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Ovine rinderpest, also commonly known as ''peste des petits ruminants'' (PPR), is a contagious disease primarily affecting
goat The goat or domestic goat (''Capra hircus'') is a domesticated species of goat-antelope typically kept as livestock. It was domesticated from the wild goat (''C. aegagrus'') of Southwest Asia and Eastern Europe. The goat is a member of the a ...
s and
sheep Sheep or domestic sheep (''Ovis aries'') are domesticated, ruminant mammals typically kept as livestock. Although the term ''sheep'' can apply to other species in the genus '' Ovis'', in everyday usage it almost always refers to domesticated ...
; however, camels and wild small
ruminant Ruminants (suborder Ruminantia) are hoofed herbivorous grazing or browsing mammals that are able to acquire nutrients from plant-based food by fermenting it in a specialized stomach prior to digestion, principally through microbial actions. The ...
s can also be affected. PPR is currently present in
North North is one of the four compass points or cardinal directions. It is the opposite of south and is perpendicular to east and west. ''North'' is a noun, adjective, or adverb indicating direction or geography. Etymology The word ''north ...
, Central,
West West or Occident is one of the four cardinal directions or points of the compass. It is the opposite direction from east and is the direction in which the Sun sets on the Earth. Etymology The word "west" is a Germanic word passed into some ...
and East Africa, the
Middle East The Middle East ( ar, الشرق الأوسط, ISO 233: ) is a geopolitical region commonly encompassing Arabia (including the Arabian Peninsula and Bahrain), Asia Minor (Asian part of Turkey except Hatay Province), East Thrace (Europ ...
, and
South Asia South Asia is the southern subregion of Asia, which is defined in both geographical Geography (from Greek: , ''geographia''. Combination of Greek words ‘Geo’ (The Earth) and ‘Graphien’ (to describe), literally "earth descr ...
. It is caused by ''small ruminants morbillivirus'' in the genus ''
Morbillivirus ''Morbillivirus'' is a genus of viruses in the order '' Mononegavirales'', in the family '' Paramyxoviridae''. Humans, dogs, cats, cattle, seals, and cetaceans serve as natural hosts. This genus includes seven species. Diseases in humans associa ...
,'' and is closely related to, among others,'' rinderpest morbillivirus,
measles morbillivirus ''Measles morbillivirus'' (MeV), also called measles virus (MV), is a single-stranded, negative-sense, enveloped, non-segmented RNA virus of the genus '' Morbillivirus'' within the family '' Paramyxoviridae''. It is the cause of measles. Human ...
'', and ''canine morbillivirus'' (previously known as canine distemper virus). The disease is highly contagious, and can have an 80–100% mortality rate in
acute Acute may refer to: Science and technology * Acute angle ** Acute triangle ** Acute, a leaf shape in the glossary of leaf morphology * Acute (medicine), a disease that it is of short duration and of recent onset. ** Acute toxicity, the adverse eff ...
cases in an
epizootic In epizoology, an epizootic (from Greek: ''epi-'' upon + ''zoon'' animal) is a disease event in a nonhuman animal population analogous to an epidemic in humans. An epizootic may be restricted to a specific locale (an "outbreak"), general (an "epi ...
setting. The virus does not infect humans. The disease was first described in 1942 in Côte d'Ivoire, and has since been detected in more than 70 countries in the world. In 2017, the disease was reported to be affecting
saiga The saiga antelope (, ''Saiga tatarica''), or saiga, is a critically endangered antelope which during antiquity inhabited a vast area of the Eurasian steppe spanning the foothills of the Carpathian Mountains in the northwest and Caucasus in t ...
in
Mongolia Mongolia; Mongolian script: , , ; lit. "Mongol Nation" or "State of Mongolia" () is a landlocked country in East Asia, bordered by Russia to the north and China to the south. It covers an area of , with a population of just 3.3 million, ...
, causing near-catastrophic herd depletion for the endangered species. In 2018, it was stated that the disease was reported to be in Bulgaria close to the border with Turkey. In a flock of 540 sheep and goats, two animals tested positive and one died, with disease confirmed by only one laboratory without any further tests. (Peste de Petits Ruminants in Bulgaria 25 June 2018 Ref: VITT/1200 PPR in Bulgaria)


Synonyms

PPR is also known as goat plague, ''kata'', syndrome of stomatitis-pneumoenteritis, and ovine rinderpest. Official agencies such as the
FAO The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)french: link=no, Organisation des Nations unies pour l'alimentation et l'agriculture; it, Organizzazione delle Nazioni Unite per l'Alimentazione e l'Agricoltura is an intern ...
and
OIE The World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH), formerly the (OIE), is an intergovernmental organization coordinating, supporting and promoting animal disease control. Mission and status The main objective of the WOAH is to control epizoo ...
use the French name "''peste des petits ruminants''" with several spelling variants.


Signs and symptoms

Symptoms are similar to those of
rinderpest Rinderpest (also cattle plague or steppe murrain) was an infectious viral disease of cattle, domestic buffalo, and many other species of even-toed ungulates, including gaurs, buffaloes, large antelope, deer, giraffes, wildebeests, and warthog ...
in
cattle Cattle (''Bos taurus'') are large, domesticated, cloven-hooved, herbivores. They are a prominent modern member of the subfamily Bovinae and the most widespread species of the genus ''Bos''. Adult females are referred to as cows and adult ma ...
and involves oral necrosis, mucopurulent nasal and
ocular Eyes are organs of the visual system. They provide living organisms with vision, the ability to receive and process visual detail, as well as enabling several photo response functions that are independent of vision. Eyes detect light and con ...
discharges, cough,
pneumonia Pneumonia is an inflammatory condition of the lung primarily affecting the small air sacs known as alveoli. Symptoms typically include some combination of productive or dry cough, chest pain, fever, and difficulty breathing. The severi ...
, and diarrhea, though they vary according to the previous immune status of the sheep, the geographic location, the time of year, or if the infection is new or chronic. They also vary according to the breed of sheep. However, fever in addition to either diarrhea or signs of oral discomfort is sufficient to suspect the diagnosis. Incubation period is 3–5 days.


Hyperacute cases

Hyperacute cases are found dead without previous symptoms. They die with a
serous In physiology, serous fluid or serosal fluid (originating from the Medieval Latin word ''serosus'', from Latin ''serum'') is any of various body fluids resembling serum, that are typically pale yellow or transparent and of a benign nature. The flu ...
, foamy, or haemorrhagic discharge coming out of the nose.


Acute cases at onset

In acute cases, animals are recumbent, sometimes in self-auscultation position.
Body temperature Thermoregulation is the ability of an organism to keep its body temperature within certain boundaries, even when the surrounding temperature is very different. A thermoconforming organism, by contrast, simply adopts the surrounding temperature ...
is high (40.5 to 41 °C) in the beginning of the onset in acute cases. The most typical signs are seen in the
digestive tract The gastrointestinal tract (GI tract, digestive tract, alimentary canal) is the tract or passageway of the digestive system that leads from the mouth to the anus. The GI tract contains all the major organs of the digestive system, in humans and ...
. When entering an affected flock, one sees many animals with hind limbs stained by sticky
faeces Feces ( or faeces), known colloquially and in slang as poo and poop, are the solid or semi-solid remains of food that was not digested in the small intestine, and has been broken down by bacteria in the large intestine. Feces contain a relati ...
. Some sheep have an arched back and show pain when defecating. Tenesmus may be noticed when taking rectal temperature. Fluid faeces are olive green to brown. Examination of the mouth shows ulceration of the buccal mucosae, especially on the inner face of the lips, and neighboring gum. There can be
periodontitis Periodontal disease, also known as gum disease, is a set of inflammatory conditions affecting the tissues surrounding the teeth. In its early stage, called gingivitis, the gums become swollen and red and may bleed. It is considered the main cau ...
or serous nasal exudate and
conjunctivitis Conjunctivitis, also known as pink eye, is inflammation of the outermost layer of the white part of the eye and the inner surface of the eyelid. It makes the eye appear pink or reddish. Pain, burning, scratchiness, or itchiness may occur. The ...
.


Evolution of acute cases

Nasal discharge becomes mucopurulent and may obstruct the nose. A dry, fitful coughing develops. Death occurs from 5 to 10 days after the onset of the fever. Some animals may recover, but a dry, stertorous coughing often persists for some days. Besides coughing, there is intensive labial
dermatitis Dermatitis is inflammation of the skin, typically characterized by itchiness, redness and a rash. In cases of short duration, there may be small blisters, while in long-term cases the skin may become thickened. The area of skin involved can ...
with scab formation, resembling
orf ORF or Orf may refer to: * Norfolk International Airport, IATA airport code ORF * Observer Research Foundation, an Indian research institute * One Race Films, a film production company founded by Vin Diesel * Open reading frame, a portion of the ...
. Miscarriages may occur.Peste des Petits Ruminants
reviewed and published by
WikiVet WikiVet is a wiki of veterinary content based on the MediaWiki platform. The website is a collaborative initiative between various veterinary schools, and its content covers the entire veterinary curriculum. WikiVet is part of the WikiVet Educatio ...
, accessed 10 October 2011.
File:Oviete pesse otoschoûtaedje.jpg, Self- auscultation in an acute case File:Pesse bedots mannixhaedje dirî.jpg, Hind legs stained with sticky diarrhoea File:Pesse bedots tchamlou dos1.jpg, Arched back (painful defecation) File:Oviete pesse efouwaedje divins lepes.jpg, inflammation and erosion of the mouth File:Pesse berbis efouwaedje djincive dints.jpg, Periodontitis File:Pesse bedots souwêye nåze.jpg, Mucopurulent nasal exudate File:Pesse bedots riwerixhaedje crapes.jpg,
Orf ORF or Orf may refer to: * Norfolk International Airport, IATA airport code ORF * Observer Research Foundation, an Indian research institute * One Race Films, a film production company founded by Vin Diesel * Open reading frame, a portion of the ...
-like scabs on lips in a recovering case, Day 8


Cause

Peste des petits ruminants is caused by a ''
Morbillivirus ''Morbillivirus'' is a genus of viruses in the order '' Mononegavirales'', in the family '' Paramyxoviridae''. Humans, dogs, cats, cattle, seals, and cetaceans serve as natural hosts. This genus includes seven species. Diseases in humans associa ...
'' – ''Small ruminant morbillivirus'' – which is related to but distinct from Rinderpest virus. Four genotypes (lineages) of the virus are described. Their classification is based on the nucleoprotein (N) or previously the fusion (F) protein gene. Lineages I and II are found mainly in West Africa. Lineage III is generally found in East Africa. Lineage IV was long known as the Asian lineage, but has now spread to the African continent and become the most prevalent lineage of all.


Epidemiology


Origin and spread

This virus appears to have evolved at the start of the 20th century in
Nigeria Nigeria ( ), , ig, Naìjíríyà, yo, Nàìjíríà, pcm, Naijá , ff, Naajeeriya, kcg, Naijeriya officially the Federal Republic of Nigeria, is a country in West Africa. It is situated between the Sahel to the north and the Gulf o ...
. The extant genotypes subsequently appeared in West Africa (lineages I and II), East Africa and Arabia (lineage III), and Pakistan–India (lineage IV). The first description of the disease was published in 1942 and relates to an outbreak in Côte d’Ivoire, West Africa, in goats and sheep in 1940. It spread to East Africa and Arabia at the beginning of the 1980s and to Pakistan and India in the early 1990s (Calcutta goat markets) finally reaching
Tibet Tibet (; ''Böd''; ) is a region in East Asia, covering much of the Tibetan Plateau and spanning about . It is the traditional homeland of the Tibetan people. Also resident on the plateau are some other ethnic groups such as Monpa, Taman ...
in 2007. The first description of this virus in India was in 1987. The outbreak in Burkina Faso in 1999 was caused by the lineage I group. Genotype III has caused outbreaks in Ethiopia (1996) and also in Arabia, southern India, and Tamil Nadu (1992). This lineage was found in Yemen in 2001. Genotype IV has been isolated in Kuwait in 1999.


Geographical repartition

As of 2017, the disease is present in West Africa, part of Central Africa (
Gabon Gabon (; ; snq, Ngabu), officially the Gabonese Republic (french: République gabonaise), is a country on the west coast of Central Africa. Located on the equator, it is bordered by Equatorial Guinea to the northwest, Cameroon to the nort ...
,
Central African Republic The Central African Republic (CAR; ; , RCA; , or , ) is a landlocked country in Central Africa. It is bordered by Chad to the north, Sudan to the northeast, South Sudan to the southeast, the DR Congo to the south, the Republic of th ...
), East Africa (north of the Equator), the Middle East and the
Indian subcontinent The Indian subcontinent is a list of the physiographic regions of the world, physiographical region in United Nations geoscheme for Asia#Southern Asia, Southern Asia. It is situated on the Indian Plate, projecting southwards into the Indian O ...
including
Nepal Nepal (; ne, :ne:नेपाल, नेपाल ), formerly the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal ( ne, सङ्घीय लोकतान्त्रिक गणतन्त्र नेपाल ), is a landlocked country in S ...
and
Myanmar Myanmar, ; UK pronunciations: US pronunciations incl. . Note: Wikipedia's IPA conventions require indicating /r/ even in British English although only some British English speakers pronounce r at the end of syllables. As John Wells explai ...
. The disease is
endemic Endemism is the state of a species being found in a single defined geographic location, such as an island, state, nation, country or other defined zone; organisms that are indigenous to a place are not endemic to it if they are also found else ...
in the Indian subcontinent and is a major threat to fast-growing goat husbandry in India, causing an annual loss of around 1800 million Indian rupees. In
North Africa North Africa, or Northern Africa is a region encompassing the northern portion of the African continent. There is no singularly accepted scope for the region, and it is sometimes defined as stretching from the Atlantic shores of Mauritania in ...
, only
Egypt Egypt ( ar, مصر , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia via a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Medit ...
was once hit, but since summer 2008,
Morocco Morocco (),, ) officially the Kingdom of Morocco, is the westernmost country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It overlooks the Mediterranean Sea to the north and the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and has land borders with Algeria t ...
is suffering a generalized outbreak with 133 known cases in 129
province A province is almost always an administrative division within a country or state. The term derives from the ancient Roman '' provincia'', which was the major territorial and administrative unit of the Roman Empire's territorial possessions ou ...
s, mostly affecting sheep. The outbreak has precipitated the
vaccination Vaccination is the administration of a vaccine to help the immune system develop immunity from a disease. Vaccines contain a microorganism or virus in a weakened, live or killed state, or proteins or toxins from the organism. In stimulating ...
of a large number of the 17 million sheep and five million goats in the country.


Dissemination

The disease is transmitted by infected aerosols in situation of close contact of animals. The long-distance spread is by sick animals. As the virus soon becomes inactive outside the body, indirect contamination is generally limited. In an affected flock, even in pest-free regions, the disease does not progress very rapidly, in spite of the close contact between animals. New clinical cases may be observed daily for a 1-month period.


''Post mortem'' lesions

The lesions are situated in the digestive tract. Quick ''post mortem'' examination will lead to the discovery of many haemorrhagic patches on the
serous membrane The serous membrane (or serosa) is a smooth tissue membrane of mesothelium lining the contents and inner walls of body cavities, which secrete serous fluid to allow lubricated sliding movements between opposing surfaces. The serous membrane ...
s, and intense pneumonia. A risk exists that it may conclude with enzootic pneumonia, inability to open the mouth, and problems with the
oesophagus The esophagus (American English) or oesophagus (British English; both ), non-technically known also as the food pipe or gullet, is an organ in vertebrates through which food passes, aided by peristaltic contractions, from the pharynx to th ...
and different parts of the intestine. Erosions and inflammation are widespread on buccal mucosa. The same lesions are also present in
pharynx The pharynx (plural: pharynges) is the part of the throat behind the mouth and nasal cavity, and above the oesophagus and trachea (the tubes going down to the stomach and the lungs). It is found in vertebrates and invertebrates, though its st ...
, oesophagus, and on mucus-producing
epithelia Epithelium or epithelial tissue is one of the four basic types of animal tissue, along with connective tissue, muscle tissue and nervous tissue. It is a thin, continuous, protective layer of compactly packed cells with a little intercellula ...
of the gut, from
abomasum The abomasum, also known as the maw,The Cham ...
to rectum. Zebra-striped lesions on coecum and colon are said to be typical in some cases. Rarely, also petechiae are on the
rumen The rumen, also known as a paunch, is the largest stomach compartment in ruminants and the larger part of the reticulorumen, which is the first chamber in the alimentary canal of ruminant animals. The rumen's microbial favoring environment al ...
mucosa.


Diagnosis

History and clinical signs enable a presumptive diagnosis to be made in endemic regions. The virus can be detected in acute cases from various swabs and blood samples, using PCR and
ELISA The enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) (, ) is a commonly used analytical biochemistry assay, first described by Eva Engvall and Peter Perlmann in 1971. The assay uses a solid-phase type of enzyme immunoassay (EIA) to detect the presen ...
. Antibodies can also be detected by ELISA.


Treatment and control

Antibiotics such as chloramphenicol, penicillin, and
streptomycin Streptomycin is an antibiotic medication used to treat a number of bacterial infections, including tuberculosis, ''Mycobacterium avium'' complex, endocarditis, brucellosis, ''Burkholderia'' infection, plague, tularemia, and rat bite fever. F ...
can be used and supportive treatment may be helpful. Additionally, a
vaccine A vaccine is a biological preparation that provides active acquired immunity to a particular infectious or malignant disease. The safety and effectiveness of vaccines has been widely studied and verified.
has been developed that may decrease death in the flock. Movement restrictions and slaughter of affected flocks may be required in an attempt to eradicate the disease. A global eradication programme has been developed by the
Food and Agriculture Organization The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)french: link=no, Organisation des Nations unies pour l'alimentation et l'agriculture; it, Organizzazione delle Nazioni Unite per l'Alimentazione e l'Agricoltura is an intern ...
of the
United Nations The United Nations (UN) is an intergovernmental organization whose stated purposes are to maintain international peace and security, develop friendly relations among nations, achieve international cooperation, and be a centre for harmoniz ...
and the
World Organisation for Animal Health The World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH), formerly the (OIE), is an intergovernmental organization coordinating, supporting and promoting animal disease control. Mission and status The main objective of the WOAH is to control epizo ...
. More information can be found on FAO's website on the implementation of this global plan.FAO. Peste des Petits Ruminants. http://www.fao.org/ppr/en/ accessed Nov. 2016 It is considered feasible to eradicate ovine rinderpest in 15 years.


References


External links


PPR Global Eradication Program by FAO
* (disease) * (pathogen)
Current status of Ovine rinderpest (Peste des petits ruminant PPR) worldwide
at OIE. WAHID Interface – OIE World Animal Health Information Database
Disease card

WikiVet summary of disease and links to key references on CABI








{{Taxonbar, from=Q707609, from2=Q29004637 Sheep and goat diseases Animal viral diseases Infectious diseases with eradication efforts Paramyxoviridae