Ljubljana (also known by other historical names) is the

capital Capital may refer to: Common uses * Capital city, a municipality of primary status ** List of national capital cities * Capital letter, an upper-case letter Economics and social sciences * Capital (economics), the durable produced goods used f ...

and largest city of

Slovenia Slovenia ( ; sl, Slovenija ), officially the Republic of Slovenia (Slovene: , abbr.: ''RS''), is a country in Central Europe. It is bordered by Italy to the west, Austria to the north, Hungary to the northeast, Croatia to the southeast, an ...

. It is the country's cultural, educational, economic, political and administrative center. During antiquity, a Roman city called

Emona Emona (early gkm, Ἤμονα) or Aemona (short for ) was a Roman castrum, located in the area where the navigable Ljubljanica river came closest to Castle Hill,

stood in the area. Ljubljana itself was first mentioned in the first half of the 12th century. Situated at the middle of a trade route between the northern

Adriatic Sea The Adriatic Sea () is a body of water separating the Italian Peninsula from the Balkan Peninsula. The Adriatic is the northernmost arm of the Mediterranean Sea, extending from the Strait of Otranto (where it connects to the Ionian Sea) to t ...

and the

Danube The Danube ( ; ) is a river that was once a long-standing frontier of the Roman Empire and today connects 10 European countries, running through their territories or being a border. Originating in Germany, the Danube flows southeast for , pa ...

region, it was the historical capital of

Carniola Carniola ( sl, Kranjska; , german: Krain; it, Carniola; hu, Krajna) is a historical region that comprised parts of present-day Slovenia. Although as a whole it does not exist anymore, Slovenes living within the former borders of the region sti ...

, one of the Slovene-inhabited parts of the

Habsburg monarchy The Habsburg monarchy (german: Habsburgermonarchie, ), also known as the Danubian monarchy (german: Donaumonarchie, ), or Habsburg Empire (german: Habsburgerreich, ), was the collection of empires, kingdoms, duchies, counties and other polities ...

. It was under

Habsburg The House of Habsburg (), alternatively spelled Hapsburg in Englishgerman: Haus Habsburg, ; es, Casa de Habsburgo; hu, Habsburg család, it, Casa di Asburgo, nl, Huis van Habsburg, pl, dom Habsburgów, pt, Casa de Habsburgo, la, Domus Hab ...

rule from the Middle Ages until the dissolution of the

Austro-Hungarian Austria-Hungary, often referred to as the Austro-Hungarian Empire,, the Dual Monarchy, or Austria, was a constitutional monarchy and great power in Central Europe between 1867 and 1918. It was formed with the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of ...

Empire in 1918. After

World War II World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposin ...

, Ljubljana became the capital of the

Socialist Republic of Slovenia The Socialist Republic of Slovenia ( sl, Socialistična republika Slovenija, sh-Latn-Cyrl, separator=" / ", Socijalistička Republika Slovenija, Социјалистичка Република Словенија), commonly referred to as Sociali ...

, part of the

Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, commonly referred to as SFR Yugoslavia or simply as Yugoslavia, was a country in Central and Southeast Europe. It emerged in 1945, following World War II, and lasted until 1992, with the breakup of Yug ...

. The city retained this status until Slovenia became independent in 1991 and Ljubljana became the capital of the newly formed state.

Name

The origin of the name ''Ljubljana'' is unclear. In the

Middle Ages In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the late 5th to the late 15th centuries, similar to the post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire a ...

, both the river and the town were also known by the German name ''Laibach''. This name was in official use as an

endonym An endonym (from Greek: , 'inner' + , 'name'; also known as autonym) is a common, ''native'' name for a geographical place, group of people, individual person, language or dialect, meaning that it is used inside that particular place, group, ...

until 1918, and it remains frequent as a German exonym, both in common speech and official use. The city is called '' Lubiana'' in Italian and ''Labacum'' in

Latin Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power of the ...

. The earliest attestation of the German name is from 1144 and the earliest attestation of the Slovenian form is 1146. The

Greek Greek may refer to: Greece Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe: *Greeks, an ethnic group. *Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family. **Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor ...

form of the latter, Λυπλιανές (''Lyplianes''), is attested in a 10th-century source, the ''Life'' of

Gregentios Gregentios (Greek: Γρηγέντιος) was the purported archbishop of Ẓafār, the capital of the kingdom of Ḥimyar, in the mid-6th century, according to a hagiographical dossier compiled in the 10th century. This compilation is essentiall ...

, which locates it in the country of the Avars in the 6th century. This part of the ''Life'' is based on a north Italian source written not long after the conquest of 774. For most scholars, a problem has been in how to connect the Slovene and the German names. The origin from the Slavic ''ljub''- "to love, like" was in 2007 supported as the most probable by the linguist

Tijmen Pronk Tijmen Pronk (born 1979) is a Dutch comparative linguist, his research focuses on etymology, historical phonology, morphology and prosody, and dialectology. Pronk studied Slavic languages and literature and Comparative Indo-European linguistic ...

, a specialist in comparative

Indo-European linguistics Indo-European studies is a field of linguistics and an interdisciplinary field of study dealing with Indo-European languages, both current and extinct. The goal of those engaged in these studies is to amass information about the hypothetical pro ...

and Slovene dialectology, from the

University of Leiden Leiden University (abbreviated as ''LEI''; nl, Universiteit Leiden) is a public research university in Leiden, Netherlands. The university was founded as a Protestant university in 1575 by William, Prince of Orange, as a reward to the city of Le ...

. He supported the thesis that the name of the river derived from that of the settlement. Linguist Silvo Torkar, who specialises in Slovene personal and place names, argued that the name ''Ljubljana'' derives from ''Ljubija'', the original name of the

Ljubljanica River The Ljubljanica (), known in the Middle Ages as the ''Sava'', is a river in the southern part of the Ljubljana Basin in Slovenia. The capital of Slovenia, Ljubljana, lies on the river. The Ljubljanica rises south of the town of Vrhnika and flow ...

flowing through it, itself derived from the Old Slavic male name ''Ljubovid'', "the one of a lovely appearance". The name ''Laibach'', he claimed, was actually a hybrid of German and Slovene and derived from the same personal name.

Dragon symbol

The city's symbol is the Ljubljana Dragon. It is depicted on the top of the tower of

Ljubljana Castle Ljubljana Castle ( sl, Ljubljanski grad, german: Laibacher Schloss) is a castle complex standing on Castle Hill above downtown Ljubljana, the capital of Slovenia. It is a key landmark of the town. Originally a medieval fortress, it was probably co ...

in the Ljubljana coat of arms and on the Ljubljanica-crossing Dragon Bridge (). It represents power, courage, and greatness. Several explanations describe the origin of the Ljubljana Dragon. According to a Slavic myth, the slaying of a dragon releases the waters and ensures the fertility of the earth, and it is thought that the myth is tied to the

Ljubljana Marsh The Ljubljana Marsh ( sl, Ljubljansko barje), located south of Ljubljana, the capital of Slovenia, is the largest marsh in the country. It covers or 0.8% of the Slovene territory. It is administered by the Municipalities of Slovenia, municipaliti ...

, the expansive marshy area that periodically threatens Ljubljana with flooding.Exhibition catalogue Emona: myth and reality
; Museum and Galleries of Ljubljana 2010 According to

Greek legend A major branch of classical mythology, Greek mythology is the body of myths originally told by the Ancient Greece, ancient Greeks, and a genre of Ancient Greek folklore. These stories concern the Cosmogony, origin and Cosmology#Metaphysical co ...

, the

Argonauts The Argonauts (; Ancient Greek: ) were a band of heroes in Greek mythology, who in the years before the Trojan War (around 1300 BC) accompanied Jason to Colchis in his quest to find the Golden Fleece. Their name comes from their ship, '' Argo'', ...

on their return home after having taken the

Golden Fleece In Greek mythology, the Golden Fleece ( el, Χρυσόμαλλον δέρας, ''Chrysómallon déras'') is the fleece of the golden-woolled,, ''Khrusómallos''. winged ram, Chrysomallos, that rescued Phrixus and brought him to Colchis, where P ...

found a large lake surrounded by a marsh between the present-day towns of

Vrhnika Vrhnika (; german: Oberlaibach;''Leksikon občin kraljestev in dežel zastopanih v državnem zboru,'' vol. 6: ''Kranjsko''. 1906. Vienna: C. Kr. Dvorna in Državna Tiskarna, p. 120. la, Nauportus) is a town in Slovenia. It is the seat of the Muni ...

and Ljubljana. There

Jason Jason ( ; ) was an ancient Greek mythological hero and leader of the Argonauts, whose quest for the Golden Fleece featured in Greek literature. He was the son of Aeson, the rightful king of Iolcos. He was married to the sorceress Medea. He w ...

struck down a monster. This monster evolved into the

dragon A dragon is a reptilian legendary creature that appears in the folklore of many cultures worldwide. Beliefs about dragons vary considerably through regions, but dragons in western cultures since the High Middle Ages have often been depicted as ...

that today is present in the city coat of arms and flag. It is historically more believable that the dragon was adopted from

Saint George Saint George (Greek: Γεώργιος (Geórgios), Latin: Georgius, Arabic: القديس جرجس; died 23 April 303), also George of Lydda, was a Christian who is venerated as a saint in Christianity. According to tradition he was a soldier ...

, the patron of the Ljubljana Castle chapel built in the 15th century. In the legend of Saint George, the dragon represents the old ancestral

paganism Paganism (from classical Latin ''pāgānus'' "rural", "rustic", later "civilian") is a term first used in the fourth century by early Christianity, early Christians for people in the Roman Empire who practiced polytheism, or ethnic religions ot ...

overcome by

Christianity Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. It is the world's largest and most widespread religion with roughly 2.38 billion followers representing one-third of the global pop ...

. According to another explanation, related to the second, the dragon was at first only a decoration above the city coat of arms. In the

Baroque The Baroque (, ; ) is a style of architecture, music, dance, painting, sculpture, poetry, and other arts that flourished in Europe from the early 17th century until the 1750s. In the territories of the Spanish and Portuguese empires including t ...

, it became part of the coat of arms, and in the 19th and especially the 20th century, it outstripped the tower and other elements in importance.

History

Prehistory

Around 2000 BC, the Ljubljana Marsh was settled by people living in

pile dwellings Stilt houses (also called pile dwellings or lake dwellings) are houses raised on stilts (or piles) over the surface of the soil or a body of water. Stilt houses are built primarily as a protection against flooding; they also keep out vermin. The ...

. Prehistoric pile dwellings and the oldest wooden wheel in the world are among the most notable archeological findings from the marshland. These lake-dwelling people survived through hunting, fishing and primitive agriculture. To get around the marshes, they used

dugout canoes A dugout canoe or simply dugout is a boat made from a hollowed tree. Other names for this type of boat are logboat and monoxylon. ''Monoxylon'' (''μονόξυλον'') (pl: ''monoxyla'') is Greek – ''mono-'' (single) + '' ξύλον xylon'' (t ...

made by cutting out the inside of tree trunks. Their archaeological remains, nowadays in the

Municipality of Ig The Municipality of Ig (; sl, Občina Ig) is a municipality in central Slovenia. Its seat is the settlement of Ig. It was formed in 1995 from parts of the Municipality of Vič–Rudnik, until then one of the five municipalities that formed the ...

, have been designated a

UNESCO World Heritage Site A World Heritage Site is a landmark or area with legal protection by an international convention administered by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). World Heritage Sites are designated by UNESCO for h ...

since June 2011, in the common nomination of six Alpine states. Later, the area remained a transit point, for groups including the

Illyrians The Illyrians ( grc, Ἰλλυριοί, ''Illyrioi''; la, Illyrii) were a group of Indo-European languages, Indo-European-speaking peoples who inhabited the western Balkan Peninsula in ancient times. They constituted one of the three main Paleo ...

, followed by a mixed nation of the

Celts The Celts (, see pronunciation for different usages) or Celtic peoples () are. "CELTS location: Greater Europe time period: Second millennium B.C.E. to present ancestry: Celtic a collection of Indo-European peoples. "The Celts, an ancien ...

and the Illyrians called the

Iapydes The Iapydes (or Iapodes, Japodes; el, Ἰάποδες) were an ancient people who dwelt north of and inland from the Liburnians, off the Adriatic coast and eastwards of the Istrian peninsula. They occupied the interior of the country between the ...

, and then in the 3rd century BC a Celtic tribe, the

Taurisci The Taurisci were a federation of Celtic tribes who dwelt in today's Carinthia and northern Slovenia ( Carniola) before the coming of the Romans (c. 200 BC). According to Pliny the Elder, they are the same as the people known as the Norici. Etym ...

Antiquity

Around 50 BC, the

Romans Roman or Romans most often refers to: *Rome, the capital city of Italy * Ancient Rome, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD *Roman people, the people of ancient Rome *''Epistle to the Romans'', shortened to ''Romans'', a lette ...

built a military encampment that later became a permanent settlement called Iulia Aemona. This entrenched fort was occupied by the ''

Legio XV Apollinaris Legio XV Apollinaris ("Apollo's Fifteenth Legion") was a legion of the Imperial Roman army. It was recruited by Octavian in 41/40 BC. The emblem of this legion was probably a picture of Apollo, or of one of his holy animals. XV ''Apollinaris ...

''. Hildegard Temporini and Wolfgang Haase, ''Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt''. de Gruyter, 1988.
Google Books, p.343
In 452, it was destroyed by the

Huns The Huns were a nomadic people who lived in Central Asia, the Caucasus, and Eastern Europe between the 4th and 6th century AD. According to European tradition, they were first reported living east of the Volga River, in an area that was part ...

under

Attila Attila (, ; ), frequently called Attila the Hun, was the ruler of the Huns The Huns were a nomadic people who lived in Central Asia, the Caucasus, and Eastern Europe between the 4th and 6th century AD. According to European traditio ...

's orders, and later by the

Ostrogoths The Ostrogoths ( la, Ostrogothi, Austrogothi) were a Roman-era Germanic peoples, Germanic people. In the 5th century, they followed the Visigoths in creating one of the two great Goths, Gothic kingdoms within the Roman Empire, based upon the larg ...

and the

Lombards The Lombards () or Langobards ( la, Langobardi) were a Germanic people who ruled most of the Italian Peninsula from 568 to 774. The medieval Lombard historian Paul the Deacon wrote in the ''History of the Lombards'' (written between 787 and ...

.Daniel Mallinus, ''La Yougoslavie'', Éd. Artis-Historia, Brussels, 1988, D/1988/0832/27, p. 37-39. Emona housed 5,000 to 6,000 inhabitants and played an important role during battles. Its plastered brick houses, painted in different colours, were connected to a drainage system. In the 6th century, the ancestors of the

Slovenes The Slovenes, also known as Slovenians ( sl, Slovenci ), are a South Slavic ethnic group native to Slovenia, and adjacent regions in Italy, Austria and Hungary. Slovenes share a common ancestry, culture, history and speak Slovene as their n ...

moved in. In the 9th century, they fell under

Frankish Frankish may refer to: * Franks, a Germanic tribe and their culture ** Frankish language or its modern descendants, Franconian languages * Francia, a post-Roman state in France and Germany * East Francia, the successor state to Francia in Germany ...

domination, while experiencing frequent Magyar raids. Not much is known about the area during the settlement of

Slavs Slavs are the largest European ethnolinguistic group. They speak the various Slavic languages, belonging to the larger Balto-Slavic branch of the Indo-European languages. Slavs are geographically distributed throughout northern Eurasia, main ...

in the period between the downfall of Emona and the Early Middle Ages.

Middle Ages

The parchment sheet ''Nomina defunctorum'' ("Names of the Dead"), most probably written in the second half of 1161, mentions the nobleman Rudolf of Tarcento, a lawyer of the

Patriarchate of Aquileia The Patriarchate of Aquileia was an episcopal see in northeastern Italy, centred on the ancient city of Aquileia situated at the head of the Adriatic, on what is now the Italian seacoast. For many centuries it played an important part in histor ...

, who had bestowed a canon with 20 farmsteads beside the castle of Ljubljana (''castrum Leibach'') to the Patriarchate. According to the historian Peter Štih's deduction, this happened between 1112 and 1125, the earliest mention of Ljubljana. The property changed hands repeatedly until the first half of the 12th century. The territory south of the

Sava The Sava (; , ; sr-cyr, Сава, hu, Száva) is a river in Central and Southeast Europe, a right-bank and the longest tributary of the Danube. It flows through Slovenia, Croatia and along its border with Bosnia and Herzegovina, and finally th ...

where Ljubljana developed, gradually became property of the Carinthian Dukes of the

House of Sponheim The House of Sponheim or Spanheim was a medieval German noble family, which originated in Rhenish Franconia. They were immediate Counts of Sponheim until 1437 and Dukes of Carinthia from 1122 until 1269. Its cadet branches ruled in the Imperial C ...

. Urban settlement started in the second half of the 12th century. At around 1200,

market rights A market town is a settlement most common in Europe that obtained by custom or royal charter, in the Middle Ages, a market right, which allowed it to host a regular market; this distinguished it from a village or city. In Britain, small rural ...

were granted to Old Square (), which at the time was one of Ljubljana's three original districts. The other two districts were an area called "Town" (), built around the predecessor of the present-day

Ljubljana Cathedral Ljubljana Cathedral ( sl, ljubljanska stolnica), officially named Saint Nicholas's Church (, unofficially also ), also named Saint Nicholas's Cathedral ( sl, stolnica sv. Nikolaja), the Cathedral of Saint Nicholas, or simply the Cathedral (), is a ...

at one side of the

Ljubljanica The Ljubljanica (), known in the Middle Ages as the ''Sava'', is a river in the southern part of the Ljubljana Basin in Slovenia. The capital of Slovenia, Ljubljana, lies on the river. The Ljubljanica rises south of the town of Vrhnika and flows ...

River, and New Square () at the other side. The Franciscan Bridge, a predecessor of the present-day

Triple Bridge The Triple Bridge ( sl, Tromostovje, in older sources also ''Tromostje'') is a group of three bridges across the Ljubljanica River. It connects Ljubljana's historical medieval town on one bank and the modern city of Ljubljana, the capital of Slov ...

, and the

Butchers' Bridge The Butchers' Bridge ( sl, Mesarski most) is a footbridge crossing the river Ljubljanica in Ljubljana, the capital of Slovenia. It connects the Ljubljana Central Market and the Petkovšek Embankment (). The bridge was solemnly opened on 10 July ...

connected the walled areas with wooden buildings. Ljubljana acquired the

town privileges Town privileges or borough rights were important features of European towns during most of the second millennium. The city law customary in Central Europe probably dates back to Italian models, which in turn were oriented towards the tradition ...

at some time between 1220 and 1243. Seven fires erupted during the Middle Ages. Artisans organised themselves into

guilds A guild ( ) is an association of artisans and merchants who oversee the practice of their craft/trade in a particular area. The earliest types of guild formed as organizations of tradesmen belonging to a professional association. They sometimes ...

. The

Teutonic Knights The Order of Brothers of the German House of Saint Mary in Jerusalem, commonly known as the Teutonic Order, is a Catholic religious institution founded as a military society in Acre, Kingdom of Jerusalem. It was formed to aid Christians on ...

, the

Conventual Franciscans The Order of Friars Minor Conventual (OFM Conv) is a male religious fraternity in the Roman Catholic Church that is a branch of the Franciscans. The friars in OFM CONV are also known as Conventual Franciscans, or Minorites. Dating back to ...

, and the

Franciscans , image = FrancescoCoA PioM.svg , image_size = 200px , caption = A cross, Christ's arm and Saint Francis's arm, a universal symbol of the Franciscans , abbreviation = OFM , predecessor = , ...

settled there. In 1256, when the Carinthian duke Ulrich III of Spanheim became lord of Carniola, the provincial capital was moved from

Kamnik Kamnik (; german: Stein''Leksikon občin kraljestev in dežel zastopanih v državnem zboru,'' vol. 6: ''Kranjsko''. 1906. Vienna: C. Kr. Dvorna in Državna Tiskarna, pp. 26–27. or ''Stein in Oberkrain'') is a town in northern Slovenia. It is t ...

to Ljubljana. In the late 1270s, Ljubljana was conquered by King

Ottokar II of Bohemia Ottokar II ( cs, Přemysl Otakar II.; , in Městec Králové, Bohemia – 26 August 1278, in Dürnkrut, Lower Austria), the Iron and Golden King, was a member of the Přemyslid dynasty who reigned as King of Bohemia from 1253 until his deat ...

. (includes timeline) In 1278, after Ottokar's defeat, it became—together with the rest of

—property of

Rudolph of Habsburg Rudolf I (1 May 1218 – 15 July 1291) was the first King of Germany from the House of Habsburg. The first of the count-kings of Germany, he reigned from 1273 until his death. Rudolf's election marked the end of the Great Interregnum which h ...

. It was administered by the

Counts of Gorizia The County of Gorizia ( it, Contea di Gorizia, german: Grafschaft Görz, sl, Goriška grofija, fur, Contee di Gurize), from 1365 Princely County of Gorizia, was a State of the Holy Roman Empire. Originally mediate ''Vogts'' of the Patriarchs of ...

from 1279 until 1335, when it became the capital town of Carniola. Renamed ''Laibach'', it was owned by the

House of Habsburg The House of Habsburg (), alternatively spelled Hapsburg in Englishgerman: Haus Habsburg, ; es, Casa de Habsburgo; hu, Habsburg család, it, Casa di Asburgo, nl, Huis van Habsburg, pl, dom Habsburgów, pt, Casa de Habsburgo, la, Domus Hab ...

until 1797. In 1327, the Ljubljana's " Jewish Quarter"—now only "Jewish Street" () remains—was established with a synagogue, and lasted until Emperor Maximilian I in 1515 succumbed to

medieval antisemitism Antisemitism in the history of the Jews in the Middle Ages became increasingly prevalent in the Late Middle Ages. Johannes, Fried (2015) p. 287-289 The Middle Ages. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. Early instances of pogroms aga ...

and expelled Jews from Ljubljana, for which he demanded a certain payment from the town. In 1382, in front of St. Bartholomew's Church in Šiška, at the time a nearby village, now part of Ljubljana, a peace treaty was signed between the

Republic of Venice The Republic of Venice ( vec, Repùblega de Venèsia) or Venetian Republic ( vec, Repùblega Vèneta, links=no), traditionally known as La Serenissima ( en, Most Serene Republic of Venice, italics=yes; vec, Serenìsima Repùblega de Venèsia, ...

and Leopold III of

Early modern

In the 15th century, Ljubljana became recognised for its art, particularly painting and sculpture. The Roman Rite Catholic

Diocese of Ljubljana The Roman Catholic Metropolitan Archdiocese of Ljubljana ( sl, Nadškofija Ljubljana, la, Archidioecesis Labacensis) is an ecclesiastical territory or diocese of the Roman Catholic Church in Slovenia.Church of St. Nicholas became the diocesan cathedral. After the

1511 Idrija earthquake The 1511 Idrija earthquake ( sl, Idrijski potres) occurred on March 26 with a maximum Mercalli intensity of X (''Extreme''). The epicenter was around the town of Idrija in present-day Slovenia, although some place it some 15-20 kilometers to the ...

, the city was rebuilt in the

Renaissance The Renaissance ( , ) , from , with the same meanings. is a period in European history marking the transition from the Middle Ages to modernity and covering the 15th and 16th centuries, characterized by an effort to revive and surpass ideas ...

style and a new wall was built around it. Wooden buildings were forbidden after a large fire at New Square in 1524. In the 16th century, the population of Ljubljana numbered 5,000, 70% of whom spoke Slovene as their

first language A first language, native tongue, native language, mother tongue or L1 is the first language or dialect that a person has been exposed to from birth or within the critical period. In some countries, the term ''native language'' or ''mother tongu ...

, with most of the rest using German. The first

secondary school A secondary school describes an institution that provides secondary education and also usually includes the building where this takes place. Some secondary schools provide both '' secondary education, lower secondary education'' (ages 11 to 14) ...

, public library and printing house opened in Ljubljana. Ljubljana became an important educational centre. From 1529, Ljubljana had an active Slovene Protestant community. They were expelled in 1598, marking the beginning of the

Counter-Reformation The Counter-Reformation (), also called the Catholic Reformation () or the Catholic Revival, was the period of Catholic resurgence that was initiated in response to the Protestant Reformation. It began with the Council of Trent (1545–1563) a ...

. Catholic Bishop

Thomas Chrön Thomas Chrön ( sl, Tomaž Hren; November 13, 1560 – February 10, 1630) was a Carniolan Roman Catholic priest, bishop of Ljubljana, and patron of the arts.Rajhman, Jože, & Emilijan Cevc. 1990. Tomaž Hren. ''Enciklopedija Slovenije'', vo ...

ordered the public burning of eight cartloads of Protestant books.Rajhman, Jože, & Emilijan Cevc. 1990. Tomaž Hren. ''Enciklopedija Slovenije'', vol. 4, pp. 50–51. Ljubljana: Mladinska knjiga. In 1597, the

Jesuits The Society of Jesus ( la, Societas Iesu; abbreviation: SJ), also known as the Jesuits (; la, Iesuitæ), is a religious order (Catholic), religious order of clerics regular of pontifical right for men in the Catholic Church headquartered in Rom ...

arrived, followed in 1606 by the

Capuchins Capuchin can refer to: *Order of Friars Minor Capuchin, an order of Roman Catholic friars *Capuchin Poor Clares, an order of Roman Catholic contemplative religious sisters *Capuchin monkey, primates of the genus ''Cebus'' and ''Sapajus'', named af ...

, seeking to eradicate Protestantism. Only 5% of all the residents of Ljubljana at the time were Catholic, but eventually they re-Catholicized the town. The Jesuits staged the first theatre productions, fostered the development of

Baroque music Baroque music ( or ) refers to the period or dominant style of Western classical music composed from about 1600 to 1750. The Baroque style followed the Renaissance period, and was followed in turn by the Classical period after a short transiti ...

, and established Catholic schools. In the middle and the second half of the 17th century, foreign architects built and renovated monasteries, churches, and palaces and introduced

Baroque architecture Baroque architecture is a highly decorative and theatrical style which appeared in Italy in the early 17th century and gradually spread across Europe. It was originally introduced by the Catholic Church, particularly by the Jesuits, as a means t ...

. In 1702, the

Ursulines The Ursulines, also known as the Order of Saint Ursula (post-nominals: OSU), is an enclosed religious order of consecrated women that branched off from the Angelines, also known as the Company of Saint Ursula, in 1572. Like the Angelines, they t ...

settled in the town, and the following year they opened the first public school for girls in the

Slovene Lands The Slovene lands or Slovenian lands ( sl, Slovenske dežele or in short ) is the historical denomination for the territories in Central and Southern Europe where people primarily spoke Slovene. The Slovene lands were part of the Illyrian provinc ...

. Some years later, the construction of the

Ursuline Church of the Holy Trinity Ursuline Church of the Holy Trinity ( sl, Uršulinska cerkev svete Trojice), officially Holy Trinity Parish Church in Ljubljana (), also Nun Church (), is a parish church in Ljubljana, the capital of Slovenia. It is located at Slovene Street (), a ...

started. In 1779,

St. Christopher's Cemetery Navje Memorial Park ( sl, Spominski park Navje), the redesigned part of the former St. Christopher's Cemetery (), is a memorial park in Ljubljana, the capital of Slovenia. It is located in the Bežigrad district, just behind the Ljubljana railwa ...

replaced the cemetery at St. Peter's Church as Ljubljana's main cemetery.

Late modern

From 1809 to 1813, during the "

Napoleonic Napoleon Bonaparte ; it, Napoleone Bonaparte, ; co, Napulione Buonaparte. (born Napoleone Buonaparte; 15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821), later known by his regnal name Napoleon I, was a French military commander and political leader who ...

interlude", Ljubljana (as ''Laybach'') was the capital of the

Illyrian Provinces The Illyrian Provinces sl, Ilirske province hr, Ilirske provincije sr, Илирске провинције it, Province illirichegerman: Illyrische Provinzen, group=note were an Autonomous administrative division, autonomous province of France d ...

. In 1813, the city returned to Austria and from 1815 to 1849 was the administrative centre of the

Kingdom of Illyria The Kingdom of Illyria was a crown land of the Austrian Empire from 1816 to 1849, the successor state of the Napoleonic Illyrian Provinces, which were reconquered by Austria in the War of the Sixth Coalition. It was established according to th ...

in the Austrian Empire. In 1821, it hosted the

Congress of Laibach The Congress of Laibach was a conference of the allied sovereigns or their representatives, held in 1821 as part of the Congress System (the forerunner of the Concert of Europe) which was the decided attempt of the five Great Powers to settle inte ...

, which fixed European political borders for that period. The first train arrived in 1849 from Vienna and in 1857 the line extended to

Trieste Trieste ( , ; sl, Trst ; german: Triest ) is a city and seaport in northeastern Italy. It is the capital city, and largest city, of the autonomous region of Friuli Venezia Giulia, one of two autonomous regions which are not subdivided into provi ...

. In 1895 Ljubljana, then a city of 31,000, suffered a serious earthquake measuring 6.1 Richter and 8–9 degrees MCS. Some 10% of its 1,400 buildings were destroyed, although casualties were light. During the subsequent reconstruction, some districts were rebuilt in the

Vienna Secession The Vienna Secession (german: Wiener Secession; also known as ''the Union of Austrian Artists'', or ''Vereinigung Bildender Künstler Österreichs'') is an art movement, closely related to Art Nouveau, that was formed in 1897 by a group of Austri ...

style. Public

electric lighting An electric light, lamp, or light bulb is an electrical component that produces light. It is the most common form of artificial lighting. Lamps usually have a base made of ceramic, metal, glass, or plastic, which secures the lamp in the soc ...

arrived in 1898. The rebuilding period between 1896 and 1910 is referred to as the "revival of Ljubljana" because of architectural changes that defined the city and for reform of urban administration, health, education and tourism. The rebuilding and quick modernisation of the city were led by the mayor

Ivan Hribar Ivan Hribar (19 September 1851 – 18 April 1941) was a Slovene and Yugoslav banker, politician, diplomat and journalist. During the start of the 20th century, he was one of the leaders of the National Progressive Party, and one of the most ...

. In 1918, following the dissolution of

Austria-Hungary Austria-Hungary, often referred to as the Austro-Hungarian Empire,, the Dual Monarchy, or Austria, was a constitutional monarchy and great power in Central Europe between 1867 and 1918. It was formed with the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of ...

, the region joined the

Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes Kingdom commonly refers to: * A monarchy ruled by a king or queen * Kingdom (biology), a category in biological taxonomy Kingdom may also refer to: Arts and media Television * ''Kingdom'' (British TV series), a 2007 British television drama s ...

. In 1929, Ljubljana became the capital of the

Drava Banovina The Drava Banovina or Drava Banate ( Slovene and Serbo-Croatian: ''Dravska banovina''), was a province ( banovina) of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia between 1929 and 1941. This province consisted of most of present-day Slovenia and was named for the Dra ...

, a Yugoslav province. In 1941, during

, Fascist Italy occupied the city, and then on 3 May 1941 made ''Lubiana'' the capital of Italy's

Province of Ljubljana The Province of Ljubljana ( it, Provincia di Lubiana, sl, Ljubljanska pokrajina, german: Provinz Laibach) was the central-southern area of Slovenia. In 1941, it was annexed by Fascist Italy, and after 1943 occupied by Nazi Germany. Created on May ...

with former Yugoslav general

Leon Rupnik Leon Rupnik, also known as Lav Rupnik or Lev Rupnik (August 10, 1880 – September 4, 1946) was a Slovene general in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia who collaborated with the Fascist Italian and Nazi German occupation forces during World War II. Rup ...

as mayor. After the Italian capitulation,

Nazi Germany Nazi Germany (lit. "National Socialist State"), ' (lit. "Nazi State") for short; also ' (lit. "National Socialist Germany") (officially known as the German Reich from 1933 until 1943, and the Greater German Reich from 1943 to 1945) was ...

with SS-general

Erwin Rösener Erwin Friedrich Karl Rösener (2 February 1902 – 4 September 1946) was a German ''Schutzstaffel'' (SS) commander during the Nazi era. During World War II, he was responsible for mass executions of civilians in Slovenia. Rösener was put on trial ...

and

Friedrich Rainer Friedrich W. Rainer (28 July 1903 – November 1950)Miller, Michael & Andreas Schulz, (2017). ''Gauleiter: The Regional Leaders of the Nazi Party and Their Deputies, 1925-1945'', Volume II (Georg Joel - Dr. Bernhard Rust). R. James B ...

took control in 1943, but formally the city remained the capital of an Italian province until 9 May 1945. In Ljubljana, the Axis forces established strongholds and command centres of

Quisling ''Quisling'' (, ) is a term used in Scandinavian languages and in English meaning a citizen or politician of an occupied country who collaborates with an enemy occupying force – or more generally as a synonym for ''traitor''. The word ori ...

organisations, the

Anti-Communist Volunteer Militia The Anti-Communist Volunteer Militia ( it, Milizia Volontaria Anti Comunista, MVAC; sl, prostovoljna protikomunistična milica, also or , pejorative, meaning 'white guard'; sh, script=cyrl, italic=no, Добровољачка антикомун� ...

under Italy and the

Home Guard Home guard is a title given to various military organizations at various times, with the implication of an emergency or reserve force raised for local defense. The term "home guard" was first officially used in the American Civil War, starting wi ...

under German control. Starting in February 1942, the city was surrounded by barbed wire, later fortified by

bunkers A bunker is a defensive military fortification designed to protect people and valued materials from falling bombs, artillery, or other attacks. Bunkers are almost always underground, in contrast to blockhouses which are mostly above ground. T ...

, to prevent co-operation between the

resistance movements A resistance movement is an organized effort by some portion of the civil population of a country to withstand the legally established government or an occupying power and to disrupt civil order and stability. It may seek to achieve its objectives ...

that operated inside and outside the fence. Since 1985, the commemorative trail has ringed the city where this iron fence once stood. Postwar reprisals filled

mass graves A mass grave is a grave containing multiple human corpses, which may or may not be identified prior to burial. The United Nations has defined a criminal mass grave as a burial site containing three or more victims of execution, although an exact ...

.Booker, Christopher. 1997. ''A Looking-Glass Tragedy. The Controversy over the Repatriations From Austria In 1945.'' London: Gerald Duckworth & Co Ltd., p. 214.Ferenc, Tone. 1999. "Šentvid." ''Enciklopedija Slovenije'', vol. 13 (Š–T). Ljubljana: Mladinska knjiga, p. 28. After World War II, Ljubljana became the capital of the

, part of the

. It retained this status until Slovene independence in 1991.

Contemporary situation

Ljubljana is the capital of independent

, which joined the

European Union The European Union (EU) is a supranational political and economic union of member states that are located primarily in Europe. The union has a total area of and an estimated total population of about 447million. The EU has often been des ...

in 2004.

Geography

The city covers . It is situated in the

Ljubljana Basin The Ljubljana Basin ( sl, Ljubljanska kotlina) is a basin in the upper river basin of Sava. It is the most populated area in Slovenia and it is metropolitan area of Ljubljana. Its main rivers are the Sava, the Kamnik Bistrica and the Ljubljanica ...

in Central Slovenia, between the

Alps The Alps () ; german: Alpen ; it, Alpi ; rm, Alps ; sl, Alpe . are the highest and most extensive mountain range system that lies entirely in Europe, stretching approximately across seven Alpine countries (from west to east): France, Sw ...

and the

Karst Karst is a topography formed from the dissolution of soluble rocks such as limestone, dolomite, and gypsum. It is characterized by underground drainage systems with sinkholes and caves. It has also been documented for more weathering-resistant ro ...

. Ljubljana is located some south of

Munich Munich ( ; german: München ; bar, Minga ) is the capital and most populous city of the States of Germany, German state of Bavaria. With a population of 1,558,395 inhabitants as of 31 July 2020, it is the List of cities in Germany by popu ...

, east of

Zürich Zürich () is the list of cities in Switzerland, largest city in Switzerland and the capital of the canton of Zürich. It is located in north-central Switzerland, at the northwestern tip of Lake Zürich. As of January 2020, the municipality has 43 ...

, east of Venice, southwest of

Vienna en, Viennese , iso_code = AT-9 , registration_plate = W , postal_code_type = Postal code , postal_code = , timezone = CET , utc_offset = +1 , timezone_DST ...

, west of

Zagreb Zagreb ( , , , ) is the capital (political), capital and List of cities and towns in Croatia#List of cities and towns, largest city of Croatia. It is in the Northern Croatia, northwest of the country, along the Sava river, at the southern slop ...

and southwest of

Budapest Budapest (, ; ) is the capital and most populous city of Hungary. It is the ninth-largest city in the European Union by population within city limits and the second-largest city on the Danube river; the city has an estimated population ...

. Ljubljana has grown considerably in the past 40 years, mainly by merging with nearby settlements.

Geology

The city stretches out on an

alluvial Alluvium (from Latin ''alluvius'', from ''alluere'' 'to wash against') is loose clay, silt, sand, or gravel that has been deposited by running water in a stream bed, on a floodplain, in an alluvial fan or beach, or in similar settings. Alluv ...

plain dating to the

Quaternary The Quaternary ( ) is the current and most recent of the three periods of the Cenozoic Era in the geologic time scale of the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS). It follows the Neogene Period and spans from 2.58 million years ...

era An era is a span of time defined for the purposes of chronology or historiography, as in the regnal eras in the history of a given monarchy, a calendar era used for a given calendar, or the geological eras defined for the history of Earth. Comp ...

. The mountainous regions nearby are older, dating from the

Mesozoic The Mesozoic Era ( ), also called the Age of Reptiles, the Age of Conifers, and colloquially as the Age of the Dinosaurs is the second-to-last era of Earth's geological history, lasting from about , comprising the Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceo ...

(

Triassic The Triassic ( ) is a geologic period and system which spans 50.6 million years from the end of the Permian Period 251.902 million years ago ( Mya), to the beginning of the Jurassic Period 201.36 Mya. The Triassic is the first and shortest period ...

) or

Paleozoic The Paleozoic (or Palaeozoic) Era is the earliest of three geologic eras of the Phanerozoic Eon. The name ''Paleozoic'' ( ;) was coined by the British geologist Adam Sedgwick in 1838 by combining the Greek words ''palaiós'' (, "old") and ' ...

. Earthquakes have repeatedly devastated Ljubljana, notably in

1511 Year 1511 ( MDXI) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. Events January–June * March 26 - The 1511 Idrija earthquake occurs, with a maximum Mercalli intensity of X (''E ...

and

1895 Events January–March * January 5 – Dreyfus affair: French officer Alfred Dreyfus is stripped of his army rank, and sentenced to life imprisonment on Devil's Island. * January 12 – The National Trust for Places of Histor ...

Topography

Ljubljana has an elevation of . The

city centre A city centre is the commercial, cultural and often the historical, political, and geographic heart of a city. The term "city centre" is primarily used in British English, and closely equivalent terms exist in other languages, such as "" in Fren ...

, located along the river, sits at .

, which sits atop Castle Hill () south of the city centre, has an elevation of . The highest point of the city, called Grmada, reaches , more than the nearby

Mount Saint Mary Mount Saint Mary ( sl, Šmarna gora, german: Großkahlenberg''Leksikon občin kraljestev in dežel zastopanih v državnem zboru,'' vol. 6: ''Kranjsko''. 1906. Vienna: C. Kr. Dvorna in Državna Tiskarna, p. 115.), originally known as Holm, is an ins ...

() peak, a popular hiking destination. These are located in the northern part of the city.

Bodies of water

The main watercourses in Ljubljana are the

, the

Gradaščica The Gradaščica is a river in Slovenia. The river is long. It begins in Polhov Gradec at the confluence of Little Creek ( sl, Mala Voda) and Big Božna Creek. Near Vrhovci it is joined by Horjulščica Creek (also known as Horjulka Creek). Not f ...

, the

Mali Graben The Mali Graben ( sl, Mali graben) is a creek and a natural branch of the Gradaščica River in southwest Ljubljana. It flows south of and parallel to the Gradaščica and is the largest affluent of the river Ljubljanica. It is also known as ''Str� ...

, the

Iška The Iška () is a river of central Slovenia. Part of the river valley—the Iška Gorge or Iška Canyon ( sl, Iški vintgar)—separates Lower Carniola from Inner Carniola. The river is long. After flowing past Strahomer, the river follows an almo ...

and the Iščica rivers. From the

Trnovo District The Trnovo District ( sl, Četrtna skupnost Trnovo), or simply Trnovo, is a district () of the City Municipality of Ljubljana, the capital of Slovenia Slovenia ( ; sl, Slovenija ), officially the Republic of Slovenia (Slovene: , abbr.: '' ...

to the

Moste District The Moste District (; sl, Četrtna skupnost Moste), or simply Moste, is a district () of the City Municipality of Ljubljana. It encompasses the east-central part of Ljubljana, the capital of Slovenia. It is named after the former village of Most ...

, around Castle Hill, the Ljubljanica partly flows through the

Gruber Canal __NOTOC__ Gruber is a German surname from Austria and Bavaria, referring to a person from a geological depression, mine, or pit. It is the most common surname in Austria (see List of most common surnames). Places * Gruber Mountains, Antarctica * ...

, built according to plans by

Gabriel Gruber Gabriel Gruber, Society of Jesus, S.J. (May 6, 1740 – April 7, 1805) was the second Superior General of the Society of Jesus#Notes, Superior General of the Society of Jesus in Russia. Early years and education Gabriel Gruber, born in Vienna, b ...

from 1772 until 1780. Next to the eastern border, the rivers Ljubljanica, Sava, and

Kamnik Bistrica The Kamnik Bistrica ( sl, Kamniška Bistrica, ) is an Alpine river in northern Slovenia, a left tributary of the Sava River. It springs from the Kamnik Alps (part of the Southern Limestone Alps) near the border with Austria. It is long. The Kamnik ...

flow together. The confluence is the lowest point of Ljubljana, with an elevation of . Through its history, Ljubljana has been struck by floods.

The latest ''The Latest'' is the sixteenth studio album by the American hard rock and power pop band Cheap Trick, released on June 23, 2009. The album was produced by Cheap Trick, Julian Raymond, and Howard Willing and was issued on CD, as well as limited ...

was in 2010. Southern and western parts of the city are more flood-endangered than northern parts. The Gruber Canal has partly diminished the danger of floods in the

, the largest marsh in Slovenia, south of the city. The two major ponds in Ljubljana are

Koseze Pond Koseze Pond ( sl, Koseški bajer), Martinek Pond () or Lake Koseze () is an artificial pond at the edge of Ljubljana, the capital of Slovenia, between Šiška Hill to the west and the neighborhood of Mostec to the east. It is part of the Tivo ...

in the Šiška District and

Tivoli Pond Tivoli Pond ( sl, Tivolski ribnik, less often or simply or ''Ribnjak'' ('pond')) is a man-made pond at the southeastern end of Tivoli City Park in Ljubljana, the capital of Slovenia. It was created in 1880. It is part of Tivoli–Rožnik Hill– ...

in the southern part of

Tivoli City Park Tivoli City Park ( sl, Mestni park Tivoli) or simply Tivoli Park () is the largest park in Ljubljana, the capital of Slovenia. It is located on the western outskirts of the Center District, stretching to the Šiška District to the north, the Vi� ...

. Koseze Pond has rare plant and animal species and is a place of meeting and recreation. Tivoli Pond is a shallow pond with a small volume that was originally used for boating and ice skating, but is now used for fishing.

Climate

Ljubljana's climate is

oceanic Oceanic may refer to: *Of or relating to the ocean *Of or relating to Oceania **Oceanic climate **Oceanic languages **Oceanic person or people, also called "Pacific Islander(s)" Places * Oceanic, British Columbia, a settlement on Smith Island, ...

(

Köppen climate classification The Köppen climate classification is one of the most widely used climate classification systems. It was first published by German-Russian climatologist Wladimir Köppen (1846–1940) in 1884, with several later modifications by Köppen, notabl ...

: Cfb), bordering on a

humid subtropical climate A humid subtropical climate is a zone of climate characterized by hot and humid summers, and cool to mild winters. These climates normally lie on the southeast side of all continents (except Antarctica), generally between latitudes 25° and 40° ...

(

: Cfa), with

continental Continental may refer to: Places * Continent, the major landmasses of Earth * Continental, Arizona, a small community in Pima County, Arizona, US * Continental, Ohio, a small town in Putnam County, US Arts and entertainment * ''Continental'' (al ...

characteristics such as warm summers and moderately cold winters. July and August are the warmest months with daily high temperatures generally between , and January is the coldest month with temperatures mostly around . The city experiences 90 days of frost per year, and 11 days with temperatures above . Precipitation is relatively evenly distributed throughout the seasons, although winter and spring tend to be somewhat drier than summer and autumn. Yearly precipitation is about , making Ljubljana one of the wettest European capitals. Thunderstorms are common from May to September and can occasionally be heavy. Snow is common from December to February; on average, snow cover is recorded for 48 days a year. The city is known for its fog, appearing on average on 64 days per year, mostly in autumn and winter, and can be particularly persistent in conditions of

temperature inversion In meteorology, an inversion is a deviation from the normal change of an atmospheric property with altitude. It almost always refers to an inversion of the air temperature lapse rate, in which case it is called a temperature inversion. No ...

Cityscape

The city's architecture is a mix of styles. Large buildings have appeared around the city's edges, while Ljubljana's historic centre remains intact. Some of the oldest architecture dates to the Roman period, while Ljubljana's downtown got its outline in the Middle Ages. After the 1511 earthquake, it was rebuilt in the

Baroque style The Baroque (, ; ) is a style of architecture, music, dance, painting, sculpture, poetry, and other arts that flourished in Europe from the early 17th century until the 1750s. In the territories of the Spanish and Portuguese empires including t ...

following Italian, particularly Venetian, models. After the earthquake in 1895, it was again rebuilt, this time in the

style, which is juxtaposed against the earlier Baroque style buildings that remain. Large sectors built in the inter-war period often include a personal touch by the architects

Jože Plečnik Jože Plečnik () (23 January 1872 – 7 January 1957) was a Slovene architect who had a major impact on the modern architecture of Vienna, Prague and of Ljubljana, the capital of Slovenia, most notably by designing the iconic Triple Bridge and ...

and

Ivan Vurnik Ivan () is a Slavic male given name, connected with the variant of the Greek name (English: John) from Hebrew meaning 'God is gracious'. It is associated worldwide with Slavic countries. The earliest person known to bear the name was Bulgari ...

. In the second half of the 20th century, parts of Ljubljana were redesigned by

Edvard Ravnikar Edvard Ravnikar (4 December 1907 – 23 August 1993) was a Slovenian architect. Ravnikar was born in Novo Mesto and was a student of architect Jože Plečnik. Later, he led the new generation of Slovene architects, notable for developing t ...

Central

The central square in Ljubljana is

Prešeren Square Prešeren Square ( sl, Prešernov trg) is the central square in Ljubljana, the capital of Slovenia. It is part of the old town's pedestrian zone and a major meeting point where festivals (like the annual Ljubljana Dragon Carnival), concerts, sports ...

() home to the

Franciscan Church of the Annunciation The Franciscan Church of the Annunciation ( sl, Frančiškanska cerkev Marijinega oznanjenja or commonly ''Frančiškanska cerkev'') is a Franciscan church located on Prešeren Square in Ljubljana, the capital of Slovenia. It is the parish church ...

() . Built between 1646 and 1660 (the belltowers followed), it replaced an older Gothic church. It offers an early-Baroque basilica with one nave and two rows of lateral chapels. The Baroque main altar was executed by sculptor Italian

Francesco Robba Francesco Robba (1 May 1698 – 24 January 1757) was an Italian sculptor of the Baroque period. Even though he is regarded as the leading Baroque sculptor of marble statuary in southeastern Central Europe, he has remained practically unknown to ...

. Much of the original frescos were ruined by ceiling cracks caused by the Ljubljana earthquake in 1895. The new frescos were painted by the Slovene

impressionist Impressionism was a 19th-century art movement characterized by relatively small, thin, yet visible brush strokes, open composition, emphasis on accurate depiction of light in its changing qualities (often accentuating the effects of the passage ...

painter

Matej Sternen Matej Sternen (20 September 1870 – 28 June 1949) was a leading Slovene Impressionist painter. Sternen was born in Verd, now part of the Carniolan municipality of Vrhnika, then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and baptized ''Matthæus Str ...

(''Ljubljanski grad'') is a medieval castle with Romanesque,

Gothic Gothic or Gothics may refer to: People and languages *Goths or Gothic people, the ethnonym of a group of East Germanic tribes **Gothic language, an extinct East Germanic language spoken by the Goths **Crimean Gothic, the Gothic language spoken b ...

, and

architectural elements, located on the summit of Castle Hill, which dominates the city centre. The area surrounding the castle has been continuously inhabited since 1200 BC. The castle was built in the 12th century and was a residence of the

Margraves Margrave was originally the medieval title for the military commander assigned to maintain the defence of one of the border provinces of the Holy Roman Empire or of a kingdom. That position became hereditary in certain feudal families in the Em ...

, later the Dukes of Carniola. Its Viewing Tower dates to 1848; it was manned by a guard whose duty it was to fire cannons announcing fire or important visitors or events, a function the castle still holds. Cultural events and weddings also take place there. In 2006, a

funicular A funicular (, , ) is a type of cable railway system that connects points along a railway track laid on a steep slope. The system is characterized by two counterbalanced carriages (also called cars or trains) permanently attached to opposite en ...

linked the city centre to the castle. StNicholas-Ljubljana

Town Hall In local government, a city hall, town hall, civic centre (in the UK or Australia), guildhall, or a municipal building (in the Philippines), is the chief administrative building of a city, town, or other municipality. It usually houses ...

(, ), located at

Town Square A town square (or square, plaza, public square, city square, urban square, or ''piazza'') is an open public space, commonly found in the heart of a traditional town but not necessarily a true square, geometric square, used for community gathe ...

, is the seat of

city government Local government is a generic term for the lowest tiers of public administration within a particular sovereign state. This particular usage of the word government refers specifically to a level of administration that is both geographically-loca ...

. The original, Gothic building was completed in 1484. Between 1717 and 1719, the building underwent a Baroque renovation with a Venetian inspiration by architect Gregor Maček Sr. Near Town Hall, at

, stands a replica of the Baroque Robba Fountain. The original was moved into the

National Gallery The National Gallery is an art museum in Trafalgar Square in the City of Westminster, in Central London, England. Founded in 1824, it houses a collection of over 2,300 paintings dating from the mid-13th century to 1900. The current Director o ...

in 2006. The fountain is decorated with an obelisk; at the foot are three figures in white marble symbolising the three chief rivers of Carniola. It is work of Francesco Robba, who designed other Baroque statues there.

(), or St. Nicholas's Cathedral (), serves the

Archdiocese of Ljubljana The Roman Catholic Metropolitan Archdiocese of Ljubljana ( sl, Nadškofija Ljubljana, la, Archidioecesis Labacensis) is an ecclesiastical territory or diocese of the Roman Catholic Church in Slovenia.Saints Cyril and Methodius Cyril (born Constantine, 826–869) and Methodius (815–885) were two brothers and Byzantine Christian theologians and missionaries. For their work evangelizing the Slavs, they are known as the "Apostles to the Slavs". They are credited wit ...

). The Diocese was set up in 1461. Between 1701 and 1706, Jesuit architect

Andrea Pozzo Andrea Pozzo (; Latinized version: ''Andreas Puteus''; 30 November 1642 – 31 August 1709) was an Italian Jesuit brother, Baroque painter, architect, decorator, stage designer, and art theoretician. Pozzo was best known for his grandiose fresc ...

designed the Baroque church with two side chapels shaped in the form of a

Latin cross A Latin cross or ''crux immissa'' is a type of cross in which the vertical beam sticks above the crossbeam, with the three upper arms either equally long or with the vertical topmost arm shorter than the two horizontal arms, and always with a mu ...

. The dome was built in the centre in 1841. The interior is decorated with Baroque frescos painted by Giulio Quaglio between 1703–1706 and 1721–1723.

Nebotičnik (; en, the Skyscraper) is a prominent high-rise located in the centre of Ljubljana, Slovenia Slovenia ( ; sl, Slovenija ), officially the Republic of Slovenia (Slovene: , abbr.: ''RS''), is a country in Central Europe. It is bordered ...

(pronounced , "Skyscraper") is a thirteen-story building that rises to a height of . It combines elements of Neoclassical and

Art-Deco Art Deco, short for the French ''Arts Décoratifs'', and sometimes just called Deco, is a style of visual arts, architecture, and product design, that first appeared in France in the 1910s (just before World War I), and flourished in the United ...

architecture. Predominantly a place of business, Nebotičnik is home to shops on the ground floor and first story, and offices are located on floors two to five. The sixth to ninth floors are private residences. The top three floors host a café, bar and observation deck.
Ljubljana.si – Skyscraper
'. Retrieved 3 December 2007. It was designed by Slovenian architect

Vladimir Šubic Vladimir Šubic (23 May 1894 – 16 November 1946)Bernik, Stane. 1999. "Vladimir Šubic." ''Enciklopedija Slovenije'', vol. 13. Ljubljana: Mladinska knjiga, p. 163. was a Slovene architect. He designed many buildings, most notably Nebotičnik ...

. The building opened on 21 February 1933.
Government Communication Office – Ljubljana's Neboticnik Is 70 Years Old
'. Retrieved 3 December 2007. It was once the tallest residential building in Europe. File:Ljubljana Prešeren Square.jpg, Prešeren Square in downtown Ljubljana File:Río Ljubljanica, Liubliana, Eslovenia, 2017-04-14, DD 06.jpg, Ljubljanica River, downtown Ljubljana File:Ljubljana BW 2014-10-09 11-34-41.jpg,

File:Robbafountain.jpg,

File:Ljubljana BW 2014-10-09 12-19-48.jpg,

File:Ljubljana BW 2014-10-09 13-57-30.jpg, Slovenian Philharmonic Building File:Neboticnik Tower 1.jpg,

Public green spaces

() is the largest park. It was designed in 1813 by French engineer Jean Blanchard and now covers approximately . The park was laid out during the French imperial administration of Ljubljana in 1813 and named after the Parisian Jardins de Tivoli. Between 1921 and 1939, it was renovated by Slovene architect

, who unveiled his statue of Napoleon in 1929 in Republic Square and designed a broad central promenade, called the Jakopič Promenade () after the leading Slovene

painter

Rihard Jakopič Rihard Jakopič (12 April 1869 – 21 April 1943) was a Slovene painter. He was the leading Slovene Impressionist painter, patron of arts and theoretician. Together with Matej Sternen, Matija Jama and Ivan Grohar, he is considered the pionee ...

. Within the park, there are trees, flower gardens, several statues, and fountains. Several notable buildings stand in the park, among them

Tivoli Castle Tivoli Castle ( sl, Grad Tivoli), originally called Podturn Manor (german: Schloss Unterthurn,Costa, Ethbin Heinrich. 1848. ''Reiseerinnerungen aus Krain''. Ljubljana: Eger, p. 39. sl, Grad Pod turnom), is a mansion in Ljubljana, the capital of ...

, the

National Museum of Contemporary History Cekin Mansion ( sl, Cekinov grad, german: Leopoldsruhe''Leksikon občin kraljestev in dežel zastopanih v državnem zboru,'' vol. 6: ''Kranjsko''. 1906. Vienna: C. Kr. Dvorna in Državna Tiskarna, p. 113.) is a mansion on the northern edge of Tivo ...

and the Tivoli Sports Hall. Tivoli–Rožnik Hill–Šiška Hill Landscape Park is located in the western part of the city. The Ljubljana Botanical Garden () covers next to the junction of the

and the Ljubljanica, south of the Old Town. It is the central Slovenian

botanical garden A botanical garden or botanic gardenThe terms ''botanic'' and ''botanical'' and ''garden'' or ''gardens'' are used more-or-less interchangeably, although the word ''botanic'' is generally reserved for the earlier, more traditional gardens, an ...

and the oldest cultural, scientific, and educational organisation in the country. It started operating under the leadership of Franc Hladnik in 1810. Of over 4,500 plant

species In biology, a species is the basic unit of classification and a taxonomic rank of an organism, as well as a unit of biodiversity. A species is often defined as the largest group of organisms in which any two individuals of the appropriate s ...

and

subspecies In biological classification, subspecies is a rank below species, used for populations that live in different areas and vary in size, shape, or other physical characteristics (morphology), but that can successfully interbreed. Not all species ...

, roughly a third is

endemic Endemism is the state of a species being found in a single defined geographic location, such as an island, state, nation, country or other defined zone; organisms that are indigenous to a place are not endemic to it if they are also found elsew ...

to Slovenia, whereas the rest originate from other European places and other continents. The institution is a member of the international network

Botanic Gardens Conservation International Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI) is a plant conservation biology, conservation Charitable organization, charity based in Kew, Surrey, England. It is a membership organisation, working with 800 botanic gardens in 118 countries, who ...

and cooperates with more than 270 botanical gardens all across the world. In 2014, Ljubljana won the

European Green Capital Award The European Green Capital Award is an award for a European city based on its environmental record. The award was launched on 22 May 2008 and the first award was given to Stockholm for the year 2010. The European Commission has long recognised ...

for 2016 for their environmental achievements.

Bridges, streets and squares

Ljubljana's best-known bridges, listed from northern to southern ones, include the Dragon Bridge (), the

(), the

(), the Fish Footbridge ( sl, Ribja brv), the

Cobblers' Bridge The Cobblers' Bridge or the Shoemakers' Bridge ( sl, Čevljarski most or ) is a pedestrian bridge crossing the river Ljubljanica in Ljubljana, the capital of Slovenia. It connects two major areas of medieval Ljubljana. It is decorated by two kinds ...

( sl, Šuštarski most), the

Hradecky Bridge The Hradecky Bridge ( sl, Hradeckega most) is one of the first hinged bridges in the world, the first and only preserved cast iron bridge in Slovenia, and one of its most highly valued technical achievements. It spans the Ljubljanica River in Lj ...

( sl, Hradeckega most), and the

Trnovo Bridge The Trnovo Bridge ( sl, Trnovski most) is a bridge crossing the Gradaščica River in Ljubljana, the capital of Slovenia. It is located in front of Trnovo Church at the end of Karun Street () to the south of the city centre and is a continuation ...

(). The last mentioned crosses the

, whereas all other bridges cross the

The Dragon Bridge

The 1901 Dragon Bridge, decorated with dragon statues on pedestals at four corners of the bridgeDragon Bridge
''Eccenet.org'' has become a symbol of the city and is regarded as one of the most beautiful examples of a bridge made in

style.Ljubljana – A lively city, safe under the wings of a dragon
''International Associations of Business Communicators (IABC)'' It has a span of and its arch was at the time the third largest in Europe. It is protected as a technical monument.

The Butchers' Bridge

Love_padlocks_at_Butchers'_Bridge_(Ljubljana)

Decorated with mythological bronze sculptures, created by

Jakov Brdar Jakov Brdar (born 22 April 1949) is a Slovene sculptor of Bosnian descent. He is the author of many public statues and sculptures in Ljubljana. In 1998, he received the Prešeren Fund Award for the sculpture group ''Pridiga ptičem'' (Sermon t ...

, from Ancient Greek mythology and Biblical stories, the Butchers' Bridge connects the Ljubljana Open Market area and the restaurants-filled Petkovšek Embankment (). It is also known as the

love padlocks A love lock or love padlock is a padlock that significant other pairs lock to a bridge, fence, gate, monument, or similar public fixture to symbolize their love. Typically the sweethearts' names or initials, and perhaps the date, are inscribe ...

-decorated bridge in Ljubljana.

The Triple Bridge

The

is decorated with stone

balusters A baluster is an upright support, often a vertical moulded shaft, square, or lathe-turned form found in stairways, parapets, and other architectural features. In furniture construction it is known as a spindle. Common materials used in its cons ...

and stone lamps on all of the three bridges and leads to the terraces looking on the river and poplar trees. It occupies a central point on the east–west axis, connecting the

with Rožnik Hill, on one side, and the

on the other, and the north–south axis through the city, represented by the river. It was enlarged in order to prevent the historically single bridge from being a

bottleneck Bottleneck literally refers to the narrowed portion (neck) of a bottle A bottle is a narrow-necked container made of an impermeable material (such as glass, plastic or aluminium) in various shapes and sizes that stores and transports liquids ...

by adding two side

pedestrian A pedestrian is a person traveling on foot, whether walking or running. In modern times, the term usually refers to someone walking on a road or pavement, but this was not the case historically. The meaning of pedestrian is displayed with ...

bridges to the middle one.

The Fish Footbridge

The Fish Footbridge offers a view of the neighbouring Triple Bridge to the north and the Cobbler's Bridge to the South. It is a transparent glass-made bridge, illuminated at night by in-built LEDs. From 1991 to 2014 the bridge was a wooden one and decorated with flowers, while since its reconstruction in 2014, it is made of glass. It was planned already in 1895 by

Max Fabiani Maximilian Fabiani, commonly known as Max Fabiani ( it, Massimo, sl, Maks) (29 April 1865 – 12 August 1962) was a cosmopolitan trilingual architect and town planner of mixed Italian-Austrian ancestry, born in the village of Kobdilj near Š ...

to build a bridge on the location, in 1913

Alfred Keller Alfred Keller (19 September 1882 – 11 February 1974) was a general in the Luftwaffe of Nazi Germany during the Second World War who commanded the ''Luftflotte 1''. His career in the Imperial German Armed Forces began in 1897; he served a ...

planned a staircase, later

incorporated both into his own plans which, however, were not realised.

The Cobbler's Bridge

The 1930 'Cobblers' Bridge' (, from German – Shoemaker) is another Plečnik's creation, connecting two major areas of medieval Ljubljana. It is decorated by two kinds of pillars, the Corinthian pillars which delineate the shape of the bridge itself and the Ionic pillars as lamp-bearers.

The Trnovo Bridge

The Trnovo Bridge is the most prominent object of Plečnik's renovation of the banks of the Gradaščica. It is located in the front of the

Trnovo Church Trnovo may refer to the following places: Bosnia and Herzegovina * Trnovo, Republika Srpska, a town and municipality * Trnovo, Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the rural part of the same pre-war municipality, presently in the Sarajevo Canto ...

to the south of the city centre. It connects the neighbourhoods of Krakovo and Trnovo, the oldest Ljubljana suburbs, known for their market gardens and cultural events. It was built between 1929 and 1932. It is distinguished by its width and two rows of birches that it bears, because it was meant to serve as a public space in front of the church. Each corner of the bridge is capped with a small pyramid, a signature motif of Plečnik's, whereas the mid-span features a pair of

male sculptures. There is also a statue of

Saint John the Baptist John the Baptist or , , or , ;Wetterau, Bruce. ''World history''. New York: Henry Holt and Company. 1994. syc, ܝܘܿܚܲܢܵܢ ܡܲܥܡܕ݂ܵܢܵܐ, Yoḥanān Maʿmḏānā; he, יוחנן המטביל, Yohanān HaMatbil; la, Ioannes Bapti ...

on the bridge, the patron of the Trnovo Church. It was designed by .

The Hradecky Bridge

] The

is one of the first Hinged bridge, hinged bridges in the world, the first and the only preserved

cast iron Cast iron is a class of iron–carbon alloys with a carbon content more than 2%. Its usefulness derives from its relatively low melting temperature. The alloy constituents affect its color when fractured: white cast iron has carbide impuriti ...

bridge in Slovenia, and one of its most highly valued technical achievements. It has been situated on an extension of Hren Street (), between the Krakovo Embankment () and the

Gruden Embankment Gruden is a surname, and may refer to: * Igo Gruden (1893–1948), Slovene poet * Jay Gruden (born 1967), American football coach * Jon Gruden (born 1963), American football coach * John Gruden (born 1970), American hockey player * Mirko Gruden ( ...

(), connecting the

and the Prule neighbourhood in the Center District. The Hradecky Bridge was manufactured according to the plans of the senior engineer

Johann Hermann Johann, or Jean-Frederic, Hermann, or Herrmann, (31 December 1738 in Barr, Alsace – 4 October 1800 in Strasbourg) was a French physician and naturalist. In 1769 he was appointed professor of medicine at the School of Public Health of Strasbou ...

from Vienna in the Auersperg iron foundry in Dvor near Žužemberk, and installed in Ljubljana in 1867, at the location of today's

Streets and squares

Having already existed in the 18th century, Ljubljana's central square,

's modern appearance has developed since the end of the 19th century. After the 1895 earthquake,

designed the square as the hub of four streets and four banks, and in the 1980s

proposed the circular design and the granite block pavement. A statue of the Slovene

national poet A national poet or national bard is a poet held by tradition and popular acclaim to represent the identity, beliefs and principles of a particular national culture. The national poet as culture hero is a long-standing symbo ...

France Prešeren France Prešeren () (2 or 3 December 1800 – 8 February 1849) was a 19th-century Romantic Slovene poet whose poems have been translated into many languages.

with a

muse In ancient Greek religion and mythology, the Muses ( grc, Μοῦσαι, Moûsai, el, Μούσες, Múses) are the inspirational goddesses of literature, science, and the arts. They were considered the source of the knowledge embodied in the ...

stands in the middle of the square. The Prešeren Monument was created by

Ivan Zajec Ivan Zajec (15 July 1869 – 30 July 1952) was a Slovenian sculptor. His work was part of the Art competitions at the 1924 Summer Olympics#Sculpture, sculpture event in the Art competitions at the 1924 Summer Olympics, art competition at the ...

in 1905, whereas the pedestal was designed by Max Fabiani. The square and surroundings have been closed to traffic since 1 September 2007. Only a tourist train leaves Prešeren Square every day, transporting tourists to

. Republic Square, originally named Revolution Square, is the largest square in Ljubljana. It was designed in the second half of the 20th century by Edvard Ravnikar. On 26 June 1991, the independence of Slovenia was declared here. The National Assembly Building stands at its northern side, and

Cankar Hall The Cankar Centre or Cankar Hall ( sl, Cankarjev dom) is the largest Slovenian convention, congress and culture center. The building was designed by the architect Edvard Ravnikar and was built at the southern edge of Republic Square in Ljubljana b ...

, the largest Slovenian cultural and congress centre, at the southern side. At its eastern side stands the two-storey building of Maximarket, also the work of Ravnikar. It houses one of the oldest department stores in Ljubljana and a cafe, which is a popular meeting place and a place for political talks and negotiations.

Congress Square Congress Square ( sl, Kongresni trg) is one of the central squares in Ljubljana, the capital of Slovenia. History The square was built in 1821 at the site of the ruins of a medieval Capuchin monastery, which had been abolished during the reign ...

() is one of the important centres of the city. It was built in 1821 for ceremonial purposes such as Congress of Ljubljana after which it was named. Since then it has been a centre for political ceremonies, demonstrations, and protests, such as the ceremony for the creation of the

Kingdom of Yugoslavia The Kingdom of Yugoslavia ( sh-Latn-Cyrl, separator=" / ", Kraljevina Jugoslavija, Краљевина Југославија; sl, Kraljevina Jugoslavija) was a state in Southeast Europe, Southeast and Central Europe that existed from 1918 unt ...

, ceremony of the liberation of

Belgrade Belgrade ( , ;, ; Names of European cities in different languages: B, names in other languages) is the Capital city, capital and List of cities in Serbia, largest city in Serbia. It is located at the confluence of the Sava and Danube rivers a ...

, and protests against Yugoslav authority in 1988. The square also houses several important buildings, such as the University of Ljubljana Palace, Philharmonic Hall,

, and the Slovene Society Building. Star Park () is located in the centre of the square. In 2010 and 2011, the square was renovated and is now mostly closed to road traffic on ground area, however, there are five floors for commercial purposes and a parking lot located underground.

Čop Street Čop Street ( sl, Čopova ulica) is a major pedestrian thoroughfare in the center of Ljubljana, Slovenia and regarded as the capital's central promenade. Location The street leads from the Main Post Office () at Slovene Street () to Prešeren S ...

() is a major thoroughfare in the centre of Ljubljana. The street is named after

Matija Čop Matija Čop (; 26 January 1797 – 6 July 1835), also known in German as Matthias Tschop, was a Slovene linguist, polyglot, literary historian and critic. Biography Čop was born in the small northern Carniolan town of Žirovnica, in what ...

, an early 19th-century literary figure and close friend of the Slovene

Romantic poet Romantic poetry is the poetry of the Romantic era, an artistic, literary, musical and intellectual movement that originated in Europe towards the end of the 18th century. It involved a reaction against prevailing Enlightenment ideas of the 18t ...

France Prešeren France Prešeren () (2 or 3 December 1800 – 8 February 1849) was a 19th-century Romantic Slovene poet whose poems have been translated into many languages.

. It leads from the Main Post Office () at Slovene Street () downward to Prešeren Square and is lined with bars and stores, including the oldest

McDonald's restaurant McDonald's Corporation is an American multinational fast food chain, founded in 1940 as a restaurant operated by Richard and Maurice McDonald, in San Bernardino, California, United States. They rechristened their business as a hamburger st ...

in Slovenia. It is a pedestrian zone and regarded as the capital's central promenade.

Culture

Accent

The Ljubljana accent and/or dialect ( sl, ljubljanščina ) is considered a border dialect, since Ljubljana is situated where the Upper Carniolan dialect group, Upper dialect and Lower Carniolan dialect group meet. Historically, the Ljubljana dialect in the past displayed features more similar with the Lower Carniolan dialect group, but it gradually grew closer to the Upper dialect group, as a direct consequence of mass migration from Upper Carniola into Ljubljana in the 19th and 20th century. Ljubljana as a city grew mostly to the north, and gradually incorporated many villages that were historically part of Upper Carniola and so its dialect shifted away and closer to the Upper Carniolan dialect group, Upper dialects. The Ljubljana dialect has also been used as a literary means in novels, such as in the novel ''Nekdo drug'' by Branko Gradišnik, or in poems, such as ''Pika Nogavička'' (Slovene for Pippi Longstocking) by Andrej Rozman - Roza. The central position of Ljubljana and its dialect had crucial impact on the development of the Slovenian language. It was the speech of 16th century Ljubljana that Primož Trubar a Slovenian Protestant Reformers, Protestant Reformer took as a foundation of what later became standard Slovenian language, with a small addition of his native speech, the Lower Carniolan dialect. While in Ljubljana, he lived in a house, on today's Ribji trg, in the oldest part of the city. Living in Ljubljana had a profound impact on his work; he considered Ljubljana the capital of all

, not only because of its central position in the heart of the Slovene lands, but also because it always had an essentially Slovene character. Most of its inhabitants spoke Slovene as their mother tongue, unlike other cites in today's

. It is estimated that in Trubar's time around 70% of Ljubljana's 4000 inhabitants attended mass in Slovene. Trubar considered Ljubljana's speech most suitable, since it sounded much more noble, than his own simple dialect of his hometown Rašica, Velike Lašče, Rašica. Trubar's choice was later adopted also by other Protestant writers in the 16th century, and ultimately led to a formation of a more standard language.

In literary fiction

Ljubljana appears in the 2005 ''The Historian'', written by Elisabeth Kostova, and is called by its Roman name (Emona). Ljubljana is also the setting of Paulo Coelho's 1998 novel ''Veronika Decides to Die''. During 2010, Ljubljana was designated as the World Book Capital by UNESCO.

Festivals

Each year, over 10,000 cultural events take place in the city, including ten international theatre, music, and art festivals. The Ljubljana Festival is one of the two oldest festivals in former Yugoslavia (the Dubrovnik Summer Festival was established in 1950, and the Ljubljana Festival one in 1953). Guests have included Dubravka Tomšič, Marjana Lipovšek, Tomaž Pandur, Katia Ricciarelli, Grace Bumbry, Yehudi Menuhin, Mstislav Rostropovich, José Carreras, Slid Hampton, Zubin Mehta, Vadim Repin, Valerij Gergijev, Andrew Davis (conductor), Sir Andrew Davis, Danjulo Išizaka, Midori, Jurij Bašmet, Ennio Morricone, and The Manhattan Transfer, Manhattan Transfer. Orchestras have included the New York Philharmonic, Israel Philharmonic, Royal Philharmonic Orchestra, Orchestras of the Bolshoi Theatre from Moscow, La Scala from Milan, and Mariinsky Theatre from Saint Petersburg. In recent years there have been 80 kinds of events and some 80,000 visitors from Slovenia and abroad. Other cultural venues include Križanke,

and the Exhibition and Convention Centre (Ljubljana), Exhibition and Convention Centre. During Book Week, starting each year on World Book Day, events and book sales take place at

. A flea market is held every Sunday in the old city. On the evening of International Workers' Day, a celebration with a bonfire takes place on Rožnik Hill.

Museums and art galleries

Ljubljana has numerous Art museum, art galleries and museums. The first purpose-built art gallery in Ljubljana was the Jakopič Pavilion, which was in the first half of the 20th century the central exhibition venue of Slovene artists. In the early 1960s, it was succeeded by Ljubljana City Art Gallery, which has presented a number of modern Slovene and foreign artists. In 2010, there were 14 museums and 56 art galleries in Ljubljana. There is for example an architecture museum, Slovenian Railway Museum, a railway museum, a school museum, a sports museum, a museum of modern art, a museum of contemporary art, a Pivovarna Union, brewery museum, the Slovenian Museum of Natural History and the Slovene Ethnographic Museum. The

(), founded in 1918, and the Museum of Modern Art (Ljubljana), Museum of Modern Art () exhibit the List of Slovenian artists, most influential Slovenian artists. In 2006, the museums received 264,470 visitors, the galleries 403,890 and the theatres 396,440. The Metelkova Museum of Contemporary Art (), opened in 2011, hosts simultaneous exhibitions, a research library, archives, and a bookshop.

Entertainment and performing arts

is the largest Slovenian cultural and congress center with multiple halls and a large foyer in which art film festivals, artistic performances, book fairs, and other cultural events are held.

Cinema

The cinema in Ljubljana appeared for the first time at the turn of the 20th century, and quickly gained popularity among the residents. After World War II, the Cinema Company Ljubljana, later named ''Ljubljana Cinematographers'', was established and managed a number of already functioning movie theatres in Ljubljana, including the only Yugoslav children's theatre. Cinema festivals took place in the 1960s, and a cinematheque opened its doors in 1963. With the advent of television, video, and recently the Internet, most cinema theatres in Ljubljana closed, and the cinema mainly moved to Kolosej, a Multiplex (movie theater), multiplex in the BTC City. It features twelve screens, including an IMAX 3D screen. The remaining theatres are Kino Komuna, Kinodvor, where art movies are accompanied by events, and the Slovenian Cinematheque. The Slovenian Cinematheque hosts the international Ljubljana LGBT Film Festival which showcases LGBT-themed films. Founded in 1984, it is the oldest film festival of its sort in Europe.

Classical music, opera and ballet

The Slovenian Philharmonics is the central music institution in Ljubljana and Slovenia. It holds classical music concerts of domestic and foreign performers as well as educates youth. It was established in 1701 as part of Academia operosorum Labacensis and is among the oldest such institutions in Europe. The Slovene National Opera and Ballet Theatre also resides in Ljubljana, presenting a wide variety of domestic and foreign, modern and classic, opera, ballet and concert works. It serves as the national opera and ballet house. Music festivals are held in Ljubljana, chiefly in Classical music, European classical music and jazz, for instance the Ljubljana Summer Festival (), and Trnfest.

Theatre

In addition to the main houses, with the Slovene National Theatre, Ljubljana, SNT Drama Ljubljana as the most important among them, a number of small producers are active in Ljubljana, involved primarily in physical theatre (e.g. Betontanc), street theatre (e.g. Ana Monró Theatre), theatresports championship Impro League, and improvisational theatre (e.g. IGLU Theatre). A popular form is puppetry, mainly performed in the Ljubljana Puppet Theatre. Theatre has a rich tradition in Ljubljana, starting with the 1867 first ever Slovene-language drama performance.

Modern dance

The modern dance was presented in Ljubljana for the first time at the end of the 19th century and developed rapidly since the end of the 1920s. Since the 1930s when in Ljubljana was founded a Mary Wigman dance school, the first one for modern dance in Slovenia, the field has been intimately linked to the development in Europe and the United States. Ljubljana Dance Theatre is today the only venue in Ljubljana dedicated to contemporary dance. Despite this, there's a vivid happening in the field.

Folk dance

Several folk dance groups are active in Ljubljana.

Jazz

In July 2015, over four days, the 56th Ljubljana Jazz Festival took place. A member of the European Jazz Network, the festival presented 19 concerts featuring artists from 19 countries, including a celebration of the 75th birthday of James "Blood" Ulmer.

Popular urban culture and alternative scene

In the 1980s with the emergence of Subculture, subcultures in Ljubljana, an alternative culture begun to develop in Ljubljana organised around two student organisations. This caused an influx of young people to the city centre, caused political and social changes, and led to the establishment of alternative art centres. ; Metelkova and Rog A Ljubljana equivalent of Copenhagen's Freetown Christiania, a self-proclaimed autonomous Metelkova neighbourhood, was set up in a former Austro-Hungarian barracks that were built in 1882. In 1993, the seven buildings and of space were turned into art galleries, artist studios, and seven nightclubs, including two LGBTQ+ venues, playing host to music from hardcore to jazz to dub to techno. Celica Hostel is adjacent to Metelkova with rooms artistically decorated by Metelkova artists. A new part of the Museum of Modern Art is the nearby Museum of Contemporary Art. Another alternative culture centre is located in the former Rog (factory), Rog factory. Both Metelkova and the Rog (factory), Rog factory complex are near the city centre. ; Šiška Cultural Quarter Šiška Cultural Quarter hosts art groups and cultural organisations dedicated to contemporary and avant-garde arts. Kino Šiška Centre for Urban Culture is there, a venue offering concerts of indie, punk, and rock bands as well as exhibitions take place. Museum of Transitory Art (MoTA) is a museum without a permanent collection or a fixed space. Its programs are realised in temporary physical and virtual spaces dedicated to advancing the research, production and presentation of transitory, experimental, and live art forms. Yearly MoTA organises Sonica Festival. Ljudmila (since 1994), which strives to connect research practices, technologies, science, and art.

Sports

Clubs

A tension between German and Slovene residents dominated the development of sport of Ljubljana in the 19th century. The first sport club in Ljubljana was the South Sokol Gymnastic Club (), established in 1863 and succeeded in 1868 by the Ljubljana Sokol (). It was the parent club of all Slovene Sokol clubs as well as an encouragement for the establishment of the Croatian Sokol club in Zagreb. Members were also active in culture and politics, striving for greater integration of the Slovenes from different Crown lands of

and for their cultural, political, and economic independence. In 1885, German residents established the first sports club in the territory of nowadays Slovenia, (''Ljubljana Cycling Club''). In 1887, Slovene cyclists established the Slovene Cyclists Club (). In 1893 followed the first Slovene Alpine club, named Slovene Alpine Club (), later succeeded by the Alpine Association of Slovenia (). Several of its branches operate in Ljubljana, the largest of them being the Ljubljana Matica Alpine Club (). In 1900, the sports club (English: ''Ljubljana Sports Club'') was established by the city's German residents and functioned until 1909. In 1906, Slovenes organised themselves in its Slovene counterpart, the Ljubljana Sports Club (). Its members were primarily interested in Rowing (sport), rowing, but also swimming and football. In 1911, the first Slovenian football club, ND Ilirija, Ilirija, started operating in the city. Winter sports already started to develop in the area of the nowadays Ljubljana before World War II. In 1929, the first ice hockey club in Slovenia (then Yugoslavia), HDD Olimpija Ljubljana, SK Ilirija, was established. Nowadays, the city's Association football, football teams which play in the Slovenian PrvaLiga are NK Olimpija Ljubljana and NK Bravo. ND Ilirija 1911 currently competes in Slovenian Second League. Ljubljana's ice hockey clubs are HK Slavija Ljubljana, HK Slavija and HK Olimpija. They both compete in the Slovenian Ice Hockey League, Slovenian Hockey League. The basketball teams are KD Slovan, KD Ilirija and KK Cedevita Olimpija. The latter, which has a green dragon as its mascot, hosts its matches at the 12,480-seat Arena Stožice. ŽKD Ježica, Ježica is women's basketball that competes in Slovenian Women's Basketball League, Slovenian League. Handball is popular in female section. RK Krim is one of the best women handball teams in Europe. They won the EHF Champions League twice, in 2001 and 2003. RD Slovan is male handball club from Ljubljana that currently competes in Slovenian First League (men's handball), Slovenian First League. AMTK Ljubljana is the most successful Motorcycle speedway, speedway club in Slovenia. The Ljubljana Sports Club has been succeeded by the Livada Canoe and Kayak Club.

Mass sport activities

Each year since 1957, on 8–10 May, the recreational ''Trail of Remembrance and Comradeship, Walk Along the Wire'' has taken place to mark the liberation of Ljubljana on 9 May 1945. At the same occasion, a triples competition is run on the trail, and a few days later, a student run from Prešeren Square to Ljubljana Castle is held. The last Sunday in October, the Ljubljana Marathon and a few minor competition runs take place on the city streets. The event attracts several thousand runners each year.

Sport venues

The Stožice Stadium, opened since August 2010 and located in Stožice Sports Park in the Bežigrad District, is the biggest football stadium in the country and the home of the NK Olimpija Ljubljana. It is one of the two main venues of the Slovenia national football team. The park also has an indoor arena, used for indoor sports such as basketball, Team handball, handball and volleyball and is the home venue of KK Olimpija, RK Krim and ACH Volley Bled among others. Beside football, the stadium is designed to host cultural events as well. Another stadium in the Bežigrad district, Bežigrad Stadium, is closed since 2008 and is deteriorating. It was built according to the plans of

and was the home of the NK Olimpija Ljubljana (1911–2004), NK Olimpija Ljubljana, dissolved in 2004. Joc Pečečnik, a Slovenian multimillionaire, plans to renovate it. Šiška Sports Park is located in Spodnja Šiška, part of the Šiška District. It has a football stadium with five courts, an athletic hall, outdoor athletic areas, tennis courts, a Boules court, and a sand volleyball court. The majority of competitions are in Athletics (sport), athletics. Another sports park in Spodnja Šiška is Ilirija Sports Park, known primarily for its stadium with a speedway track. At the northern end of Tivoli Park stands the Ilirija Swimming Pool Complex, which was built as part of a swimming and athletics venue following plans by Bloudek in the 1930s and has been nearly abandoned since then, but there are plans to renovate it. A number of sport venues are located in Tivoli Park. An outdoor swimming pool in Tivoli, constructed by Bloudek in 1929, was the first Olympic-size swimming pool in Yugoslavia. The Tivoli Recreational Centre in Tivoli is Ljubljana's largest recreational centre and has three swimming pools, saunas, a Boules court, a health club, and other facilities. There are two skating rinks, a basketball court, a winter ice rink, and ten tennis courts in its outdoor area. The Tivoli Hall consists of two halls. The smaller one accepts 4,050 spectators and is used for basketball matches. The larger one can accommodate 6,000 spectators and is primarily used for hockey, but also for basketball matches. The halls are also used for concerts and other cultural events. The Slovenian Olympic Committee has its office in the building. The Tacen Whitewater Course, located on a course on the Sava, northwest of the city centre, hosts a major international canoe/kayak slalom competition almost every year, examples being the ICF Canoe Slalom World Championships in 1955 ICF Canoe Slalom World Championships, 1955, 1991 ICF Canoe Slalom World Championships, 1991, and 2010 ICF Canoe Slalom World Championships, 2010. Since the 1940s, a ski slope has been in use in Gunclje, in the northwestern part of the city. It is long and has two ski lifts, its maximum incline is 60° and the difference in height from the top to the bottom is . Five Ski jumping hill, ski jumping hills stand near the ski slope. Several Slovenian Olympic and World Cup medalists trained and competed there. In addition, the Arena Triglav complex of six jumping hills is located in the Šiška District. A ski jumping hill, built in 1954 to plans by Stanko Bloudek, was located in Šiška near Vodnik Street () until 1976. International competitions for the Kongsberg Cup were held there, attended by thousands of spectators. The ice rinks in Ljubljana include

and Tivoli Hall. In addition, in the 19th century and the early 20th century,

and a marshy meadow in Trnovo, named Kern, were used for ice skating.

Economy

Industry is the most important employer, notably in the Pharmaceutical industry, pharmaceuticals, Petrochemical, petrochemicals and Food industry, food processing. Other fields include banking, finance, transport, construction, skilled trades and services and tourism. The public sector provides jobs in education, culture, health care and local administration. The Ljubljana Stock Exchange (), purchased in 2008 by the Wiener Börse, Vienna Stock Exchange, deals with large Slovenian companies. Some of these have their headquarters in the capital: for example, the Chain store, retail chain Mercator (retail), Mercator, the Petroleum industry, oil company Petrol d.d. and the telecommunications concern Telekom Slovenije. Over 15,000 enterprises operate in the city, most of them in the Tertiary sector of the economy, tertiary sector. Numerous companies and over 450 shops are located in the BTC City, the largest business, shopping, recreational, entertainment and cultural centre in Slovenia. It is visited each year by 21 million people. It occupies an area of in the Moste, Ljubljana, Moste District in the eastern part of Ljubljana. About 74% of Ljubljana households use district heating from the Ljubljana Power Station.

Government

The city of Ljubljana is governed by the City Municipality of Ljubljana ( sl, Mestna občina Ljubljana; MOL), which is led by the city council. The president of the city council is called the mayor. Members of the city council and the mayor are elected in the local election, held every four years. Among other roles, the city council drafts the municipal budget, and is assisted by various boards active in the fields of health, sports, finances, education, Environmental movement, environmental protection and tourism. The municipality is subdivided into 17 districts represented by district councils. They work with the municipality council to make known residents' suggestions and prepare activities in their territories. Between 2002 and 2006, Danica Simšič was mayor of the municipality. Since the municipal elections of 22 October 2006 until his confirmation as a deputy in the National Assembly (Slovenia), National Assembly of Slovenian in December 2011, Zoran Janković (politician), Zoran Janković, previously the managing director of the Mercator (retail), Mercator retail chain, was the mayor of Ljubljana. In 2006, he won 62.99% of the popular vote. On 10 October 2010, Janković was re-elected for another four-year term with 64.79% of the vote. From 2006 until October 2010, the majority on the city council (the Zoran Janković List) held 23 of 45 seats. On 10 October 2010, Janković's list won 25 out of 45 seats in the city council. From December 2011 onwards, when Janković's list won the Slovenian parliamentary election, 2011, early parliamentary election, the deputy mayor Aleš Čerin was decided by him to lead the municipality. Čerin did not hold the post of mayor. After Janković had failed to be elected as the Prime Minister in the National Assembly (Slovenia), National Assembly, he participated at the mayoral by-election on 25 March 2012 and was elected for the third time with 61% of the vote. He retook the leadership of the city council on 11 April 2012. Public order in Ljubljana is enforced by the Ljubljana Police Directorate (). There are five areal police stations and four sectoral police stations in Ljubljana. Public order and municipal traffic regulations are also supervised by the Traffic wardens (Ljubljana), city traffic wardens (). Ljubljana has a quiet and secure reputation.

Demographics

In 1869, Ljubljana had about 22,600 inhabitants, a figure that grew to almost 60,000 by 1931. At the 2002 census, 39% of Ljubljana inhabitants were Catholic; 30% had no religion, an unknown religion or did not reply; 19% atheist; 6% Eastern Orthodox; 5% Islam, Muslim; and the remaining 0.7% Protestant or another religion. Approximately 91% of the population speaks Slovene as their primary native language. The second most-spoken language is Bosnian language, Bosnian, with Serbo-Croatian being the third most-spoken language.

Education

Primary education

In Ljubljana today there are over 50 public elementary schools with over 20,000 pupils. This also includes an International school, international elementary school for foreign pupils. There are two private elementary schools: a Waldorf education, Waldorf elementary school and a Catholic school, Catholic elementary school. In addition, there are several elementary music schools. Historically the first school in Ljubljana belonged to

and was established in the 13th century. It originally accepted only boys; girls were accepted from the beginning of the 16th century. Parochial school, Parochial schools are attested in the 13th century, at St. Peter's Church and at Saint Nicholas's Church, the later Ljubljana Cathedral. Since 1291, there were also trade-oriented private schools in Ljubljana. In the beginning of the 17th century, there were six schools in Ljubljana and later three. A girls' school was established by Poor Clares, followed in 1703 by the

. Their school was for about 170 years the only public girls' school in

. These schools were mainly private or established by the city. In 1775, the Austrian Empress Maria Theresa proclaimed elementary education obligatory and Ljubljana got its Normal school#Europe, normal school, intended as a learning place for teachers. In 1805, the first state music school was established in Ljubljana. In the time of

, "''école primaire''", a unified four-year elementary school program with a greater emphasis on Slovene, was introduced. The first public schools, unrelated to religious education, appeared in 1868.

Secondary education

In Ljubljana there are ten public and three private Grammar school, grammar schools. The public schools divide into general Gymnasium (school), gymnasiums and Classical gymnasium, classical gymnasiums, the latter offering Latin and Greek as foreign languages. Some general schools offer internationally oriented European departments, and some offer sport departments, allowing students to more easily adjust their sport and school obligations. All state schools are free, but the number of students they can accept is limited. The private secondary schools include a Catholic grammar school and a Waldorf grammar school. There are also professional grammar schools in Ljubljana, offering economical, technical, or artistic subjects (visual arts, music). All grammar schools last four years and conclude with the ''matura'' exam. Historically, upon a proposal by Primož Trubar, the Carniolan Estates' School (1563–1598) was established in 1563 in the period of Slovene Reformation. Its teaching languages were mainly

and

, but also German language, German and Slovene, and it was open for both sexes and all social strata. In 1597, Jesuit, Jesuits established the Laibach Jesuit College, Jesuit College (1597–1773), intended to transmit general education. In 1773, secondary education came under the control of the state. A number of reforms were implemented in the 19th century; there was more emphasis on general knowledge and religious education was removed from state secondary schools. In 1910, there were 29 secondary schools in Ljubljana, among them classical and real gymnasiums and Realschule, Realschules (technical secondary schools).

Tertiary education

In 2011, the University had 23 faculties and three academies, located around Ljubljana. They offer Slovene-language courses in medicine, Applied science, applied sciences, arts, law, administration, natural sciences, and other subjects. The university has more than 63,000 students and some 4,000 teaching faculty. Students make up one-seventh of Ljubljana's population, giving the city a youthful character. Historically, higher schools offering the study of general medicine, surgery, architecture, law and theology, started to operate in Ljubljana under the Illyrian Provinces, French annexation of Slovene territory, in 1810–1811. The Austro-Hungarian Empire never allowed Slovenes to establish their own university in Ljubljana, and the University of Ljubljana, Slovenia's most important university, was founded in 1919, after Slovenes joined the first Yugoslavia. When it was founded, the university comprised five faculties: law, philosophy, technology, theology and medicine. From the beginning, the seat of the university has been at

in a building that served as the State Mansion of Carniola from 1902 to 1918.

Libraries

; National and University Library of Slovenia The National and University Library of Slovenia is the Slovene National library, national and university library. In 2011, it held about 1,307,000 books, 8,700 manuscripts, and numerous other textual, visual and multimedia resources, altogether 2,657,000 volumes. ; Central Technological Library The second largest university library in Ljubljana is the Central Technological Library, the national library and information hub for natural sciences and technology. ; Municipal Library and other libraries The Municipal City Library of Ljubljana, established in 2008, is the central regional library and the largest Slovenian general public library. In 2011, it held 1,657,000 volumes, among these 1,432,000 books and a multitude of other resources in 36 branches. Altogether, there are 5 general public libraries and over 140 specialised libraries in Ljubljana. Besides the two largest university libraries there are libraries at individual faculties, departments and institutes of the University of Ljubljana. The largest among them are the Central Humanist Library of the Faculty of Arts, Central Humanist Library in the field of humanities, the Central Social Sciences Library of the Faculty of Social Sciences, Ljubljana, Central Social Sciences Library, the Central Economic Library in the field of economics, the Central Medical Library in the field of medical sciences, and the Libraries of the Biotechnical Faculty in the field of biology and biotechnology. ; History The first libraries in Ljubljana were located in Monastery, monasteries. The first public library was the Carniolan Estates' Library, established in 1569 by Primož Trubar. In the 17th century, the Jesuit library, Ljubljana, Jesuit Library collected numerous works, particularly about mathematics. In 1707, the Seminary Library, Ljubljana, Seminary Library was established; it is the first and oldest public scientific library in Slovenia. Around 1774, after the dissolution of Jesuits, the Lyceum Library, Ljubljana, Lyceum Library was formed from the remains of the Jesuit Library as well as several monastery libraries.

Science

The first society of the leading scientists and public workers in Carniola was the Dismas Fraternity (Latin: ), formed in Ljubljana in 1688. In 1693, the ''Academia Operosorum Labacensium'' was founded and lasted with an interruption until the end of the 18th century. The next academy in Ljubljana, the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts, was not established until 1938.

Transport

Air transport

Ljubljana Jože Pučnik Airport (ICAO airport code, ICAO code LJLJ; IATA code LJU), located northwest of the city, has flights to numerous European destinations. Among the companies that fly from there are Air France, Air Serbia, Brussels Airlines, easyJet, Finnair, Lufthansa, Swiss International Air Lines, Swiss, Wizz Air, Transavia and Turkish Airlines. The destinations are mainly European. This airport has superseded the Polje Airport , original Ljubljana airport, in operation from 1933 until 1963. It was located in the Municipality of Polje (nowadays the Moste, Ljubljana, Moste District), on a plain between Ljubljanica and Sava next to the railroad in Moste. There was a military airport in Šiška from 1918 until 1929.

Rail transport

In the Ljubljana Rail Hub, the Pan-European corridors, Pan-European railway corridors Pan-European Corridor V, V (the fastest link between the North Adriatic, and Central and Eastern Europe) and Pan-European Corridor X, X (linking Central Europe with the Balkans) and the Main line (railway), main European lines (E 65, E 69, E 70) intersect. All international transit trains in Slovenia drive through the Ljubljana hub, and all international passenger trains stop there. The area of Ljubljana has six passenger Railway station, stations and nine stops. For passengers, the Slovenian Railways company offers the possibility to buy a daily or monthly city pass that can be used to travel between them. The Ljubljana railway station is the central station of the hub. The Ljubljana Moste Railway Station is the largest Slovenian railway dispatch. The Ljubljana Zalog Railway Station is the central Slovenian rail yard. There are a number of Industrial railway, industrial rails in Ljubljana. At the end of 2006, the Ljubljana Castle funicular started to operate. The rail goes from Krek Square (''Krekov trg'') near the Ljubljana Central Market to

. It is especially popular among tourists. The full trip lasts 60 seconds.

Roads

Ljubljana is located where Slovenia's two main freeways intersect, connecting the freeway route from east to west, in line with Pan-European Corridor V, and the freeway in the north–south direction, in line with Pan-European Corridor X. The city is linked to the southwest by European route E70, A1-E70 to the Italian cities of

and Venice and the Croatian port of Rijeka.Michelin, ''Slovénie, Croatie, Bosnie-Herzégovine, Serbie, Monténégro, Macédoine'', Cartes et guides n°736, Michelin, Zellik, Belgium, 2007, To the north, European route E57, A1-E57 leads to Maribor, Graz and

Vienna en, Viennese , iso_code = AT-9 , registration_plate = W , postal_code_type = Postal code , postal_code = , timezone = CET , utc_offset = +1 , timezone_DST ...

. To the east, European route E70, A2-E70 links it with the Croatian capital

, from where one can go to Hungary or important cities of the former Yugoslavia, such as

. To the northwest, European route E61, A2-E61 goes to the Austrian towns of Klagenfurt and Salzburg, making it an important entry point for Northern Europe, northern European tourists. A Vignette (road tax), toll sticker system has been in use on the Ljubljana Ring Road since 1 July 2008. The centre of the city is more difficult to access especially in the peak hours due to long arteries with traffic lights and a large number of daily commuters. The core city centre has been closed for motor traffic since September 2007 (except for residents with permissions), creating a pedestrian zone around

Public transport

The historical Ljubljana tram system was completed in 1901 and was replaced by buses in 1928, which were in turn abolished and replaced by trams in 1931 with its final length of in 1940. In 1959, it was abolished in favor of automobiles; the tracks were dismantled and tram cars were transferred to Osijek#Transport, Osijek and Subotica. Reintroduction of an actual tram system to Ljubljana has been proposed repeatedly in the 2000s. There are numerous taxi companies in the city. Mercedes-Benz_O405GN2_LPP_206

The Ljubljana Bus Station, the Ljubljana central bus hub, is located next to the Ljubljana railway station. The city bus network, run by the Ljubljana Passenger Transport (''LPP'') company, is Ljubljana's most widely used means of public transport. The fleet is relatively modern. The number of dedicated bus lanes is limited, which can cause problems in peak hours when traffic becomes congested. Bus rides may be paid with the Urbana (payment card), Urbana payment card (also used for the funicular) or with a Mobile payment, mobile phone. Sometimes the buses are called ''trole'' (referring to Trolley pole, trolley poles), harking back to the 1951–1971 days when Ljubljana had trolleybus (''trolejbus'') service. There were five Ljubljana trolleybus system, trolleybus lines in Ljubljana, until 1958 alongside the tram. Another means of public road transport in the city centre is the Cavalier (), an electric shuttle bus vehicle operated by LPP since May 2009. There are three such vehicles in Ljubljana. The ride is free and there are no stations because it can be stopped anywhere. It can carry up to five passengers; most of them are elderly people and tourists. The Cavalier drives in the car-free zone in the Ljubljana downtown. The first line links

, Wolf Street and the Hribar Embankment, whereas the second links

, Upper Square (Ljubljana), Upper Square, and Old Square (Ljubljana), Old Square. There is also a trackless train (tractor with wagons decorated to look like a train) for tourists in Ljubljana, linking Cyril and Methodius Square in the city centre with Ljubljana Castle.

Bicycles

There is a considerable amount of bicycle traffic in Ljubljana, especially in the warmer months of the year. It is also possible to rent a bike. Since May 2011, the BicikeLJ, a self-service Bicycle sharing system, bicycle rental system offers the residents and visitors of Ljubljana 600 bicycles and more than 600 parking spots at 60 stations in the wider city centre area. The daily number of rentals is around 2,500. There was an option to rent a bike even before the establishment of BicikeLJ. There are still some conditions for cyclists in Ljubljana that have been criticised, including cycle lanes in poor condition and constructed in a way that motorised traffic is privileged. There are also many one-way streets which therefore cannot be used as alternate routes so it is difficult to legally travel by bicycle through the city centre. Through years, some prohibitions have been partially abolished by marking Cycle lane, cycle lanes on the pavement. Nevertheless, the situation has been steadily improving; in 2015, Ljubljana placed 13th in a ranking of the world's most bicycle-friendly cities. In 2016, Ljubljana was 8th on the Copenhagenize list.

Water transport

The river transport on the Ljubljanica and the Sava was the main means of cargo transport to and from the city until the mid-19th century, when railroads were built. Today, the Ljubljanica is used by a number of tourist boats, with wharves under the

, at Fish Square, Ljubljana, Fish Square, at Court Square, Ljubljana, Court Square, at Breg, Ljubljana, Breg, at the Poljane Embankment, and elsewhere.

Healthcare

Ljubljana has a rich history of discoveries in medicine and innovations in medical technology. The majority of Secondary care, secondary and tertiary care in Slovenia takes place in Ljubljana. The Ljubljana University Medical Centre is the largest hospital centre in Slovenia. The Faculty of Medicine, Ljubljana, Faculty of Medicine (University of Ljubljana) and the Ljubljana Institute of Oncology are other two central medical institutions in Slovenia. The Ljubljana Community Health Centre is the largest health centre in Slovenia. It has seven units at 11 locations. Since 1986, Ljubljana is part of the Healthy city, WHO European Healthy Cities Network.

International relations

Twin towns and sister cities

Ljubljana is Twin towns and sister cities, twinned with:

Notes

References

Bibliography

* * * *Velušček, Anton (ed.) (2009)
''Stare Gmajne Pile-Dwelling Settlement and its Era''
(bilingual English and Slovenian edition). Založba ZRC. .

External links

City of Ljubljana official siteOfficial Ljubljana tourism site
at Burger.si
Ljubljana on Google Maps
{{Authority control Ljubljana, Articles containing video clips Capitals in Europe Cities and towns in Lower Carniola Populated places in the City Municipality of Ljubljana Populated places on the Sava

Name

Dragon symbol

History

Prehistory

Antiquity

Middle Ages

Early modern

Late modern

Contemporary situation

Geography

Geology

Topography

Bodies of water

Climate

Cityscape

Central

Public green spaces

Bridges, streets and squares

The Dragon Bridge

The Butchers' Bridge

The Triple Bridge

The Fish Footbridge

The Cobbler's Bridge

The Trnovo Bridge

The Hradecky Bridge

Streets and squares

Culture

Accent

In literary fiction

Festivals

Museums and art galleries

Entertainment and performing arts

Cinema

Classical music, opera and ballet

Theatre

Modern dance

Folk dance

Jazz

Popular urban culture and alternative scene

Sports

Clubs

Mass sport activities

Sport venues

Economy

Government

Demographics

Education

Primary education

Secondary education

Tertiary education

Libraries

Science

Transport

Air transport

Rail transport

Roads

Public transport

Bicycles

Water transport

Healthcare

International relations

Twin towns and sister cities

See also

Notes

References

Bibliography

External links