, which may refer either to an heiress apparent or, especially in earlier times, to the wif ...
. They were granted land and the crown prince was given the family name Wang (왕, 王), the royal family name of the Goryeo dynasty, and included in the royal household by
Wang Geon
Taejo of Goryeo (31 January 877 – 4 July 943), also known as Taejo Wang Geon (; ), was the founder of the Goryeo dynasty, which ruled Korea from the 10th to the 14th century. Taejo ruled from 918 to 943, achieving unification of the Later Thre ...
, who was crowned as Taejo of Goryeo. Koreans believe Goryeo thus unified the two successor nations of Goguryeo. Some other members of the Balhae royalty took the surname Tae (태, 太).
According to the ''Goryeosa jeolyo'', the Balhae refugees who accompanied the crown prince numbered in the tens of thousands of households. According to Alexander Kim, Goryeo's statistical information shows that more than 100,000 Balhae people moved to Goryeo at different points in time. As descendants of Goguryeo, the Balhae people and the Goryeo dynasts were related. Taejo of Goryeo felt a strong familial kinship with Balhae, calling it his "relative country" and "married country",
and protected the Balhae refugees. This was in stark contrast to Later Silla, which had endured a hostile relationship with Balhae. Taejo displayed strong animosity toward the Khitans who had destroyed Balhae. The Liao dynasty sent 30 envoys with 50 camels as a gift in 942, but Taejo exiled the envoys to an island and starved the camels under a bridge, in what is known as the "Manbu Bridge Incident".
Taejo proposed to
Gaozu of
Later Jin Later Jin may refer to two states in imperial China:
* Later Jin (Five Dynasties) (後晉; 936–947), one of the Five Dynasties
* Later Jin (1616–1636) (後金; 1616–1636), precursor to the Qing dynasty
See also
* Jin (disambiguation)
Jin ...
that they attack the Khitans in retribution for Balhae, according to the ''
Zizhi Tongjian
''Zizhi Tongjian'' () is a pioneering reference work in Chinese historiography, published in 1084 AD during the Northern Song dynasty in the form of a chronicle recording Chinese history from 403 BC to 959 AD, covering 16 dynast ...
''.
Furthermore, in his ''Ten Injunctions'' to his descendants, he stated that the Khitans are "savage beasts" and should be guarded against.
Khitan conquest of Balhae resulted in Goryeo's prolonged hostility towards the Khitan Empire.
Exodus en masse on part from the Balhae refugees would continue on at least until the early 12th century during the reign of King Yejong, according to Korean scholars. Due to this constant massive influx of Balhae refugees, the Goguryeo population is speculated to have become dominant in proportion compared to their Silla and Baekje counterparts that have experienced devastating war and political strife since the advent of the Later Three Kingdoms. Later Baekje fared only little better than Later Silla before its fall in 936. Meanwhile, of the three capitals of Goryeo, two were Kaesong and Pyeongyang which were initially populated by Goguryeoic settlers from the Paeseo Region (패서, 浿西) and Balhae.
Crossley
Crossley, based in Manchester, United Kingdom, was a pioneering company in the production of internal combustion engines. Since 1988 it has been part of the Rolls-Royce Power Engineering group.
More than 100,000 Crossley oil and gas engines ...
believes that according to Goryeo records, Balhae refugees only arrived in groups of a few hundred to a few thousand. She suggests that the total number could not be more than 100,000, while millions remained in Liao-controlled territories. According to Crossley, it's also unclear whether they stayed, went back to Balhae, or moved on elsewhere like China or Japan.
According to Kim, between the 10th and 11th centuries, 30,000 Balhae families (more than 100,000 people) immigrated to Goryeo, 94,000 (470,000 inhabitants) local families were deported by the Liao, and only 20,000 Balhae families lived in the former territories of Balhae, a significantly smaller figure than those that immigrated to Goryeo.
According to Kim, many Balhae refugees fled to Goryeo due to pro-Balhae policies during the mid 9th century. In the first few decades after Balhae's fall, Balhae refugees were welcomed by Goryeo. However, it seems few Balhae refugees retained high positions in Goryeo as service in the Khitan administration offered more benefits. Goryeo annals contain only six names of high-ranking officials who were of Balhae origin. In 1029-1030, the Khitan Administration was rocked by a rebellion by Balhae people after the government tried raising taxes on them. The leader of the rebellion was the Liao general
Da Yanlin Da Yanlin (in Chinese), or Dae Yeon-rim (in Korean) (; ko, 대연림; ?-?) was a rebel in the Liao dynasty and the founder of the Xingliao state.
Biography
Da Yanlin was a descendant of the Balhae royal family as the 7th-generation direct desce ...
, a 7th generation descendant of the founder of Balhae. He arrested and killed Khitan leaders and proclaimed the establishment of a new dynasty,
Xing Liao. He sent an ambassador to Goryeo requesting military support. Goryeo sent some military troops against the Liao but the Khitans repelled them and expelled the Goryeo army. Some of Goryeo's officers sought further confrontation with the Liao, but the Goryeo diplomatic corps and noblility asked the Goryeo king to exercise caution. The Goryeo king decided to abandon military activities against the Liao. Despite this, Balhae people continued to send missions to Goryeo requesting assistance. The last mission, led by Lee Kwang Rok, arrived after the destruction of the state, and Kim considers this group as refugees, not members of an ambassadorial mission. Kim believes that in the 11th century, Balhae people under the Liao started viewing Goryeo as a hostile state in which the Balhae people lacked support.
Liao dynasty
The Balhae people played a pivotal role in the politics, literature, and society of northern China under the Liao and Jin dynasties. After the dissolution of Balhae by the Khitan empire, the term "Bohai" was used through the fourteenth century to denote a subset of the populations of the Liao, Jin, and
Mongol empire
The Mongol Empire of the 13th and 14th centuries was the largest contiguous land empire in history. Originating in present-day Mongolia in East Asia, the Mongol Empire at its height stretched from the Sea of Japan to parts of Eastern Europe, ...
s. The Liao Eastern Capital (Dongjing, modern-day
Liaoyang
Liaoyang () is a prefecture-level city of east-central Liaoning province, China, situated on the Taizi River. It is approximately one hour south of Shenyang, the provincial capital, by car. Liaoyang is home to Liaoning University's College of Fo ...
,
Liaoning
Liaoning () is a coastal province in Northeast China that is the smallest, southernmost, and most populous province in the region. With its capital at Shenyang, it is located on the northern shore of the Yellow Sea, and is the northernmost ...
) served as a base for monitoring the former Balhae territories. The city's residents, over 40,000 in early tenth century, were primarily Balhae.
Dae Inseon
Dae Inseon (r. 906–926) was the last king of Balhae, a kingdom in northeast Asia occupying parts of Manchuria, northern Korea, and the Russian Far East. Dae Inseon was also the last king of Balhae. He and his armies were pushed back and eventu ...
(Da Yinzhuan), the last Balhae king, and other members of the former royal lineage still held considerable authority in
Dongdan and the Eastern Capital after Balhae's fall. Some Balhae elites, on the other hand, were integrated into the Liao aristocracy and often changed their personal identities dramatically.
In the summer of 1029, a distant descendant of Balhae royalty,
Da Yanlin Da Yanlin (in Chinese), or Dae Yeon-rim (in Korean) (; ko, 대연림; ?-?) was a rebel in the Liao dynasty and the founder of the Xingliao state.
Biography
Da Yanlin was a descendant of the Balhae royal family as the 7th-generation direct desce ...
, rebelled at the Eastern Capital. He imprisoned minister Xiao Xiaoxian and his wife, killed the tax commissioners and chief military commander, and declared his own Xing Liao dynasty (興遼國/흥료국). He requested aid from Goryeo, who sent forces against Liao only to be repelled. Further ambassadors were sent by Xing Liao to Goryeo seeking aid but Goryeo refused to help them owing to the advice of nobles and scholars to the Goryeo king. Other Balhae people serving in the Liao military also refused to join Xing Liao. Four groups of ambassadors were sent but the last group remained in Goryeo rather than return. Instead only a handful of
Jurchens
Jurchen (Manchu language, Manchu: ''Jušen'', ; zh, 女真, ''Nǚzhēn'', ) is a term used to collectively describe a number of East Asian people, East Asian Tungusic languages, Tungusic-speaking peoples, descended from the Donghu people. They ...
joined his regime. Many participants of the rebellion probably realized the weakness of the new dynasty and fled to Goryeo before its collapse. A year later, one of Da Yanlin's officers betrayed him and opened the Eastern Capital's gates to the Khitans. His short lived dynasty came to an end. The old Balhae nobility were resettled near the Supreme Capital while others fled to Goryeo. In 1114, Balhae descendants took advantage of the Jurchen-Khitan war and rebelled. They defeated Khitan armies twice before they were destroyed. In 1116 another rebellion occurred at the Eastern Capital when a Balhae officer named Gao Yongchang declared himself emperor of the Yuan dynasty and requested aid from the Jin. Liao troops sent to quash the rebellion were themselves led by those of Balhae descent. The Jin relief troops to Yuan easily repulsed the Liao troops but then turned on the Balhae rebels and killed Gao Yongchang.
Jin dynasty
The Khitans themselves eventually succumbed to the
Jurchen people
Jurchen (Manchu: ''Jušen'', ; zh, 女真, ''Nǚzhēn'', ) is a term used to collectively describe a number of East Asian Tungusic-speaking peoples, descended from the Donghu people. They lived in the northeast of China, later known as Manchu ...
, the descendants of the Mohe, who founded the
Jin dynasty. Jurchen proclamations emphasized the common descent of the Balhae and Jurchens from the seven Wuji (勿吉) tribes, and proclaimed "Jurchen and Balhae are from the same family". The fourth, fifth and seventh emperors of Jin were mothered by Balhae consorts. Nevertheless, the 13th century census of Northern China by the Mongols distinguished Balhae people who belonged to the Khitan Empire from other ethnic groups such as Goryeo, Khitans and Jurchens.
[Hong Won-tak. "''Liao and Jin: After Khitan and Xianbei in West Manchuria, Jurchen in Eastern Manchuria appeared''" East Asian History: Distortion and Correcting, page 80-110. Seoul: Gudara, 2012.] A Song observer notes that during the Liao era, Balhae people were not employed in the government, as a result they were the first to defect to the Jin. An 1125 embassy noted that Jin protocol officers included Khitans, Jurchens, as well as Balhae. They all spoke Chinese. A descendant of the Balhae royal family, Da Gao (1086-1153), served in the Jin army and was given command of eight Balhae battalions in the war against the
Song dynasty
The Song dynasty (; ; 960–1279) was an imperial dynasty of China that began in 960 and lasted until 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song following his usurpation of the throne of the Later Zhou. The Song conquered the rest ...
. One Balhae commander, Guo Yaoshi (active 1116–1132) fought in the Liao, Jin, and Song armies at one point or another. The Balhae played a critical role in supporting
Emperor Shizong of Jin
An emperor (from la, imperator, via fro, empereor) is a monarch, and usually the sovereignty, sovereign ruler of an empire or another type of imperial realm. Empress, the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife (empress consort), ...
's accession to the throne.
Families of Balhae descent were able to rise high in the Jin hierarchy, including Zhang Rulin (d. 1190) and Zhang Rubi (d. 1187), who were key advisers of Emperor Shizong, and Li Yin (''jinshi'' 1194, d. 1214), who died fighting against the
Mongols
The Mongols ( mn, Монголчууд, , , ; ; russian: Монголы) are an East Asian ethnic group native to Mongolia, Inner Mongolia in China and the Buryatia Republic of the Russian Federation. The Mongols are the principal membe ...
. Balhae descendants also participated with success in the Jin imperial examinations. Many Balhae literati-officials such as Gao Kan (d. 1167), Gao Xian (''jinshi'' 1203), Zhang Rulin, Zhang Runeng, Zhang Ruwei (fl. 1150), Zhang Rufang, and Wang Tingyun (1151-1202) were entrusted as arbiters of culture and cultivated taste. Wang Tingyun's family received literary distinctions. His eldest daughter became a
Daoist
Taoism (, ) or Daoism () refers to either a school of philosophical thought (道家; ''daojia'') or to a religion (道教; ''daojiao''), both of which share ideas and concepts of Chinese origin and emphasize living in harmony with the ''Tao'' ...
priestess, named Congqing, and was a poet at the imperial court. Intermarriage between Balhae civil elites in the Jin dynasty was common. In 1190, Wang Ji identified two families he encountered in Liaodong as Balhae. Writing after the fall of the Jin dynasty in 1234, Liu Qi identified the military commander Li Ying as a "Bohai man of Liaodong."
There were still limitations on Balhae people in the Jin dynasty. In 1136, the Jurchen official Wanyan Puluhu revoked the pardon of a man when his origin was determined to be Balhae. Policies to restrain and weaken Balhae were increased over time. In 1140, an edict abolished Han Chinese and Balhae hereditary military garrisons but not
Kumo Xi
The Kumo Xi (Xu Elina-Qian, p.296b), also known as the Tatabi, were a Mongolic steppe people located in current Northeast China from 207 CE to 907 CE. After the death of their ancestor Tadun in 207, they were no longer called Wuhuan but joined t ...
and Khitan garrisons. The Jin government also targeted the Balhae population for relocation. Over the years, the Balhae were resettled east of the
Taihang Mountains
The Taihang Mountains () are a Chinese mountain range running down the eastern edge of the Loess Plateau in Shanxi, Henan and Hebei provinces. The range extends over from north to south and has an average elevation of . The principal peak is ...
, which was completed by 1141. Another relocation south of
Zhongdu
Zhongdu (, lit. "Central Capital") was the capital of the Jurchen-led Jin dynasty in medieval China. It was located in the southwestern part of Beijing's Xicheng District. It had a population of nearly one million by the late 12th century, and ...
was planned in 1149, but the Balhae court attendant Gao Shouxing protested to
Empress Daoping
Empress Daoping of the Peiman clan (d.1149) was the wife of the fifth emperor of the Jurchen-led Chinese Jin dynasty, Emperor Xizong.
Biography
Lady Peiman was the daughter of Huta of the Peiman clan. When her husband became emperor in 1135, s ...
, who told the emperor, resulting in the beating and death of the two officials planning the relocation. In 1177, a decree was passed to abolish the "old Bohai custom" of marriage through mock abduction. Although the Balhae experienced less restrictions under the Jin, there was also less emphasis on Balhae as a distinct group. During the Jin era, Balhae was no longer geographically identified with Liaodong.
Balhae people either fled or were assimilated into Chinese culture. In 1135, Nansali was chosen as an emissary to Goryeo, for which he changed his name to the Sinitic Wang Zheng. Wang Tingyun also invented a genealogy record on his epitaph tracing his lineage to
Taiyuan
Taiyuan (; ; ; Mandarin pronunciation: ; also known as (), ()) is the capital and largest city of Shanxi Province, People's Republic of China. Taiyuan is the political, economic, cultural and international exchange center of Shanxi Province. ...
rather than Liaodong. The epitaph acknowledges that his most recent ancestors were in the employ of Balhae but added that they only "lived dispersed among the eastern barbarians", rejecting his Balhae identity. The practice of inventing fictitious genealogies to hide ancestry outside of the "Central Territories" was widespread from Song times onward.
Mongol Empire
The term "Balhae" became noticeably less prevalent under the rule of the
Mongol Empire
The Mongol Empire of the 13th and 14th centuries was the largest contiguous land empire in history. Originating in present-day Mongolia in East Asia, the Mongol Empire at its height stretched from the Sea of Japan to parts of Eastern Europe, ...
. There is no trace of Balhae descendants from the defunct Jin dynasty and no epitaphs from the Mongol era claim a Balhae identity. Balhae was only used as a toponym in the early 14th century and Balhae disappeared entirely from historical sources by the late 14th century. Near the end of Mongol rule, Tao Zongyi (c. 1316–1402) put Balhae under the category of
Hanren
The Han Chinese () or Han people (), are an East Asian people, East Asian ethnic group native to China. They constitute the list of contemporary ethnic groups, world's largest ethnic group, making up about 18% of the World population, global ...
, which is not surprising given that most of them at the time of the Mongol conquest were literati, officials, or attachments to the Jin bureaucracy. Many chose to use Chinese style names, similar to Jurchens, probably for inclusion in the Hanren (Northern Chinese) category under the Mongol hierarchy, rather than the inferior fourth category, ''Nanren'' (Southern Chinese). Aside from legal references to the ''Taihe Code'' of the Jin dynasty, the term "Balhae" is absent from the Yuan legal compendium. The referenced passages have to do with limitations on levirate marriage for Han and Balhae and restrictions on marriage during mourning.
Some Balhae adopted Mongol or
Tatar
The Tatars ()[Tatar]
in the Collins English Dictionary is an umbrella term for different culture rather than Chinese. The biography of You Xingge (d. 1227) identifies him as Balhae. As the Jin dynasty was collapsing from the Mongol invasions, You established an independent fort near Gaozhou (modern
Chifeng
Chifeng ( zh, s=赤峰市), also known as Ulanhad ( mn, (Улаанхад хот), ''Ulaɣanqada qota'', , "red cliff"), is a prefecture-level city in Southeastern Inner Mongolia, People's Republic of China. It borders Xilin Gol League to the ...
). They fought off several military detachments until they were besieged by
Muqali
Muqali ( mn, Мухулай; 1170–1223), also spelt Mukhali and Mukhulai, was a Mongol general ("bo'ol", "one who is bound" in service) who became a trusted and esteemed commander under Genghis Khan. The son of Gü'ün U'a, a Jalair leader who ...
. After You surrendered, Muqali praised him to
Genghis Khan
''Chinggis Khaan'' ͡ʃʰiŋɡɪs xaːŋbr />Mongol script: ''Chinggis Qa(gh)an/ Chinggis Khagan''
, birth_name = Temüjin
, successor = Tolui (as regent)Ögedei Khan
, spouse =
, issue =
, house = Borjigin
, ...
, who bestowed on him the Mongol name Halabadu. He later fought for the Mongols at Taiyuan in 1227. You Xingge's son is only referred to by the name Mangqutai, which denotes him as part of the Mangqutai tribe.
The decline of Balhae identity was not a gradual and steady process. According to Toyama Gunji, "the Bohai remained alive and well for three hundred years of history" after the state was destroyed.
Culture
Balhae's population was composed of former Goguryeo people and Tungusic
Mohe people in Manchuria. Within sixty sites identified as Balhae settlements, many had dwellings with heating stoves, ceramic roof tiles, and vessels. Iron agricultural implements suggest that sophisticated agriculture was practiced in parts of Balhae. These finds indicate that much of the population even outside the capitals were sedentary.
A record of the journey of Hong Hao (1088-1155) in Jin territory describes the Balhae people as primarily martial and not adherent to Confucian norms. Balhae women were described as "fiercely jealous" and prevented the men from deviating from martial fidelity. Balhae men were described as "full of cunning, surpassing other nations in courage, such that there exists a saying 'Three Bohai are a match for a tiger.'" Some Balhae people practiced Buddhism. However Balhae cultural markers evidently did not deviate to the point of preventing assimilation into neighboring societies. There was widespread usage of "Chinese" style surnames in Balhae and no distinct cultural marker prevented them from integrating into Chinese literati society. There is no evidence of any friction in this process. Their practices overlapped with other groups.
Society
According to Korean scholars and other historians, Mohe made up the working class which served the Goguryeo ruling class.
Mohe people dominated common society, their influence was mainly restricted to providing labor. Some historians believe that ethnic conflicts between the ruling
Goguryeo
Goguryeo (37 BC–668 AD) ( ) also called Goryeo (), was a Korean kingdom located in the northern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula and the southern and central parts of Northeast China. At its peak of power, Goguryeo controlled most ...
s and underclass Mohe weakened the state.
[Lee Ki-baik. "''The Society and Culture of Parhae.''" The New History of Korea, page 88-89. Harvard University Press, 1984.] Other historians offer dissenting views. Han Ciu-cheol agreed that Mohe people were the majority of Balhae's population but disagreed that they were any different from Goguryeo or Balhae. According to Han, the origins of "Malgal" and "Mulgil" lie in the Goguryeo language, and "the Malgal language and customs were the same as those of Goguryeo and Balhae."
On the other hand, the Russian historian Polutov believes that Goguryeo descendants did not have political dominance, and the ruling system was open to all people equally. Its ruling structure was based on the military leader-priestly management structure of the Mohe tribes and also partly adapted elements from the Chinese system. After the 8th century, Balhae became more centralized, and power was consolidated around the king and the royal family.
The class system of Balhae society is controversial. Some studies suggest there was a stratified and rigid class system similar to those of the related Korean kingdoms and pre-
Qin Qin may refer to:
Dynasties and states
* Qin (state) (秦), a major state during the Zhou Dynasty of ancient China
* Qin dynasty (秦), founded by the Qin state in 221 BC and ended in 206 BC
* Daqin (大秦), ancient Chinese name for the Roman Emp ...
northern China. Elites tended to belong to large extended aristocratic family lines designated by surnames. The commoners in comparison had no surnames at all, and upward social mobility was virtually impossible as class and status were codified into a caste system. Other studies have shown there was a clan system but no clear division of classes existed, whereas the position of the clan leader depended on the strength of the clan. Any member of the clan could become the clan leader if he had sufficient authority. There were also religiously privileged shaman clans. The clan struggles were also partly due to growing Tang influence and different attitudes toward further Sinicization. The main part of society in Balhae was free in a personal capacity and consisted of clans.
By the time of the state’s demise, the Balhae mode of living had come to resemble that of the northern Chinese. The Liao dynasty classified the Balhae population as Han in legal and taxation contexts, the same as those whose ancestry was traced to the Tang empire. Some Mohe groups did not adopt this manner of life and were excluded from the Liao's designation of Balhae. Instead, they remained as Mohe, and would become an important source of the
Jurchen people
Jurchen (Manchu: ''Jušen'', ; zh, 女真, ''Nǚzhēn'', ) is a term used to collectively describe a number of East Asian Tungusic-speaking peoples, descended from the Donghu people. They lived in the northeast of China, later known as Manchu ...
in the future.
Government
![Balhae Kingdom](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/Balhae_Kingdom.png)
After its founding, Balhae actively imported the culture and political system of the Tang dynasty and the Chinese reciprocated through an account of Balhae describing it as the "Flourishing land of the East (海東盛國)."
The bureaucracy of Balhae was modeled after the
Three Departments and Six Ministries
The Three Departments and Six Ministries () system was the primary administrative structure in imperial China from the Sui dynasty (581–618) to the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368). It was also used by Balhae (698–926) and Goryeo (918–1392) an ...
and used
literary Chinese
Classical Chinese, also known as Literary Chinese (古文 ''gǔwén'' "ancient text", or 文言 ''wényán'' "text speak", meaning
"literary language/speech"; modern vernacular: 文言文 ''wényánwén'' "text speak text", meaning
"literar ...
as the written language of administration.
Balhae's aristocrats and nobility traveled to the Tang capital of
Chang'an
Chang'an (; ) is the traditional name of Xi'an. The site had been settled since Neolithic times, during which the Yangshao culture was established in Banpo, in the city's suburbs. Furthermore, in the northern vicinity of modern Xi'an, Qin Shi ...
on a regular basis as ambassadors and students, many of whom went on to pass the
imperial examinations
The imperial examination (; lit. "subject recommendation") refers to a civil-service examination system in Imperial China, administered for the purpose of selecting candidates for the state bureaucracy. The concept of choosing bureaucrats by ...
. Three students are recorded in 833 and a royal nephew in 924. Although Balhae was a tributary state of the Tang dynasty, it followed its own independent path, not only in its internal policies, but also in its foreign relations. Furthermore, it regarded itself as an empire, and sent ambassadors to neighbor states such as Japan in an independent capacity.
Balhae had five capitals, fifteen provinces, and sixty-three counties. Balhae's original capital was at Dongmo Mountain in modern
Dunhua
Dunhua (; Chosŏn'gŭl: 돈화; Hangul: 둔화) is a county-level city of the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture in southeastern Jilin province, People's Republic of China. It has more than 480,000 inhabitants (as of 2002) and was the capital ...
,
Jilin Province
Jilin (; alternately romanized as Kirin or Chilin) is one of the three provinces of Northeast China. Its capital and largest city is Changchun. Jilin borders North Korea (Rasŏn, North Hamgyong, Ryanggang and Chagang) and Russia (Prim ...
, China. In 742 it was moved to the Central Capital in
Helong, Jilin. It was moved to the
Upper Capital in
Ning'an
Ning'an () is a city located approximately southwest of Mudanjiang, in the southeast of Heilongjiang province, China, bordering Jilin province to the south. It is located on the Mudanjiang River (formerly known as Hurka River), which flows north, ...
,
Heilongjiang
Heilongjiang () formerly romanized as Heilungkiang, is a province in northeast China. The standard one-character abbreviation for the province is (). It was formerly romanized as "Heilungkiang". It is the northernmost and easternmost province ...
in 755, to the Eastern Capital in
Hunchun
Hunchun (; Chosŏn'gŭl: 혼춘; Hangul: 훈춘) is a county-level city in the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture, far eastern Jilin province. It borders North Korea (North Hamgyong province) and Russia (Primorsky Krai), has over 250,000 inha ...
, Jilin in 785, and back to the Upper Capital in 794.
Sanggyong (Upper Capital) was organized in the way of the Tang capital of Chang'an. Residential sectors were laid out on either side of the palace surrounded by a rectangular wall. The same layout was also implemented by other East Asian capitals of the time.
[Ogata, Noboru]
"A Study of the City Planning System of the Ancient Bohai State Using Satellite Photos (Summary)"
''Jinbun Chiri''. Vol.52, No.2. 2000. pp.129 - 148. Retrieved 10 November 2011.
Military
The 10 units (wi) constituted the central army while two of them, the Left and Right Maengbunwi, were the elite units. Each unit had its own responsibility such as defending the royal palace and the capital or serving as palace guards. For other regions, armed forces were deployed in the 15 local provinces (bu). It is known that in its early years, during the reign of King Mu, Balhae held 100,000 troops.
[Military System of Balhae, ]War Memorial of Korea
The War Memorial of Korea is a museum located in Yongsan-dong, Yongsan-gu, Seoul, South Korea. It opened in 1994 on the former site of the army headquarters to exhibit and memorialize the military history of Korea. It was built for the purpose ...
Language and script
![貞恵公主墓誌](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/%E8%B2%9E%E6%81%B5%E5%85%AC%E4%B8%BB%E5%A2%93%E8%AA%8C.jpg)
Balhae used multiple languages. The indigenous language of Balhae is unclear, as no extant text or gloss of the language survived.
One term that the people of Balhae used to describe "a king" was ''Gadokbu'', which is related to the words ''kadalambi'' (management) of the
Manchu language
Manchu (Manchu:, ) is a critically endangered East Asian Tungusic language native to the historical region of Manchuria in Northeast China.
As the traditional native language of the Manchus, it was one of the official languages of the Qing dyn ...
and ''kadokuotto'' of the
Nanai language
The Nanai language (also called Gold, Goldi, or Hezhen) is spoken by the Nanai people in Siberia, and to a much smaller extent in China's Heilongjiang province, where it is known as Hezhe. The language has about 1,400 speakers out of 17,000 ethn ...
.
Alexander Vovin
Alexander (Sasha) Vladimirovich Vovin (russian: Александр Владимирович Вовин; 27 January 1961 – 8 April 2022) was a Soviet-born Russian-American linguist and philologist, and director of studies at the School for Adv ...
suggests that the Balhae elite spoke a Koreanic language, which has had a lasting impact on Khitan, Jurchen and Manchu languages.
However, he also believes that the vast majority of the Balhae population were probably
Tungusic, and at least partially
Jurchen-speaking.
Some Korean historians believe that a record in ''
Shoku Nihongi
The is an imperially-commissioned Japanese history text. Completed in 797, it is the second of the ''Six National Histories'', coming directly after the '' Nihon Shoki'' and followed by ''Nihon Kōki''. Fujiwara no Tsugutada and Sugano no Mamichi ...
'' implies that the Balhae and Silla language were mutually intelligible: a student sent from Silla to Japan for Japanese language interpreter training assisted a diplomatic envoy from Balhae in communicating with the audience of a Japanese court.
Diplomatic missions between Balhae, Japan and the Tang dynasty were primarily conducted in the Chinese language. Based on administrative and diplomatic records, a number of Japanese historians and linguists have further suggested that Chinese was the ''
lingua franca
A lingua franca (; ; for plurals see ), also known as a bridge language, common language, trade language, auxiliary language, vehicular language, or link language, is a language systematically used to make communication possible between groups ...
'' of Balhae.
Classical Chinese
Classical Chinese, also known as Literary Chinese (古文 ''gǔwén'' "ancient text", or 文言 ''wényán'' "text speak", meaning
"literary language/speech"; modern vernacular: 文言文 ''wényánwén'' "text speak text", meaning
"literar ...
was also used for the two unearthed tomb inscriptions for members of the Balhae royal family.
Excavated epigraphic materials indicate that the Chinese script was the only widely used script in Balhae. According to Russian scientific research, the Balhae writing system is based on Chinese characters, and among the characters used, many were used only in the state "
Wu". However, the recording was phonetic. Some of the names of Balhae's emissaries were similar to Chinese names while others were unique to Balhae: Wodala, Zhaoheshi, and Nansali. The unique Balhae names were the minority. The ''
Old Book of Tang
The ''Old Book of Tang'', or simply the ''Book of Tang'', is the first classic historical work about the Tang dynasty, comprising 200 chapters, and is one of the Twenty-Four Histories. Originally compiled during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdo ...
'' records that Balhae had its own script, about which almost nothing is known. Vovin has suggested that the script was a prototype of the
Jurchen script
The Jurchen script (Jurchen: ) was the writing system used to write the Jurchen language, the language of the Jurchen people who created the Jin Empire in northeastern China in the 12th–13th centuries. It was derived from the Khitan script, ...
. While most Balhae inscriptions consisted of common Chinese characters, he has identified a small number of characters with Jurchen script signs or phonograms.
Economy and trade
Under Balhae, the region's agriculture became much more widespread and well-developed than in previous centuries, especially in the north.
Millet
Millets () are a highly varied group of small-seeded grasses, widely grown around the world as cereal crops or grains for fodder and human food. Most species generally referred to as millets belong to the tribe Paniceae, but some millets al ...
,
barley
Barley (''Hordeum vulgare''), a member of the grass family, is a major cereal grain grown in temperate climates globally. It was one of the first cultivated grains, particularly in Eurasia as early as 10,000 years ago. Globally 70% of barley pr ...
,
soy bean
The soybean, soy bean, or soya bean (''Glycine max'') is a species of legume native to East Asia, widely grown for its edible bean, which has numerous uses.
Traditional unfermented food uses of soybeans include soy milk, from which tofu a ...
s and
rice
Rice is the seed of the grass species ''Oryza sativa'' (Asian rice) or less commonly ''Oryza glaberrima
''Oryza glaberrima'', commonly known as African rice, is one of the two domesticated rice species. It was first domesticated and grown i ...
were the main type of crops cultivated in Balhae. Some of its specialized regional produce, such as rice, fermented beans, plums and pears, were much sought after. Fishing and hunting also remained important among Balhae people. Balhae also produced fine iron and copper wares, silk and linen textiles, and ceramics, including
Sancai
''Sancai'' ()Vainker, 75 is a versatile type of decoration on Chinese pottery using glazes or slip, predominantly in the three colours of brown (or amber), green, and a creamy off-white. It is particularly associated with the Tang Dynasty (618 ...
pottery developed under the influence of that of the
Tang
Tang or TANG most often refers to:
* Tang dynasty
* Tang (drink mix)
Tang or TANG may also refer to:
Chinese states and dynasties
* Jin (Chinese state) (11th century – 376 BC), a state during the Spring and Autumn period, called Tang (唐) b ...
. Whaling was also done, albeit this was mostly done as tribute to the Tang.
Balhae had a high level of craftsmanship and engaged in trade with neighboring polities such as the
Göktürks,
Nara Japan,
Later Silla
Unified Silla, or Late Silla (, ), is the name often applied to the Korean kingdom of Silla, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, after 668 CE. In the 7th century, a Silla–Tang alliance conquered Baekje and the southern part of Goguryeo in the ...
and the Tang dynasty. Balhae sent a large number of envoys to Japan, called . Fur from Balhae was exported to Japan while textile products and precious metals, such as gold and mercury, were imported from Japan. In Japan, the fur of the 貂 (''ten'', ''i.e.''
sable
The sable (''Martes zibellina'') is a species of marten, a small omnivorous mammal primarily inhabiting the forest environments of Russia, from the Ural Mountains throughout Siberia, and northern Mongolia. Its habitat also borders eastern Kaza ...
or other
marten
A marten is a weasel-like mammal in the genus ''Martes'' within the subfamily Guloninae, in the family Mustelidae. They have bushy tails and large paws with partially retractile claws. The fur varies from yellowish to dark brown, depending on t ...
) was very valuable due to its popularity among Japanese aristocrats.
Similarly, Balhae builders used Japanese fortification techniques and with prevailing Japanese culture in their construction of the . Balhae's musical works ''Shinmaka'' ( ja, 新靺鞨) have been preserved by the Japanese court.
Controversies
The historic position of Balhae is disputed between Korean, Chinese, Russian, and Japanese historians.
Korean scholars consider Balhae to be the successor state of Goguryeo, and part of the
North–South States Period
The Northern and Southern States period (698–926 CE) is the period in Korean history when Unified Silla and Balhae coexisted in the south and north of the peninsula, respectively.
Unified Silla
After the unification wars, the Tang Dynasty ...
of Korean history. Chinese scholars argue that Balhae was a local administration of the Tang dynasty and composed of Mohe people, making it a part of Chinese history due to its close cultural and political ties with Tang China.
The Russian
archaeological school views Balhae as a state of primarily Mohe people while Japanese scholars consider it a tributary state.
Media
Balhae features in the
Korean film
The term "Cinema of Korea" (or "Korean cinema") encompasses the motion picture industries of North and South Korea. As with all aspects of Korean life during the past century, the film industry has often been at the mercy of political events, ...
''
Shadowless Sword'', which is about the last prince of Balhae. The Korean TV drama
Dae Jo Yeong, which aired from 16 September 2006, to 23 December 2007, was about the
founder of Balhae.
Balhae is the name of the lunar research facility in the Korean TV series,
The Silent Sea
''The Silent Sea'' is the seventh novel of Clive Cussler's Oregon Files series. The hardcover edition was released March 9, 2010. Other editions were released on other dates.
Like the rest of the series, this book details the exploits of the ...
.
See also
*
Ancient Tombs at Longtou Mountain
The Ancient Tombs at Longtou Mountain are the burial sites of twelve royal figures from the Balhae (Bohai) kingdom. It is located on Longtou Mountain, southeast of Toudao Town () in Helong, Jilin Province, China, a region possibly called the "West ...
*
History of Korea
The Lower Paleolithic era in the Korean Peninsula and Manchuria began roughly half a million years ago.
Christopher J. Norton, "The Current State of Korean Paleoanthropology", (2000), ''Journal of Human Evolution'', 38: 803–825.
The earlies ...
*
History of Manchuria
Manchuria is a region in East Asia. Depending on the definition of its extent, "Manchuria" can refer either to a region falling entirely within present-day China, or to a larger region today divided between Northeast China and the Russian Far E ...
*
History of China
The earliest known written records of the history of China date from as early as 1250 BC, from the Shang dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BC), during the reign of king Wu Ding. Ancient historical texts such as the '' Book of Documents'' (early chapte ...
*
Goguryeo
Goguryeo (37 BC–668 AD) ( ) also called Goryeo (), was a Korean kingdom located in the northern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula and the southern and central parts of Northeast China. At its peak of power, Goguryeo controlled most ...
*
Goryeo
Goryeo (; ) was a Korean kingdom founded in 918, during a time of national division called the Later Three Kingdoms period, that unified and ruled the Korean Peninsula until 1392. Goryeo achieved what has been called a "true national unificati ...
*
List of Provinces of Balhae
The Balhae (or Bohai) kingdom controlled the northern Korean Peninsula, the area from the Amur River (''Heilong Jiang'') to the Strait of Tartary, and the Liaodong Peninsula. Similar to the workings of the Chinese Tang Dynasty, the administratio ...
*
List of Balhae monarchs
Balhae (698–926) or Bohai was a mixed ethnic Goguryeo–Mohe people, Mohe kingdom established after the fall of Goguryeo. Balhae occupied southern parts of Northeast China, Primorsky Krai, and the northern part of the Korean peninsula.
{, clas ...
Notes
References
Bibliography
*
*
* 孫玉良 (1992). ''渤海史料全編''. 吉林文史出版社
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External links
Britannica Concise EncyclopediaBohai Kingdom in academia*
*
*
ttp://www.kyungsung.ac.kr/~palhae/palpds.htm Han's Palhae of Korea 한규철의 발해사 연구실*
History of Bohai country Государство Бохай (698-926 гг.)
{{Authority control
698 establishments
926 disestablishments
Former countries in Korean history
Former countries in Chinese history
Former countries in East Asia
Former monarchies of East Asia
History of Manchuria