Membrane technology encompasses the scientific processes used in the construction and application of membranes. Membranes are used to facilitate the transport or rejection of substances between mediums, and the mechanical separation of gas and liquid streams. In the simplest case, filtration is achieved when the pores of the membrane are smaller than the diameter of the undesired substance, such as a harmful microorganism. Membrane technology is commonly used in industries such as water treatment, chemical and metal processing, pharmaceuticals, biotechnology, the food industry, as well as the removal of environmental pollutants.
After membrane construction, there is a need to characterize the prepared membrane to know more about its parameters, like pore size, function group, material properties etc, which are difficult to determine in advance. In this process, instruments such as the
Scanning Electron Microscope, the
Transmission electron Microscope, the
Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy
Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) is a technique used to obtain an infrared spectrum of absorption or emission of a solid, liquid, or gas. An FTIR spectrometer simultaneously collects high-resolution spectral data over a wide spectr ...
,
X-ray Diffraction
X-ray crystallography is the experimental science determining the atomic and molecular structure of a crystal, in which the crystalline structure causes a beam of incident X-rays to diffract into many specific directions. By measuring the angles ...
, and Liquid–Liquid Displacement Porosimetry are utilized.
Introduction
Membrane technology covers all
engineering
Engineering is the use of scientific method, scientific principles to design and build machines, structures, and other items, including bridges, tunnels, roads, vehicles, and buildings. The discipline of engineering encompasses a broad rang ...
approaches for the transport of substances between two fractions with the help of
semi-permeable membranes. In general, mechanical separation processes for separating gaseous or liquid streams use membrane technology. Recent years, different methods have been used to remove environmental pollutants, like
adsorption
Adsorption is the adhesion of atoms, ions or molecules from a gas, liquid or dissolved solid to a surface. This process creates a film of the ''adsorbate'' on the surface of the ''adsorbent''. This process differs from absorption, in which a f ...
,
oxidation
Redox (reduction–oxidation, , ) is a type of chemical reaction in which the oxidation states of substrate change. Oxidation is the loss of electrons or an increase in the oxidation state, while reduction is the gain of electrons or a d ...
and membrane separation. Different pollution occurs in the
environment
Environment most often refers to:
__NOTOC__
* Natural environment, all living and non-living things occurring naturally
* Biophysical environment, the physical and biological factors along with their chemical interactions that affect an organism or ...
like air pollution, waste
water pollution
Water pollution (or aquatic pollution) is the contamination of water bodies, usually as a result of human activities, so that it negatively affects its uses. Water bodies include lakes, rivers, oceans, aquifers, reservoirs and groundwater. Water ...
etc.
As per industry requirement to prevent
industrial pollution because more than 70% of environmental pollution occurs due to industries. It is their responsibility to follow government rules of the ''Air Pollution Control & Prevention Act 1981'' to maintain and prevent the harmful chemical release in the environment. Make sure to do prevention & safety processes after that industries are able to release their waste in the environment.
Biomass
Biomass is plant-based material used as a fuel for heat or electricity production. It can be in the form of wood, wood residues, energy crops, agricultural residues, and waste from industry, farms, and households. Some people use the terms bi ...
Based Membrane technology are one of the most promising technologies for use as a pollutants removal weapon, because it has low cost, more efficiency, & lack of
secondary pollutant
Air pollution is the contamination of air due to the presence of substances in the atmosphere that are harmful to the health of humans and other living beings, or cause damage to the climate or to materials. There are many different types ...
s.
Most probably
polysulfone
Polysulfones are a family of high performance thermoplastics. These polymers are known for their toughness and stability at high temperatures. Technically used polysulfones contain an aryl- SO2-aryl subunit. Due to the high cost of raw material ...
,
polyvinylidene fluoride, and
polypropylene
Polypropylene (PP), also known as polypropene, is a thermoplastic polymer used in a wide variety of applications. It is produced via chain-growth polymerization from the monomer propylene.
Polypropylene
belongs to the group of polyolefins and ...
is used in the membrane preparation process. These membrane materials are
non-renewable
A non-renewable resource (also called a finite resource) is a natural resource that cannot be readily replaced by natural means at a pace quick enough to keep up with consumption. An example is carbon-based fossil fuels. The original organic mat ...
and
non-biodegradable as it will be harmful to the environment and create environmental pollution.
Researchers are trying to find a solution to
synthesize an eco-friendly membrane which avoids environmental pollution. Synthesis of
biodegradable
Biodegradation is the breakdown of organic matter by microorganisms, such as bacteria and fungi. It is generally assumed to be a natural process, which differentiates it from composting. Composting is a human-driven process in which biodegradati ...
material with the help of naturally available material such as biomass based membrane synthesis can be used to remove pollutants.
Membrane Overview
![Ecmo schema-1-](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/Ecmo_schema-1-.jpg)
Membrane separation processes operate without heating and therefore use less energy than conventional thermal separation processes such as
distillation
Distillation, or classical distillation, is the process of separation process, separating the components or substances from a liquid mixture by using selective boiling and condensation, usually inside an apparatus known as a still. Dry distilla ...
,
sublimation
Sublimation or sublimate may refer to:
* ''Sublimation'' (album), by Canvas Solaris, 2004
* Sublimation (phase transition), directly from the solid to the gas phase
* Sublimation (psychology), a mature type of defense mechanism
* Sublimate of mer ...
or
crystallization
Crystallization is the process by which solid forms, where the atoms or molecules are highly organized into a structure known as a crystal. Some ways by which crystals form are precipitating from a solution, freezing, or more rarely deposi ...
. The separation process is purely physical and both fractions (
permeate and
retentate) can be obtained as useful products. Cold separation using membrane technology is widely used in the
food technology
Food technology is a branch of food science that deals with the production, preservation, quality control and research and development of the food products.
Early scientific research into food technology concentrated on food preservation. Nic ...
,
biotechnology
Biotechnology is the integration of natural sciences and engineering sciences in order to achieve the application of organisms, cells, parts thereof and molecular analogues for products and services. The term ''biotechnology'' was first used b ...
and
pharmaceutical
A medication (also called medicament, medicine, pharmaceutical drug, medicinal drug or simply drug) is a drug used to diagnose, cure, treat, or prevent disease. Drug therapy (pharmacotherapy) is an important part of the medical field and re ...
industries. Furthermore, using membranes enables separations to take place that would be impossible using thermal separation methods. For example, it is impossible to separate the constituents of
azeotropic
An azeotrope () or a constant heating point mixture is a mixture of two or more liquids whose proportions cannot be altered or changed by simple distillation.Moore, Walter J. ''Physical Chemistry'', 3rd e Prentice-Hall 1962, pp. 140–142 This ...
liquids or solutes which form
isomorphic
In mathematics, an isomorphism is a structure-preserving mapping between two structures of the same type that can be reversed by an inverse mapping. Two mathematical structures are isomorphic if an isomorphism exists between them. The word is ...
crystals by distillation or
recrystallization but such separations can be achieved using membrane technology. Depending on the type of membrane, the selective separation of certain individual substances or substance mixtures is possible. Important technical applications include the production of drinking water by
reverse osmosis
Reverse osmosis (RO) is a water purification process that uses a partially permeable membrane to separate ions, unwanted molecules and larger particles from drinking water. In reverse osmosis, an applied pressure is used to overcome osmotic pre ...
. In
waste water treatment, membrane technology is becoming increasingly important.
Ultra
adopted by British military intelligence in June 1941 for wartime signals intelligence obtained by breaking high-level encrypted enemy radio and teleprinter communications at the Government Code and Cypher School (GC&CS) at Bletchley Park. '' ...
/
microfiltration can be very effective in removing colloids and macromolecules from wastewater. This is needed if wastewater is discharged into sensitive waters especially those designated for contact water sports and recreation.
About half of the market is in medical applications such as use in artificial kidneys to remove toxic substances by
hemodialysis and as
artificial lung
An artificial lung (AL) is a prosthetic device that provides oxygenation of blood and removal of carbon dioxide from the blood. The AL is intended to take over some of the functionality of biological lungs. It is different from a heart-lung mach ...
for bubble-free supply of oxygen in the
blood
Blood is a body fluid in the circulatory system of humans and other vertebrates that delivers necessary substances such as nutrients and oxygen to the cells, and transports metabolic waste products away from those same cells. Blood in the c ...
.
The importance of membrane technology is growing in the field of environmental protection (
Nano-Mem-Pro IPPC Database). Even in modern
energy recovery
Energy recovery includes any technique or method of minimizing the input of energy to an overall system by the exchange of energy from one sub-system of the overall system with another. The energy can be in any form in either subsystem, but mos ...
techniques membranes are increasingly used, for example in
fuel cell
A fuel cell is an electrochemical cell that converts the chemical energy of a fuel (often hydrogen) and an oxidizing agent (often oxygen) into electricity through a pair of redox reactions. Fuel cells are different from most batteries in requ ...
s and in
osmotic power plant
Osmotic power, salinity gradient power or blue energy is the energy available from the difference in the salt concentration between seawater and river water. Two practical methods for this are reverse electrodialysis (RED) and
pressure retarded ...
s.
Mass transfer
Two basic models can be distinguished for mass transfer through the membrane:
*the ''solution-diffusion model'' and
*the ''hydrodynamic model''.
In real membranes, these two transport mechanisms certainly occur side by side, especially during ultra-filtration.
Solution-diffusion model
In the solution-diffusion model, transport occurs only by
diffusion
Diffusion is the net movement of anything (for example, atoms, ions, molecules, energy) generally from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration. Diffusion is driven by a gradient in Gibbs free energy or chemical p ...
. The component that needs to be transported must first be dissolved in the membrane. The general approach of the solution-diffusion model is to assume that the chemical potential of the feed and permeate fluids are in equilibrium with the adjacent membrane surfaces such that appropriate expressions for the chemical potential in the fluid and membrane phases can be equated at the solution-membrane interface. This principle is more important for ''dense'' membranes without natural
pores such as those used for reverse osmosis and in fuel cells. During the
filtration
Filtration is a physical separation process that separates solid matter and fluid from a mixture using a ''filter medium'' that has a complex structure through which only the fluid can pass. Solid particles that cannot pass through the filter ...
process a
boundary layer forms on the membrane. This
concentration gradient
Molecular diffusion, often simply called diffusion, is the thermal motion of all (liquid or gas) particles at temperatures above absolute zero. The rate of this movement is a function of temperature, viscosity of the fluid and the size (mass) of ...
is created by
molecule
A molecule is a group of two or more atoms held together by attractive forces known as chemical bonds; depending on context, the term may or may not include ions which satisfy this criterion. In quantum physics, organic chemistry, and bioch ...
s which cannot pass through the membrane. The effect is referred as
concentration polarization and, occurring during the filtration, leads to a reduced trans-membrane flow (
flux
Flux describes any effect that appears to pass or travel (whether it actually moves or not) through a surface or substance. Flux is a concept in applied mathematics and vector calculus which has many applications to physics. For transport ph ...
). Concentration polarization is, in principle, reversible by cleaning the membrane which results in the initial flux being almost totally restored. Using a tangential flow to the membrane (cross-flow filtration) can also minimize concentration polarization.
Hydrodynamic model
Transport through pores – in the simplest case – is done
convectively. This requires the size of the pores to be smaller than the diameter of the two separate components. Membranes which function according to this principle are used mainly in micro- and ultrafiltration. They are used to separate
macromolecule
A macromolecule is a very large molecule important to biophysical processes, such as a protein or nucleic acid. It is composed of thousands of covalently bonded atoms. Many macromolecules are polymers of smaller molecules called monomers. The ...
s from
solution
Solution may refer to:
* Solution (chemistry), a mixture where one substance is dissolved in another
* Solution (equation), in mathematics
** Numerical solution, in numerical analysis, approximate solutions within specified error bounds
* Soluti ...
s,
colloid
A colloid is a mixture in which one substance consisting of microscopically dispersed insoluble particles is suspended throughout another substance. Some definitions specify that the particles must be dispersed in a liquid, while others extend ...
s from a
dispersion
Dispersion may refer to:
Economics and finance
*Dispersion (finance), a measure for the statistical distribution of portfolio returns
*Price dispersion, a variation in prices across sellers of the same item
*Wage dispersion, the amount of variatio ...
or remove bacteria. During this process the retained particles or molecules form a pulpy mass (
filter cake) on the membrane, and this blockage of the membrane hampers the filtration. This blockage can be reduced by the use of the cross-flow method (
cross-flow filtration
In chemical engineering, biochemical engineering and protein purification, crossflow filtration (also known as tangential flow filtration) is a type of filtration (a particular unit operation). Crossflow filtration is different from dead-end filt ...
). Here, the liquid to be filtered flows along the front of the membrane and is separated by the pressure difference between the front and back of the membrane into
retentate (the flowing concentrate) on the front and
permeate (filtrate) on the back. The tangential flow on the front creates a shear stress that cracks the filter cake and reduces the
fouling
Fouling is the accumulation of unwanted material on solid surfaces. The fouling materials can consist of either living organisms (biofouling) or a non-living substance (inorganic or organic). Fouling is usually distinguished from other surf ...
.
Membrane operations
According to the driving force of the operation it is possible to distinguish:
*Pressure driven operations
**
microfiltration
**
ultrafiltration
**
nanofiltration
**
reverse osmosis
Reverse osmosis (RO) is a water purification process that uses a partially permeable membrane to separate ions, unwanted molecules and larger particles from drinking water. In reverse osmosis, an applied pressure is used to overcome osmotic pre ...
**
gas separation
*Concentration driven operations
**
dialysis Dialysis may refer to:
*Dialysis (chemistry), a process of separating molecules in solution
**Electrodialysis, used to transport salt ions from one solution to another through an ion-exchange membrane under the influence of an applied electric pote ...
**
pervaporation Pervaporation (or pervaporative separation) is a processing method for the separation of mixtures of liquids by partial vaporization through a non-porous or porous membrane.
Theory
The term ''pervaporation'' is a portmanteau of the two steps of the ...
**
forward osmosis
Forward osmosis (FO) is an osmotic process that, like reverse osmosis (RO), uses a semi-permeable membrane to effect separation of water from dissolved solutes. The driving force for this separation is an osmotic pressure gradient, such that a "d ...
**
artificial lung
An artificial lung (AL) is a prosthetic device that provides oxygenation of blood and removal of carbon dioxide from the blood. The AL is intended to take over some of the functionality of biological lungs. It is different from a heart-lung mach ...
*Operations in an electric potential gradient
**
electrodialysis
**membrane electrolysis e.g.
chloralkaline process
**
electrode ionization
**
electro filtration
**
fuel cell
A fuel cell is an electrochemical cell that converts the chemical energy of a fuel (often hydrogen) and an oxidizing agent (often oxygen) into electricity through a pair of redox reactions. Fuel cells are different from most batteries in requ ...
*Operations in a temperature gradient
**
membrane distillation
Membrane shapes and flow geometries
There are two main flow configurations of membrane processes: cross-flow (or tangential flow) and dead-end filtrations. In cross-flow filtration the feed flow is
tangential to the surface of membrane, retentate is removed from the same side further downstream, whereas the permeate flow is tracked on the other side. In dead-end filtration the direction of the fluid flow is normal to the membrane surface. Both flow geometries offer some advantages and disadvantages. Generally, dead-end filtration is used for feasibility studies on a laboratory scale. The dead-end membranes are relatively easy to fabricate which reduces the cost of the separation process. The dead-end membrane separation process is easy to implement and the process is usually cheaper than cross-flow membrane filtration. The dead-end filtration process is usually a
batch-type process, where the filtering solution is loaded (or slowly fed) into the membrane device, which then allows passage of some particles subject to the driving force. The main disadvantage of a dead end filtration is the extensive membrane
fouling
Fouling is the accumulation of unwanted material on solid surfaces. The fouling materials can consist of either living organisms (biofouling) or a non-living substance (inorganic or organic). Fouling is usually distinguished from other surf ...
and
concentration polarization. The fouling is usually induced faster at higher driving forces. Membrane fouling and particle retention in a feed solution also builds up a concentration
gradients and particle back flow (concentration polarization). The tangential flow devices are more cost and labor-intensive, but they are less susceptible to fouling due to the sweeping effects and high shear rates of the passing flow. The most commonly used synthetic membrane devices (modules) are flat sheets/plates, spiral wounds, and
hollow fibers.
Flat plates are usually constructed as circular thin flat membrane surfaces to be used in dead-end geometry modules. Spiral wounds are constructed from similar flat membranes but in the form of a "pocket" containing two membrane sheets separated by a highly porous support plate.
Several such pockets are then wound around a tube to create a tangential flow geometry and to reduce membrane fouling.
hollow fiber modules consist of an assembly of self-supporting fibers with dense skin separation layers, and a more open matrix helping to withstand pressure gradients and maintain structural integrity.
The hollow fiber modules can contain up to 10,000 fibers ranging from 200 to 2500 μm in diameter; The main advantage of hollow fiber modules is very large surface area within an enclosed volume, increasing the efficiency of the separation process.
Image:Membrane12.jpg, Hollow fiber membrane module
File:Flux distribution inside the fiber.jpg, Separation of air into oxygen and nitrogen through a membrane
Disc tube module is using a cross-flow geometry, and consists of a pressure tube and hydraulic discs, which are held by a central tension rod, and membrane cushions that lie between two discs.
Membrane performance and governing equations
The selection of synthetic membranes for a targeted separation process is usually based on few requirements. Membranes have to provide enough mass transfer area to process large amounts of feed stream. The selected membrane has to have high
selectivity
Selectivity may refer to:
Psychology and behaviour
* Choice, making a selection among options
* Discrimination, the ability to recognize differences
* Socioemotional selectivity theory, in social psychology
Engineering
* Selectivity (radio), a ...
(
rejection) properties for certain particles; it has to resist
fouling
Fouling is the accumulation of unwanted material on solid surfaces. The fouling materials can consist of either living organisms (biofouling) or a non-living substance (inorganic or organic). Fouling is usually distinguished from other surf ...
and to have high mechanical stability. It also needs to be reproducible and to have low manufacturing costs. The main modeling equation for the dead-end filtration at constant
pressure drop is represented by Darcy's law:
[Osada, Y., Nakagawa, T., ''Membrane Science and Technology'', New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc,1992.]
where V
p and Q are the volume of the permeate and its volumetric
flow rate
Flow rate may refer to:
* Flow measurement, a quantification of bulk fluid movement
* Mass flow rate, the mass of a substance which passes per unit of time
* Volumetric flow rate, the volume of fluid which passes per unit time
** Discharge (hydrol ...
respectively (proportional to same characteristics of the feed flow), μ is
dynamic viscosity
The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to deformation at a given rate. For liquids, it corresponds to the informal concept of "thickness": for example, syrup has a higher viscosity than water.
Viscosity quantifies the inter ...
of permeating fluid, A is membrane area, R
m and R are the respective resistances of membrane and growing deposit of the foulants. R
m can be interpreted as a membrane resistance to the solvent (water) permeation. This resistance is a membrane
intrinsic property and is expected to be fairly constant and independent of the driving force, Δp. R is related to the type of membrane foulant, its concentration in the filtering solution, and the nature of foulant-membrane interactions. Darcy's law allows for calculation of the membrane area for a targeted separation at given conditions. The
solute sieving coefficient is defined by the equation:
where C
f and C
p are the solute concentrations in feed and permeate respectively. Hydraulic permeability is defined as the inverse of resistance and is represented by the equation:
where J is the permeate
flux
Flux describes any effect that appears to pass or travel (whether it actually moves or not) through a surface or substance. Flux is a concept in applied mathematics and vector calculus which has many applications to physics. For transport ph ...
which is the volumetric flow rate per unit of membrane area. The solute sieving coefficient and hydraulic permeability allow the quick assessment of the synthetic membrane performance.
Membrane separation processes
Membrane separation processes have a very important role in the separation industry. Nevertheless, they were not considered technically important until the mid-1970s. Membrane separation processes differ based on separation mechanisms and size of the separated particles. The widely used membrane processes include
microfiltration,
ultrafiltration,
nanofiltration,
reverse osmosis
Reverse osmosis (RO) is a water purification process that uses a partially permeable membrane to separate ions, unwanted molecules and larger particles from drinking water. In reverse osmosis, an applied pressure is used to overcome osmotic pre ...
,
electrolysis
In chemistry and manufacturing, electrolysis is a technique that uses direct electric current (DC) to drive an otherwise non-spontaneous chemical reaction. Electrolysis is commercially important as a stage in the separation of elements from n ...
,
dialysis Dialysis may refer to:
*Dialysis (chemistry), a process of separating molecules in solution
**Electrodialysis, used to transport salt ions from one solution to another through an ion-exchange membrane under the influence of an applied electric pote ...
,
electrodialysis,
gas separation, vapor permeation,
pervaporation Pervaporation (or pervaporative separation) is a processing method for the separation of mixtures of liquids by partial vaporization through a non-porous or porous membrane.
Theory
The term ''pervaporation'' is a portmanteau of the two steps of the ...
, membrane
distillation
Distillation, or classical distillation, is the process of separation process, separating the components or substances from a liquid mixture by using selective boiling and condensation, usually inside an apparatus known as a still. Dry distilla ...
, and membrane contactors.
[Pinnau, I., Freeman, B.D., ''Membrane Formation and Modification'', ACS, 1999.] All processes except for pervaporation involve no phase change. All processes except electrodialysis are pressure driven. Microfiltration and ultrafiltration is widely used in food and beverage processing (beer microfiltration, apple juice ultrafiltration), biotechnological applications and
pharmaceutical industry (
antibiotic
An antibiotic is a type of antimicrobial substance active against bacteria. It is the most important type of antibacterial agent for fighting bacterial infections, and antibiotic medications are widely used in the treatment and prevention of ...
production, protein purification), water purification and
wastewater treatment
Wastewater treatment is a process used to remove contaminants from wastewater and convert it into an effluent that can be returned to the water cycle. Once returned to the water cycle, the effluent creates an acceptable impact on the environme ...
, the microelectronics industry, and others. Nanofiltration and reverse osmosis membranes are mainly used for water purification purposes. Dense membranes are utilized for gas separations (removal of CO
2 from natural gas, separating N
2 from air, organic vapor removal from air or a nitrogen stream) and sometimes in membrane distillation. The later process helps in the separation of azeotropic compositions reducing the costs of distillation processes.
Pore size and selectivity
![Porengrösse und Verteilung](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3c/Porengr%C3%B6sse_und_Verteilung.png)
The pore sizes of technical membranes are specified differently depending on the manufacturer. One common distinction is by ''nominal pore size''. It describes the maximum pore size distribution and gives only vague information about the retention capacity of a membrane. The exclusion limit or "cut-off" of the membrane is usually specified in the form of ''NMWC'' (nominal molecular weight cut-off, or ''MWCO'',
molecular weight cut off Molecular weight cut-off or MWCO refers to the lowest molecular weight solute (in daltons) in which 90% of the solute is retained by the membrane, or the molecular weight of the molecule (e.g. globular protein) that is 90% retained by the membrane. ...
, with units in
Dalton). It is defined as the minimum
molecular weight
A molecule is a group of two or more atoms held together by attractive forces known as chemical bonds; depending on context, the term may or may not include ions which satisfy this criterion. In quantum physics, organic chemistry, and bioch ...
of a globular molecule that is retained to 90% by the membrane. The cut-off, depending on the method, can by converted to so-called ''D
90'', which is then expressed in a metric unit. In practice the MWCO of the membrane should be at least 20% lower than the molecular weight of the molecule that is to be separated.
Using track etched mica membranes Beck and Schultz demonstrated that hindered diffusion of molecules in pores can be described by the Rankin equation.
Filter membranes are divided into four classes according to pore size:
The form and shape of the membrane pores are highly dependent on the manufacturing process and are often difficult to specify. Therefore, for characterization, test filtrations are carried out and the pore diameter refers to the diameter of the smallest particles which could not pass through the membrane.
The rejection can be determined in various ways and provides an indirect measurement of the pore size. One possibility is the filtration of macromolecules (often
dextran
Dextran is a complex branched glucan (polysaccharide derived from the condensation of glucose), originally derived from wine. IUPAC defines dextrans as "Branched poly-α-d-glucosides of microbial origin having glycosidic bonds predominantly C-1 ...
,
polyethylene glycol or
albumin
Albumin is a family of globular proteins, the most common of which are the serum albumins. All the proteins of the albumin family are water-soluble, moderately soluble in concentrated salt solutions, and experience heat denaturation. Albumins ...
), another is measurement of the cut-off by
gel permeation chromatography. These methods are used mainly to measure membranes for ultrafiltration applications. Another testing method is the filtration of particles with defined size and their measurement with a particle sizer or by
laser induced breakdown spectroscopy
Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) is a type of atomic emission spectroscopy which uses a highly energetic laser pulse as the excitation source. The laser is focused to form a plasma, which atomizes and excites samples. The formation of ...
(LIBS). A vivid characterization is to measure the rejection of dextran blue or other colored molecules. The retention of
bacteriophage
A bacteriophage (), also known informally as a ''phage'' (), is a duplodnaviria virus that infects and replicates within bacteria and archaea. The term was derived from "bacteria" and the Greek φαγεῖν ('), meaning "to devour". Bacteri ...
and
bacteria
Bacteria (; singular: bacterium) are ubiquitous, mostly free-living organisms often consisting of one biological cell. They constitute a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms. Typically a few micrometres in length, bacteria were among ...
, the so-called "bacteria challenge test", can also provide information about the pore size.
To determine the pore diameter,
physical
Physical may refer to:
*Physical examination
In a physical examination, medical examination, or clinical examination, a medical practitioner examines a patient for any possible medical signs or symptoms of a medical condition. It generally co ...
methods such as
porosimeter (mercury, liquid-liquid porosimeter and Bubble Point Test) are also used, but a certain form of the pores (such as
cylindrical
A cylinder (from ) has traditionally been a three-dimensional solid, one of the most basic of curvilinear geometric shapes. In elementary geometry, it is considered a prism with a circle as its base.
A cylinder may also be defined as an infini ...
or concatenated
spherical holes) is assumed. Such methods are used for membranes whose pore geometry does not match the ideal, and we get "nominal" pore diameter, which characterizes the membrane, but does not necessarily reflect its actual filtration behavior and selectivity.
The selectivity is highly dependent on the separation process, the composition of the membrane and its electrochemical properties in addition to the pore size. With high selectivity, isotopes can be enriched
(uranium enrichment) in nuclear engineering or industrial gases like nitrogen can be recovered (
gas separation). Ideally, even
racemics can be enriched with a suitable membrane.
When choosing membranes selectivity has priority over a high permeability, as low flows can easily be offset by increasing the filter surface with a modular structure. In gas phase filtration different deposition mechanisms are operative, so that particles having sizes below the pore size of the membrane can be retained as well.
Membrane Classification
Bio-Membrane is classified in two categories,
synthetic membrane and natural membrane. synthetic membranes further classified in organic and inorganic membranes. Organic membrane sub classified polymeric membranes and inorganic membrane sub classified ceramic polymers.
Synthesis of Biomass Membrane
The composite biomass membrane
Green
Green is the color between cyan and yellow on the visible spectrum. It is evoked by light which has a dominant wavelength of roughly 495570 Nanometre, nm. In subtractive color systems, used in painting and color printing, it is created by ...
membrane or
Bio-membrane synthesis is the solution to protected environments which have largely comprehensive performance. Biomass is used in the form of activated carbon nanoparticles, like using cellulose based biomass
coconut shell
The coconut tree (''Cocos nucifera'') is a member of the palm tree family (biology), family (Arecaceae) and the only living species of the genus ''Cocos''. The term "coconut" (or the archaic "cocoanut") can refer to the whole coconut palm, ...
, hazelnut shell, walnut shell,
agricultural wastes
''Bioresource Technology'' is a peer reviewed scientific journal published biweekly by Elsevier, covering the field of bioresource technology. The journal was established in 1979 as ''Agricultural Wastes'' and renamed to ''Biological Wastes'' in 19 ...
of corn stalks etc.
which improve surface
hydrophilicity, larger pore size, more and lower surface roughness therefore, the separation and
anti-fouling performance of membranes are also improved simultaneously.
Fabrication of pure biomass based membrane
A biomass-based membrane is a membrane made from organic materials such as plant fibers.
These membranes are often used in
water filtration
A water filter removes impurities by lowering contamination of water using a fine physical barrier, a chemical process, or a biological process. Filters cleanse water to different extents, for purposes such as: providing agricultural irrigation ...
and
wastewater treatment
Wastewater treatment is a process used to remove contaminants from wastewater and convert it into an effluent that can be returned to the water cycle. Once returned to the water cycle, the effluent creates an acceptable impact on the environme ...
applications. The
fabrication
Fabrication may refer to:
* Manufacturing, specifically the crafting of individual parts as a solo product or as part of a larger combined product.
Processes in arts, crafts and manufacturing
*Semiconductor device fabrication, the process used t ...
of a pure biomass-based membrane is a complex process that involves a number of steps. The first step is to create a slurry of the
organic materials
Organic matter, organic material, or natural organic matter refers to the large source of carbon-based compounds found within natural and engineered, terrestrial, and aquatic environments. It is matter composed of organic compounds that have c ...
. This slurry is then cast onto a substrate, such as a glass or metal plate. The cast is then dried, and the resulting
membrane is then subjected to a number of treatments, such as chemical or heat treatments, to improve its properties. One of the challenges in the fabrication of biomass-based membranes is to create a membrane with the desired properties.
Equipment & Instrument used in process
List of Instruments Used in Membrane synthesis procedure as follows:
*
Centrifuge
A centrifuge is a device that uses centrifugal force to separate various components of a fluid. This is achieved by spinning the fluid at high speed within a container, thereby separating fluids of different densities (e.g. cream from milk) or ...
*
Casting Machine
* Plane casting glass
*
Magnetic Stirrer
A magnetic stirrer or magnetic mixer is a laboratory device that employs a rotating magnetic field to cause a stir bar (or ''flea'') immersed in a liquid to spin very quickly, thus stirring it. The rotating field may be created either by a rota ...
* Glass ware:
Beakers
Beaker may refer to:
Containers
* Beaker (drinkware), a beverage container
* Beaker (laboratory equipment), a glass container used for holding liquids in a laboratory setting
* Beaker (archaeology), a prehistoric drinking vessel
* Beaker culture ...
,
measuring cylinders
A graduated cylinder, also known as a measuring cylinder or mixing cylinder, is a common piece of laboratory equipment used to measure the volume of a liquid. It has a narrow cylindrical shape. Each marked line on the graduated cylinder represent ...
,
flask etc.
*
Oven
upA double oven
A ceramic oven
An oven is a tool which is used to expose materials to a hot environment. Ovens contain a hollow chamber and provide a means of heating the chamber in a controlled way. In use since antiquity, they have been us ...
*
Mortar and pestle
Mortar and pestle is a set of two simple tools used from the Stone Age to the present day to prepare ingredients or substances by crushing and grinding them into a fine paste or powder in the kitchen, laboratory, and pharmacy. The ''mortar'' () ...
Membrane Characterization
After casting and synthesis of membrane there is need to characterize the prepared membrane to know more details about membrane parameters, like pore size, function group, material properties etc. It is important to know membrane properties so we are able to remove and treat a particulate pollutant, which causes pollution in the environment. For characterization following different instruments is used:
*
Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)
*
Transmission electron Microscope (TEM)
*
Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy
Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) is a technique used to obtain an infrared spectrum of absorption or emission of a solid, liquid, or gas. An FTIR spectrometer simultaneously collects high-resolution spectral data over a wide spectr ...
(FTIR)
*
X-ray Diffraction
X-ray crystallography is the experimental science determining the atomic and molecular structure of a crystal, in which the crystalline structure causes a beam of incident X-rays to diffract into many specific directions. By measuring the angles ...
(XRD)
* Liquid–Liquid Displacement Porosimetry (LLDP)
Biomass Membrane Applications
Water treatment
Water treatment
Water treatment is any process that improves the Water quality, quality of water to make it appropriate for a specific end-use. The end use may be drinking water, drinking, industrial water supply, irrigation, river flow maintenance, water recrea ...
is any process that improves the quality of water to make it more acceptable for a specific end-use.
Membranes can be used to remove particulates from water by either size exclusion or charge separation. In
size exclusion, the pores in the membrane are sized such that only particles smaller than the pores can pass through. The pores in the membrane are sized such that only water molecules can pass through, leaving dissolved contaminants behind.
Gas separation
Utilization of membranes in gas separation, like Co2,
Nitrogen oxide Nitrogen oxide may refer to a binary compound of oxygen and nitrogen, or a mixture of such compounds:
Charge-neutral
*Nitric oxide (NO), nitrogen(II) oxide, or nitrogen monoxide
*Nitrogen dioxide (), nitrogen(IV) oxide
* Nitrogen trioxide (), or n ...
s (NOx),
Sulphur oxides (SOx), harmful gasses can be removed to protect the environment.
Biomass
Biomass is plant-based material used as a fuel for heat or electricity production. It can be in the form of wood, wood residues, energy crops, agricultural residues, and waste from industry, farms, and households. Some people use the terms bi ...
Membrane gas separation more effective then commercial membrane.
Hemodialysis
Membrane application in
hemodialysis is a process of using a
semipermeable membrane
Semipermeable membrane is a type of biological or synthetic, polymeric membrane that will allow certain molecules or ions to pass through it by osmosis. The rate of passage depends on the pressure, concentration, and temperature of the molecul ...
to remove waste products and excess fluids from the blood.
See also
*
Particle deposition
*
Synthetic membrane
Notes
References
* Osada, Y., Nakagawa, T., ''Membrane Science and Technology'', New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc,1992.
* Zeman, Leos J., Zydney, Andrew L., ''Microfiltration and Ultrafitration'', Principles and Applications., New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc,1996.
* Mulder M., ''Basic Principles of Membrane Technology'', Kluwer Academic Publishers, Netherlands, 1996.
* Jornitz, Maik W., ''Sterile Filtration'', Springer, Germany, 2006
* Van Reis R., Zydney A. Bioprocess membrane technology. ''J Mem Sci''. 297(2007): 16-50.
* Templin T., Johnston D., Singh V., Tumbleson M.E., Belyea R.L. Rausch K.D. Membrane separation of solids from corn processing streams. ''Biores Tech''. 97(2006): 1536-1545.
* Ripperger S., Schulz G. Microporous membranes in biotechnical applications. ''Bioprocess Eng''. 1(1986): 43-49.
* Thomas Melin, Robert Rautenbach, ''Membranverfahren'', Springer, Germany, 2007, .
* Munir Cheryan, ''Handbuch Ultrafiltration'', Behr, 1990, .
* Eberhard Staude, ''Membranen und Membranprozesse'', VCH, 1992, .
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Filtration