manifold

In mathematics, a manifold is a topological space that locally resembles Euclidean space near each point. More precisely, an $n$-dimensional manifold, or ''$n$-manifold'' for short, is a topological space with the property that each point has a neighborhood that is homeomorphic to an open subset of $n$-dimensional Euclidean space.

One-dimensional manifolds include lines and circles, but not lemniscates. Two-dimensional manifolds are also called surfaces. Examples include the plane, the sphere, and the torus, and also the Klein bottle and real projective plane.

The concept of a manifold is central to many parts of geometry and modern mathematical physics because it allows complicated structures to be described in terms of well-understood topological properties of simpler spaces. Manifolds naturally arise as solution sets of systems of equations and as graphs of functions. The concept has applications in computer-graphics given the need to associate pictures with coordinates (e.g. CT scans).

Manifolds can be equipped with additional structure. One important class of manifolds are differentiable manifolds; their differentiable structure allows calculus to be done. A Riemannian metric on a manifold allows distances and angles to be measured. Symplectic manifolds serve as the phase spaces in the Hamiltonian formalism of classical mechanics, while four-dimensional Lorentzian manifolds model spacetime in general relativity.

The study of manifolds requires working knowledge of calculus and topology.

Motivating examples

Circle

After a line, a circle is the simplest example of a topological manifold. Topology ignores bending, so a small piece of a circle is treated the same as a small piece of a line. Considering, for instance, the top part of the unit circle, ''x''² + ''y''² = 1, where the ''y''-coordinate is positive (indicated by the yellow arc in ''Figure 1''). Any point of this arc can be uniquely described by its ''x''-coordinate. So, projection onto the first coordinate is a continuous and invertible mapping from the upper arc to the open interval (−1, 1):
$\chi_(x,y) = x . \,$

Such functions along with the open regions they map are called '' charts''. Similarly, there are charts for the bottom (red), left (blue), and right (green) parts of the circle:
$\begin \chi_\mathrm(x, y) &= x \\ \chi_\mathrm(x, y) &= y \\ \chi_\mathrm(x, y) &= y. \end$

Together, these parts cover the whole circle, and the four charts form an atlas for the circle.

The top and right charts, $\chi_\mathrm$ and $\chi_\mathrm$ respectively, overlap in their domain: their intersection lies in the quarter of the circle where both $x$ and $y$-coordinates are positive. Both map this part into the interval $(0,1)$, though differently. Thus a function $T:(0,1)\rightarrow(0,1)=\chi_\mathrm \circ \chi^_\mathrm$ can be constructed, which takes values from the co-domain of $\chi_\mathrm$ back to the circle using the inverse, followed by $\chi_\mathrm$ back to the interval. For any number ''a'' in $(0,1)$, then:
\begin
T(a) &= \chi_\mathrm\left(\chi_\mathrm^\left \rightright) \\
&= \chi_\mathrm\left(a, \sqrt\right) \\
&= \sqrt
\end

Such a function is called a ''transition map''.

The top, bottom, left, and right charts do not form the only possible atlas. Charts need not be geometric projections, and the number of charts is a matter of choice. Consider the charts
$\chi_\mathrm(x, y) = s = \frac$
and
$\chi_\mathrm(x, y) = t = \frac$

Here ''s'' is the slope of the line through the point at coordinates (''x'', ''y'') and the fixed pivot point (−1, 0); similarly, ''t'' is the opposite of the slope of the line through the points at coordinates (''x'', ''y'') and (+1, 0). The inverse mapping from ''s'' to (''x'', ''y'') is given by
\begin
x &= \frac \\ pt y &= \frac
\end

It can be confirmed that ''x''² + ''y''² = 1 for all values of ''s'' and ''t''. These two charts provide a second atlas for the circle, with the transition map
$t = \frac$
(that is, one has this relation between ''s'' and ''t'' for every point where ''s'' and ''t'' are both nonzero).

Each chart omits a single point, either (−1, 0) for ''s'' or (+1, 0) for ''t'', so neither chart alone is sufficient to cover the whole circle. It can be proved that it is not possible to cover the full circle with a single chart. For example, although it is possible to construct a circle from a single line interval by overlapping and "gluing" the ends, this does not produce a chart; a portion of the circle will be mapped to both ends at once, losing invertibility.

Sphere

The sphere is an example of a surface. The unit sphere of implicit equation
:
may be covered by an atlas of six charts: the plane divides the sphere into two half spheres ( and ), which may both be mapped on the disc by the projection on the plane of coordinates. This provides two charts; the four other charts are provided by a similar construction with the two other coordinate planes.

As with the circle, one may define one chart that covers the whole sphere excluding one point. Thus two charts are sufficient, but the sphere cannot be covered by a single chart.

This example is historically significant, as it has motivated the terminology; it became apparent that the whole surface of the Earth cannot have a plane representation consisting of a single map (also called "chart", see nautical chart), and therefore one needs atlases for covering the whole Earth surface.

Other curves

Manifolds need not be connected (all in "one piece"); an example is a pair of separate circles.

Manifolds need not be closed; thus a line segment without its end points is a manifold. They are never countable, unless the dimension of the manifold is 0. Putting these freedoms together, other examples of manifolds are a parabola, a hyperbola, and the locus of points on a cubic curve (a closed loop piece and an open, infinite piece).

However, excluded are examples like two touching circles that share a point to form a figure-8; at the shared point, a satisfactory chart cannot be created. Even with the bending allowed by topology, the vicinity of the shared point looks like a "+", not a line. A "+" is not homeomorphic to a line segment, since deleting the center point from the "+" gives a space with four components (i.e. pieces), whereas deleting a point from a line segment gives a space with at most two pieces; topological operations always preserve the number of pieces.

Mathematical definition

Informally, a manifold is a space that is "modeled on" Euclidean space.

There are many different kinds of manifolds. In geometry and topology, all manifolds are topological manifolds, possibly with additional structure. A manifold can be constructed by giving a collection of coordinate charts, that is, a covering by open sets with homeomorphisms to a Euclidean space, and patching functions: homeomorphisms from one region of Euclidean space to another region if they correspond to the same part of the manifold in two different coordinate charts. A manifold can be given additional structure if the patching functions satisfy axioms beyond continuity. For instance, differentiable manifolds have homeomorphisms on overlapping neighborhoods diffeomorphic with each other, so that the manifold has a well-defined set of functions which are differentiable in each neighborhood, thus differentiable on the manifold as a whole.

Formally, a (topological) manifold is a second countable Hausdorff space that is locally homeomorphic to Euclidean space.

''Second countable'' and ''Hausdorff'' are point-set conditions; ''second countable'' excludes spaces which are in some sense 'too large' such as the long line, while ''Hausdorff'' excludes spaces such as "the line with two origins" (these generalizations of manifolds are discussed in non-Hausdorff manifolds).

''Locally homeomorphic'' to Euclidean space means that every point has a neighborhood homeomorphic to an open Euclidean ''n''-ball,
$\mathbf^n = \left\.$
More precisely, locally homeomorphic here means that each point ''m'' in the manifold ''M'' has an open neighborhood homeomorphic to an open neighborhood in Euclidean space. However, given such a homeomorphism, the pre-image of an $\epsilon$-ball gives a homeomorphism between the unit ball and a smaller neighborhood of ''m'', so this is no loss of generality. For topological or differentiable manifolds, one can also ask that every point have a neighborhood homeomorphic to all of Euclidean space (as this is diffeomorphic to the unit ball), but this cannot be done for complex manifolds, as the complex unit ball is not holomorphic to complex space.

Generally manifolds are taken to have a fixed dimension (the space must be locally homeomorphic to a fixed ''n''-ball), and such a space is called an ''n''-manifold; however, some authors admit manifolds where different points can have different dimensions. If a manifold has a fixed dimension, it is called a pure manifold. For example, the (surface of a) sphere has a constant dimension of 2 and is therefore a pure manifold whereas the disjoint union of a sphere and a line in three-dimensional space is ''not'' a pure manifold. Since dimension is a local invariant (i.e. the map sending each point to the dimension of its neighbourhood over which a chart is defined, is locally constant), each connected component has a fixed dimension.

Sheaf-theoretically, a manifold is a locally ringed space, whose structure sheaf is locally isomorphic to the sheaf of continuous (or differentiable, or complex-analytic, etc.) functions on Euclidean space. This definition is mostly used when discussing analytic manifolds in algebraic geometry.

Charts, atlases, and transition maps

The spherical Earth is navigated using flat maps or charts, collected in an atlas. Similarly, a differentiable manifold can be described using mathematical maps, called ''coordinate charts'', collected in a mathematical ''atlas''. It is not generally possible to describe a manifold with just one chart, because the global structure of the manifold is different from the simple structure of the charts. For example, no single flat map can represent the entire Earth without separation of adjacent features across the map's boundaries or duplication of coverage. When a manifold is constructed from multiple overlapping charts, the regions where they overlap carry information essential to understanding the global structure.

Charts

A ''coordinate map'', a ''coordinate chart'', or simply a ''chart'', of a manifold is an invertible map between a subset of the manifold and a simple space such that both the map and its inverse preserve the desired structure. For a topological manifold, the simple space is a subset of some Euclidean space $\R^n$ and interest focuses on the topological structure. This structure is preserved by homeomorphisms, invertible maps that are continuous in both directions.

In the case of a differentiable manifold, a set of ''charts'' called an ''atlas'' allows us to do calculus on manifolds. Polar coordinates, for example, form a chart for the plane $\R^2$ minus the positive ''x''-axis and the origin. Another example of a chart is the map χ_top mentioned above, a chart for the circle.

Atlases

The description of most manifolds requires more than one chart. A specific collection of charts which covers a manifold is called an ''atlas''. An atlas is not unique as all manifolds can be covered in multiple ways using different combinations of charts. Two atlases are said to be equivalent if their union is also an atlas.

The atlas containing all possible charts consistent with a given atlas is called the ''maximal atlas'' (i.e. an equivalence class containing that given atlas). Unlike an ordinary atlas, the maximal atlas of a given manifold is unique. Though useful for definitions, it is an abstract object and not used directly (e.g. in calculations).

Transition maps

Charts in an atlas may overlap and a single point of a manifold may be represented in several charts. If two charts overlap, parts of them represent the same region of the manifold, just as a map of Europe and a map of Russia may both contain Moscow. Given two overlapping charts, a ''transition function'' can be defined which goes from an open ball in $\R^n$ to the manifold and then back to another (or perhaps the same) open ball in $\R^n$. The resultant map, like the map ''T'' in the circle example above, is called a ''change of coordinates'', a ''coordinate transformation'', a ''transition function'', or a ''transition map''.

Additional structure

An atlas can also be used to define additional structure on the manifold. The structure is first defined on each chart separately. If all transition maps are compatible with this structure, the structure transfers to the manifold.

This is the standard way differentiable manifolds are defined. If the transition functions of an atlas for a topological manifold preserve the natural differential structure of $\R^n$ (that is, if they are diffeomorphisms), the differential structure transfers to the manifold and turns it into a differentiable manifold. Complex manifolds are introduced in an analogous way by requiring that the transition functions of an atlas are holomorphic functions. For symplectic manifolds, the transition functions must be symplectomorphisms.

The structure on the manifold depends on the atlas, but sometimes different atlases can be said to give rise to the same structure. Such atlases are called ''compatible''.

These notions are made precise in general through the use of pseudogroups.

Manifold with boundary

A manifold with boundary is a manifold with an edge. For example, a sheet of paper is a 2-manifold with a 1-dimensional boundary. The boundary of an ''n''-manifold with boundary is an -manifold. A disk (circle plus interior) is a 2-manifold with boundary. Its boundary is a circle, a 1-manifold. A square with interior is also a 2-manifold with boundary. A ball (sphere plus interior) is a 3-manifold with boundary. Its boundary is a sphere, a 2-manifold. (Do not confuse with Boundary (topology)).

In technical language, a manifold with boundary is a space containing both interior points and boundary points. Every interior point has a neighborhood homeomorphic to the open ''n''-ball Every boundary point has a neighborhood homeomorphic to the "half" ''n''-ball . The homeomorphism must send each boundary point to a point with ''x''₁ = 0.

Boundary and interior

Let ''M'' be a manifold with boundary. The interior of ''M'', denoted Int ''M'', is the set of points in ''M'' which have neighborhoods homeomorphic to an open subset of $\R^n$. The boundary of ''M'', denoted ∂''M'', is the complement of Int''M'' in ''M''. The boundary points can be characterized as those points which land on the boundary hyperplane of $\R^n_+$ under some coordinate chart.

If ''M'' is a manifold with boundary of dimension ''n'', then Int''M'' is a manifold (without boundary) of dimension ''n'' and ∂''M'' is a manifold (without boundary) of dimension .

Construction

A single manifold can be constructed in different ways, each stressing a different aspect of the manifold, thereby leading to a slightly different viewpoint.

Charts

Perhaps the simplest way to construct a manifold is the one used in the example above of the circle. First, a subset of $\R^2$ is identified, and then an atlas covering this subset is constructed. The concept of ''manifold'' grew historically from constructions like this. Here is another example, applying this method to the construction of a sphere:

Sphere with charts

A sphere can be treated in almost the same way as the circle. In mathematics a sphere is just the surface (not the solid interior), which can be defined as a subset of $\R^3$:
$S = \left\.$

The sphere is two-dimensional, so each chart will map part of the sphere to an open subset of $\R^2$. Consider the northern hemisphere, which is the part with positive ''z'' coordinate (coloured red in the picture on the right). The function defined by
$\chi(x, y, z) = (x, y),\$

maps the northern hemisphere to the open unit disc by projecting it on the (''x'', ''y'') plane. A similar chart exists for the southern hemisphere. Together with two charts projecting on the (''x'', ''z'') plane and two charts projecting on the (''y'', ''z'') plane, an atlas of six charts is obtained which covers the entire sphere.

This can be easily generalized to higher-dimensional spheres.

Patchwork

A manifold can be constructed by gluing together pieces in a consistent manner, making them into overlapping charts. This construction is possible for any manifold and hence it is often used as a characterisation, especially for differentiable and Riemannian manifolds. It focuses on an atlas, as the patches naturally provide charts, and since there is no exterior space involved it leads to an intrinsic view of the manifold.

The manifold is constructed by specifying an atlas, which is itself defined by transition maps. A point of the manifold is therefore an equivalence class of points which are mapped to each other by transition maps. Charts map equivalence classes to points of a single patch. There are usually strong demands on the consistency of the transition maps. For topological manifolds they are required to be homeomorphisms; if they are also diffeomorphisms, the resulting manifold is a differentiable manifold.

This can be illustrated with the transition map ''t'' = ¹⁄_''s'' from the second half of the circle example. Start with two copies of the line. Use the coordinate ''s'' for the first copy, and ''t'' for the second copy. Now, glue both copies together by identifying the point ''t'' on the second copy with the point ''s'' = ¹⁄_''t'' on the first copy (the points ''t'' = 0 and ''s'' = 0 are not identified with any point on the first and second copy, respectively). This gives a circle.

Intrinsic and extrinsic view

The first construction and this construction are very similar, but represent rather different points of view. In the first construction, the manifold is seen as embedded in some Euclidean space. This is the ''extrinsic view''. When a manifold is viewed in this way, it is easy to use intuition from Euclidean spaces to define additional structure. For example, in a Euclidean space, it is always clear whether a vector at some point is tangential or normal to some surface through that point.

The patchwork construction does not use any embedding, but simply views the manifold as a topological space by itself. This abstract point of view is called the ''intrinsic view''. It can make it harder to imagine what a tangent vector might be, and there is no intrinsic notion of a normal bundle, but instead there is an intrinsic stable normal bundle.

''n''-Sphere as a patchwork

The ''n''-sphere S^''n'' is a generalisation of the idea of a circle (1-sphere) and sphere (2-sphere) to higher dimensions. An ''n''-sphere S^''n'' can be constructed by gluing together two copies of $\R^n$. The transition map between them is inversion in a sphere, defined as
$\R^n \setminus \ \to \R^n \setminus \: x \mapsto x/\, x\, ^2.$

This function is its own inverse and thus can be used in both directions. As the transition map is a smooth function, this atlas defines a smooth manifold.
In the case ''n'' = 1, the example simplifies to the circle example given earlier.

Identifying points of a manifold

It is possible to define different points of a manifold to be same. This can be visualized as gluing these points together in a single point, forming a quotient space. There is, however, no reason to expect such quotient spaces to be manifolds. Among the possible quotient spaces that are not necessarily manifolds, orbifolds and CW complexes are considered to be relatively well-behaved. An example of a quotient space of a manifold that is also a manifold is the real projective space, identified as a quotient space of the corresponding sphere.

One method of identifying points (gluing them together) is through a right (or left) action of a group, which acts on the manifold. Two points are identified if one is moved onto the other by some group element. If ''M'' is the manifold and ''G'' is the group, the resulting quotient space is denoted by ''M'' / ''G'' (or ''G'' \ ''M'').

Manifolds which can be constructed by identifying points include tori and real projective spaces (starting with a plane and a sphere, respectively).

Gluing along boundaries

Two manifolds with boundaries can be glued together along a boundary. If this is done the right way, the result is also a manifold. Similarly, two boundaries of a single manifold can be glued together.

Formally, the gluing is defined by a bijection between the two boundaries. Two points are identified when they are mapped onto each other. For a topological manifold, this bijection should be a homeomorphism, otherwise the result will not be a topological manifold. Similarly, for a differentiable manifold, it has to be a diffeomorphism. For other manifolds, other structures should be preserved.

A finite cylinder may be constructed as a manifold by starting with a strip ,1nbsp;×  ,1and gluing a pair of opposite edges on the boundary by a suitable diffeomorphism. A projective plane may be obtained by gluing a sphere with a hole in it to a Möbius strip along their respective circular boundaries.

Cartesian products

The Cartesian product of manifolds is also a manifold.

The dimension of the product manifold is the sum of the dimensions of its factors. Its topology is the product topology, and a Cartesian product of charts is a chart for the product manifold. Thus, an atlas for the product manifold can be constructed using atlases for its factors. If these atlases define a differential structure on the factors, the corresponding atlas defines a differential structure on the product manifold. The same is true for any other structure defined on the factors. If one of the factors has a boundary, the product manifold also has a boundary. Cartesian products may be used to construct tori and finite cylinders, for example, as S¹ × S¹ and S¹ ×  ,1 respectively.

History

The study of manifolds combines many important areas of mathematics: it generalizes concepts such as curves and surfaces as well as ideas from linear algebra and topology.

Early development

Before the modern concept of a manifold there were several important results.

Non-Euclidean geometry considers spaces where Euclid's parallel postulate fails. Saccheri first studied such geometries in 1733, but sought only to disprove them. Gauss, Bolyai and Lobachevsky independently discovered them 100 years later. Their research uncovered two types of spaces whose geometric structures differ from that of classical Euclidean space; these gave rise to hyperbolic geometry and elliptic geometry. In the modern theory of manifolds, these notions correspond to Riemannian manifolds with constant negative and positive curvature, respectively.

Carl Friedrich Gauss may have been the first to consider abstract spaces as mathematical objects in their own right. His theorema egregium gives a method for computing the curvature of a surface without considering the ambient space in which the surface lies. Such a surface would, in modern terminology, be called a manifold; and in modern terms, the theorem proved that the curvature of the surface is an intrinsic property. Manifold theory has come to focus exclusively on these intrinsic properties (or invariants), while largely ignoring the extrinsic properties of the ambient space.

Another, more topological example of an intrinsic property of a manifold is its Euler characteristic. Leonhard Euler showed that for a convex polytope in the three-dimensional Euclidean space with ''V'' vertices (or corners), ''E'' edges, and ''F'' faces,$V - E + F = 2.\$The same formula will hold if we project the vertices and edges of the polytope onto a sphere, creating a topological map with ''V'' vertices, ''E'' edges, and ''F'' faces, and in fact, will remain true for any spherical map, even if it does not arise from any convex polytope. Thus 2 is a topological invariant of the sphere, called its Euler characteristic. On the other hand, a torus can be sliced open by its 'parallel' and 'meridian' circles, creating a map with ''V'' = 1 vertex, ''E'' = 2 edges, and ''F'' = 1 face. Thus the Euler characteristic of the torus is 1 − 2 + 1 = 0. The Euler characteristic of other surfaces is a useful topological invariant, which can be extended to higher dimensions using Betti numbers. In the mid nineteenth century, the Gauss–Bonnet theorem linked the Euler characteristic to the Gaussian curvature.

Synthesis

Investigations of Niels Henrik Abel and Carl Gustav Jacobi on inversion of elliptic integrals in the first half of 19th century led them to consider special types of complex manifolds, now known as Jacobians. Bernhard Riemann further contributed to their theory, clarifying the geometric meaning of the process of analytic continuation of functions of complex variables.

Another important source of manifolds in 19th century mathematics was analytical mechanics, as developed by Siméon Poisson, Jacobi, and William Rowan Hamilton. The possible states of a mechanical system are thought to be points of an abstract space, phase space in Lagrangian and Hamiltonian formalisms of classical mechanics. This space is, in fact, a high-dimensional manifold, whose dimension corresponds to the degrees of freedom of the system and where the points are specified by their generalized coordinates. For an unconstrained movement of free particles the manifold is equivalent to the Euclidean space, but various conservation laws constrain it to more complicated formations, e.g. Liouville tori. The theory of a rotating solid body, developed in the 18th century by Leonhard Euler and Joseph-Louis Lagrange

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