''Centaurea'' () is a
genus
Genus ( plural genera ) is a taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms as well as viruses. In the hierarchy of biological classification, genus comes above species and below family. In binomial nom ...
of over 700 species of
herbaceous
thistle
Thistle is the common name of a group of flowering plants characterised by leaves with sharp prickles on the margins, mostly in the family Asteraceae. Prickles can also occur all over the planton the stem and on the flat parts of the leaves ...
-like flowering plants in the family
Asteraceae
The family Asteraceae, alternatively Compositae, consists of over 32,000 known species of flowering plants in over 1,900 genera within the order Asterales. Commonly referred to as the aster, daisy, composite, or sunflower family, Compositae w ...
. Members of the genus are found only north of the equator, mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere; the Middle East and surrounding regions are particularly species-rich. In the western United States, yellow starthistles are an invasive species. Around the year 1850, seeds from the plant had arrived to the state of California. It is believed that those seeds came from South America.
Common names
Common names for this genus are centaury, centory, starthistles, knapweeds, centaureas and the more ambiguous "bluets"; a vernacular name used for these plants in parts of England is "loggerheads" (
common knapweed
''Centaurea nigra'' is a species of flowering plant in the family Asteraceae known by the common names lesser knapweed, common knapweed and black knapweed. A local vernacular name is hardheads.
It is native to Europe but it is known on other ...
). The ''Plectocephalus'' group – possibly a distinct genus – is known as basketflowers. "Cornflower" is used for a few species, but that term more often specifically means either ''
C. cyanus'' (the annual cornflower) or ''
Centaurea montana
''Centaurea montana'', the perennial cornflower, mountain cornflower, bachelor's button, montane knapweed or mountain bluet, is a species of flowering plant in the family Asteraceae, endemic to Europe. It is widespread and common in the more so ...
'' (the perennial cornflower). The common name "centaury" is sometimes used, although this also refers to the unrelated plant genus ''
Centaurium
''Centaurium'' (centaury) is a genus of 20 species in the gentian family (Gentianaceae), tribe Chironieae, subtribe Chironiinae. The genus was named after the centaur Chiron, famed in Greek mythology for his skill in medicinal herbs. It is dist ...
''.
[Keil (2006), Keil & Ochsmann (2006).]
The name is said to be in reference to
Chiron
In Greek mythology, Chiron ( ; also Cheiron or Kheiron; ) was held to be the superlative centaur amongst his brethren since he was called the "wisest and justest of all the centaurs".
Biography
Chiron was notable throughout Greek mythology ...
, the centaur of
Greek mythology
A major branch of classical mythology, Greek mythology is the body of myths originally told by the ancient Greeks, and a genre of Ancient Greek folklore. These stories concern the origin and nature of the world, the lives and activities ...
who discovered medicinal uses of a plant eventually called "centaury".
Description
Knapweeds are robust
weed
A weed is a plant considered undesirable in a particular situation, "a plant in the wrong place", or a plant growing where it is not wanted.Harlan, J. R., & deWet, J. M. (1965). Some thoughts about weeds. ''Economic botany'', ''19''(1), 16-24. ...
y plants. Their leaves, spiny in some species, are usually deeply divided into elongated lobes at least in the plants' lower part, becoming entire towards the top. The "flowers" (actually
pseudanthium
A pseudanthium (Greek for "false flower"; ) is an inflorescence that resembles a flower. The word is sometimes used for other structures that are neither a true flower nor a true inflorescence. Examples of pseudanthia include flower heads, compos ...
inflorescence
An inflorescence is a group or cluster of flowers arranged on a Plant stem, stem that is composed of a main branch or a complicated arrangement of branches. Morphology (biology), Morphologically, it is the modified part of the shoot of sperma ...
s) are diverse in colour, ranging from intense blues, reds and yellows to any mixture of these and lighter shades towards white. Often, the
disk flower
The family Asteraceae, alternatively Compositae, consists of over 32,000 known species of flowering plants in over 1,900 genera within the order Asterales. Commonly referred to as the aster, daisy, composite, or sunflower family, Compositae we ...
s are much darker or lighter than the
ray flower
The family Asteraceae, alternatively Compositae, consists of over 32,000 known species of flowering plants in over 1,900 genera within the order Asterales. Commonly referred to as the aster, daisy, composite, or sunflower family, Compositae we ...
s, which also differ in
morphology
Morphology, from the Greek and meaning "study of shape", may refer to:
Disciplines
* Morphology (archaeology), study of the shapes or forms of artifacts
* Morphology (astronomy), study of the shape of astronomical objects such as nebulae, galaxies ...
and are
sterile. Each pseudanthium sits atop a cup- or basket-like cluster of scaly
bracts, hence the name "basketflowers". Many species, in particular those inhabiting more
arid
A region is arid when it severely lacks available water, to the extent of hindering or preventing the growth and development of plant and animal life. Regions with arid climates tend to lack vegetation and are called xeric or desertic. Most ...
regions, have a long and strong
taproot
A taproot is a large, central, and dominant root from which other roots sprout laterally. Typically a taproot is somewhat straight and very thick, is tapering in shape, and grows directly downward. In some plants, such as the carrot, the taproo ...
.
Ecology
Certain knapweeds have a tendency to dominate large stretches of landscape together with a few other plants, typically one or two grasses and as many other large herbaceous plants. The
common knapweed
''Centaurea nigra'' is a species of flowering plant in the family Asteraceae known by the common names lesser knapweed, common knapweed and black knapweed. A local vernacular name is hardheads.
It is native to Europe but it is known on other ...
(''C. nigra'') for example is plentiful in the
mesotrophic grassland Mesotrophic may refer to:
* Mesotrophic lake
* Mesotrophic soil
See also
* Oligotrophic
* Eutrophic
Eutrophication is the process by which an entire body of water, or parts of it, becomes progressively enriched with minerals and nutrients ...
s of England and nearby regions. It is most prominently found in pastures or meadows dominated by
cock's-foot
''Dactylis'' is a genus of Eurasian and North African plants in the bluegrass subfamily within the grass family. ''Dactylis'' is native to North Africa, they are found throughout the world, and are an invasive species. They are known in Englis ...
(''Dactylis glomerata'') as well as either of
crested dog's-tail
''Cynosurus cristatus'', the crested dog's-tail, is a short-lived perennial grass in the family Poaceae, characterised by a seed head that is flat on one side. It typically grows in species rich grassland. It thrives in a variety of soil types ...
(''Cynosurus cristatus'') and
false oat-grass
''Arrhenatherum elatius'', with the common names bulbous oat grass, false oat-grass, tall oat-grass, tall meadow oat, onion couch and tuber oat-grass, is a species of perennial grass, native to Europe, western Asia, and northern Africa.
This bun ...
(''Arrhenatherum elatius''). It is also often found in mesotrophic grassland on
rendzina
Rendzina (or ''rendsina'') is a soil type recognized in various soil classification systems, including those of Britain and Germany as well as some obsolete systems. They are humus-rich shallow soils that are usually formed from carbonate- or occ ...
s and similar
calcareous soil
Calcareous () is an adjective meaning "mostly or partly composed of calcium carbonate", in other words, containing lime or being chalky. The term is used in a wide variety of scientific disciplines.
In zoology
''Calcareous'' is used as an adj ...
s in association with
glaucous sedge (''Carex flacca''),
sheep's fescue
''Festuca ovina'', sheep's fescue or sheep fescue, is a species of grass. It is sometimes confused with hard fescue (''Festuca trachyphylla'').
General description
It is a perennial plant sometimes found in acidic ground, and in mountain pastur ...
(''Festuca ovina''), and either
tor-grass
''Brachypodium pinnatum'', the heath false brome or tor-grass, is a species of grass with a widespread distribution in temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere. It typically grows in calcareous grassland, and reaches tall. The flowerhead is ...
(''Brachypodium pinnatum'') and
rough hawkbit
''Leontodon hispidus'' is a species of hawkbit known by the common names bristly hawkbit and rough hawkbit. It is native to Europe but it can be found throughout North America as an introduced species.
It ranked first place among the "non-weed" ...
(''Leontodon hispidus''), or
upright brome
''Bromus erectus'', commonly known as erect brome, upright brome or meadow brome, is a dense, course, tufted perennial grass. It can grow to . Like many brome grasses the plant is hairy. The specific epithet ''erectus'' is Latin, meaning "erect". ...
(''Bromus erectus''). In these grasslands,
greater knapweed
''Centaurea scabiosa'', or greater knapweed, is a perennial plant of the genus '' Centaurea''. It is native to Europe and bears purple flower heads.
Greater knapweed is found growing in dry grasslands, hedgerows and cliffs on lime-rich soil. Up ...
(''C. scabiosa'') is found much more rarely by comparison, often in association with
red fescue
''Festuca rubra'' is a species of grass known by the common name red fescue or creeping red fescue. It is widespread across much of the Northern Hemisphere and can tolerate many habitats and climates. It is best adapted to well-drained soils in ...
(''Festuca rubra'') in addition to cock's-foot and false oat-grass.
Due to their habit of dominating ecosystems under good conditions, many ''Centaurea'' species can become
invasive weed
An invasive species otherwise known as an alien is an introduced organism that becomes overpopulated and harms its new environment. Although most introduced species are neutral or beneficial with respect to other species, invasive species ad ...
s in regions where they are not native. In parts of North America,
diffuse knapweed
''Centaurea diffusa'', also known as diffuse knapweed, white knapweed or tumble knapweed, is a member of the genus ''Centaurea'' in the family Asteraceae. This species is common throughout western North America but is not actually native to the ...
(''C. diffusa''),
spotted knapweed
''Centaurea stoebe'', the spotted knapweed or panicled knapweed, is a species of ''Centaurea'' native to eastern Europe, although it has spread to North America, where it is considered an invasive species. It forms a tumbleweed, helping to in ...
(''C. maculosa'') and
yellow starthistle
''Centaurea solstitialis'', the yellow star-thistle, is a species of thorny plant in the genus ''Centaurea'', which is part of the family Asteraceae. A winter annual, it is native to the Mediterranean Basin region and invasive in many other ...
(''C. solstitialis'') cause severe problems in
agriculture
Agriculture or farming is the practice of cultivating plants and livestock. Agriculture was the key development in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that enabled people t ...
due to their uncontrolled spread. The
seed
A seed is an embryonic plant enclosed in a protective outer covering, along with a food reserve. The formation of the seed is a part of the process of reproduction in seed plants, the spermatophytes, including the gymnosperm and angiospe ...
s are typically transported by human traffic, in particular the
tire
A tire (American English) or tyre (British English) is a ring-shaped component that surrounds a wheel's rim to transfer a vehicle's load from the axle through the wheel to the ground and to provide traction on the surface over which t ...
s of
all-terrain vehicle
An all-terrain vehicle (ATV), also known as a light utility vehicle (LUV), a quad bike, or simply a quad, as defined by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI); is a vehicle that travels on low-pressure tires, with a seat that is stra ...
s. The two knapweeds are harmful mainly because they are strongly
allelopathic, producing powerful
toxin
A toxin is a naturally occurring organic poison produced by metabolic activities of living cells or organisms. Toxins occur especially as a protein or conjugated protein. The term toxin was first used by organic chemist Ludwig Brieger (1849 ...
s in their
root
In vascular plants, the roots are the organs of a plant that are modified to provide anchorage for the plant and take in water and nutrients into the plant body, which allows plants to grow taller and faster. They are most often below the su ...
s that stunt the growth of plants around them not adapted to this.
[Hierro & Callaway (2003), Vivanco ''et al.'' (2004).] Yellow starthistle, meanwhile, is inedible to most
livestock
Livestock are the domesticated animals raised in an agricultural setting to provide labor and produce diversified products for consumption such as meat, eggs, milk, fur, leather, and wool. The term is sometimes used to refer solely to animal ...
due to its spines and apparently outright
poisonous
Poison is a chemical substance that has a detrimental effect to life. The term is used in a wide range of scientific fields and industries, where it is often specifically defined. It may also be applied colloquially or figuratively, with a broa ...
to
horse
The horse (''Equus ferus caballus'') is a domesticated, one-toed, hoofed mammal. It belongs to the taxonomic family Equidae and is one of two extant subspecies of ''Equus ferus''. The horse has evolved over the past 45 to 55 million yea ...
s and other
equine
Equinae is a subfamily of the family Equidae, which have lived worldwide (except Indonesia and Australia) from the Hemingfordian stage of the Early Miocene (16 million years ago) onwards. They are thought to be a monophyletic grouping.B. J. Ma ...
s. However, efficient methods of
biological control
Biological control or biocontrol is a method of controlling pests, such as insects, mites, weeds, and plant diseases, using other organisms. It relies on predation, parasitism, herbivory, or other natural mechanisms, but typically also i ...
by insect
pests of these weeds have been developed; the knapweeds can also exploited to their detriment by
targeted grazing.
Controlled burning
A controlled or prescribed burn, also known as hazard reduction burning, backfire, swailing, or a burn-off, is a fire set intentionally for purposes of forest management, farming, prairie restoration or greenhouse gas abatement. A control ...
may also be used, though the timing is important to avoid the plants having seeded already, and neither allowing sufficient time for them to regrow from the rootstock.
[Emery & Gross (2005).]
Yet other species of ''Centaurea'' – mostly ones that occur between Italy and the
Caucasus
The Caucasus () or Caucasia (), is a region between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, mainly comprising Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia (country), Georgia, and parts of Southern Russia. The Caucasus Mountains, including the Greater Caucasus range ...
– are
endemics
Endemism is the state of a species being found in a single defined geographic location, such as an island, state, nation, country or other defined zone; organisms that are indigenous to a place are not endemic to it if they are also found else ...
of a single island or valley, and some of these are
endangered
An endangered species is a species that is very likely to become extinct in the near future, either worldwide or in a particular political jurisdiction. Endangered species may be at risk due to factors such as habitat loss, poaching and in ...
. The
Akamas Centaurea
''Centaurea akamantis'', the Akamas centaurea, is a species of flowering plant in the family Asteraceae. It is found only in Cyprus. Its natural habitat is Mediterranean-type shrubby vegetation. It is threatened by habitat loss.
It was first publ ...
(''Centaurea akamantis'') of
Cyprus
Cyprus ; tr, Kıbrıs (), officially the Republic of Cyprus,, , lit: Republic of Cyprus is an island country located south of the Anatolian Peninsula in the eastern Mediterranean Sea. Its continental position is disputed; while it is ge ...
is almost
extinct, while the western Caucasus endemics ''
C. leptophylla'' and ''
C. straminicephala'' are at least very rare and ''
C. hedgei'' and ''
C. pecho'' from the same region are certainly not abundant either. The last four species would be adversely affected by the proposed
Yusufeli Dam
The Yusufeli Dam is an arch dam on the Çoruh River near Yusufeli in Artvin Province within the eastern Black Sea region of Turkey. The Yusufeli Dam will be the second largest dam within the larger Çoruh River Development Plan, which plans to bu ...
, which might actually destroy enough
habitat
In ecology, the term habitat summarises the array of resources, physical and biotic factors that are present in an area, such as to support the survival and reproduction of a particular species. A species habitat can be seen as the physical ...
to push the two rarer ones over the brink of extinction.
''Centaurea'' are copious
nectar producers, especially on high-lime
soil
Soil, also commonly referred to as earth or dirt
Dirt is an unclean matter, especially when in contact with a person's clothes, skin, or possessions. In such cases, they are said to become dirty.
Common types of dirt include:
* Debri ...
s. The high nectar yield of the genus makes it very attractive to
insect
Insects (from Latin ') are pancrustacean hexapod invertebrates of the class Insecta. They are the largest group within the arthropod phylum. Insects have a chitinous exoskeleton, a three-part body ( head, thorax and abdomen), three ...
s such as
butterflies – including the
endangered
An endangered species is a species that is very likely to become extinct in the near future, either worldwide or in a particular political jurisdiction. Endangered species may be at risk due to factors such as habitat loss, poaching and in ...
Karner blue (''Plebejus melissa samuelis'') which visits introduced spotted knapweed – and day-flying
moth
Moths are a paraphyletic group of insects that includes all members of the order Lepidoptera that are not butterflies, with moths making up the vast majority of the order. There are thought to be approximately 160,000 species of moth, many of w ...
s – typically
Zygaenidae
The Zygaenidae moths are a family of Lepidoptera. The majority of zygaenids are tropical, but they are nevertheless quite well represented in temperate regions. Some of the 1000 or so species are commonly known as burnet or forester moths, oft ...
, such as ''
Zygaena loti'' or the
six-spot burnet
The six-spot burnet (''Zygaena filipendulae'') is a day-flying moth of the family Zygaenidae.
Subspecies
*''Z. f. altapyrenaica'' Le Charles, 1950
*''Z. f. arctica'' Schneider, 1880
*''Z. f. balcanirosea'' Holik, 1943
*''Z. f. campaniae'' Re ...
(''Z. filipendulae''). The
larva
A larva (; plural larvae ) is a distinct juvenile form many animals undergo before metamorphosis into adults. Animals with indirect development such as insects, amphibians, or cnidarians typically have a larval phase of their life cycle.
...
e of some other
Lepidoptera species use ''Centaurea'' species as food plants; see
List of Lepidoptera that feed on ''Centaurea''. Several of these are used in biological control of invasive knapweeds and starthistles.
Larva
A larva (; plural larvae ) is a distinct juvenile form many animals undergo before metamorphosis into adults. Animals with indirect development such as insects, amphibians, or cnidarians typically have a larval phase of their life cycle.
...
e of several
true weevil
True most commonly refers to truth, the state of being in congruence with fact or reality.
True may also refer to:
Places
* True, West Virginia, an unincorporated community in the United States
* True, Wisconsin, a town in the United States
* T ...
s (Curculionidae) of the
subfamily Lixinae
Lixinae is a subfamily of true weevils, included in the Molytinae in many older treatments. They are mainly root feeders, although some develop in flower buds or stems. Several species are used in biological control of invasive weeds, namely k ...
also feed on ''Centaurea''. Some
genera – such as ''
Larinus
''Larinus'' is a genus of true weevils, comprising about 180 species, mostly in the Palaearctic region.Hoffman, A. 1954. Faune de France. 59, Coléoptères Curculionidés. Part 2. P. Lechavalier, Paris.
Turkey appears to have a significant div ...
'' whose larval food is flowerheads – have many species especially
adapted
In biology, adaptation has three related meanings. Firstly, it is the dynamic evolutionary process of natural selection that fits organisms to their environment, enhancing their evolutionary fitness. Secondly, it is a state reached by the po ...
to particular knapweeds or starthistle and are used in biological control too. These include the
yellow starthistle flower weevil
''Larinus curtus'' is a species of Curculionidae, true weevil known as the yellow starthistle flower weevil. It is native to Southern Italy, Southern Europe, the Middle East and the Caucasuses. It is used as an agent of biological pest control ...
(''L. curtus'') for yellow starthistle,
lesser knapweed flower weevil
''Larinus minutus'' is a species of true weevil known as the lesser knapweed flower weevil. It is used as an agent of biological pest control against noxious knapweeds, especially diffuse knapweed (''Centaurea diffusa'') and spotted knapweed.
...
(''L. minutus'') for diffuse knapweed and
blunt knapweed flower weevil (''L. obtusus'') for spotted knapweed.
Broad-nosed seedhead weevil (''Bangasternus fausti'') larvae eat diffuse, spotted and
squarrose knapweed (''C. virgata'' ssp. ''squarrosa''), while those of the
yellow starthistle bud weevil
Abstract
''Bangasternus orientalis'' is a species of true weevil known as the yellow starthistle bud weevil. It is used as an agent of biological pest control against the noxious weed yellow starthistle
''Centaurea solstitialis'', the ye ...
(''B. orientalis'') do not seem to live on anything other than yellow starthistle and occasionally
purple starthistle
''Centaurea calcitrapa'' is a species of flowering plant known by several common names, including red star-thistle and purple star thistle. It is native to Europe but is rarely found there, it is known across the globe as an introduced species an ...
(''C. calcitrapa''). But perhaps most efficient in destroying developing yellow starthistle seedheads is the larva of the
yellow starthistle hairy weevil (''Eustenopus villosus'').
Knapweed root weevil (''Cyphocleonus achates'') larvae bore into the roots of spotted and to a lesser extentely diffuse knapweed, sometimes killing off the entire plant.
Also used in biological control are
Tephritidae
The Tephritidae are one of two fly families referred to as fruit flies, the other family being the Drosophilidae. The family Tephritidae does not include the biological model organisms of the genus ''Drosophila'' (in the family Drosophilidae), ...
(peacock flies) whose larvae feed on ''Centaurea''.
Knapweed peacock fly (''Chaetorellia acrolophi'') larvae eat spotted knapweed and some other species. The
yellow starthistle peacock fly (''C. australis'') has an initial
generation
A generation refers to all of the people born and living at about the same time, regarded collectively. It can also be described as, "the average period, generally considered to be about 20–30 years, during which children are born and gr ...
each year which often uses
cornflower
''Centaurea cyanus'', commonly known as cornflower or bachelor's button, is an annual flowering plant in the family Asteraceae native to Europe. In the past, it often grew as a weed in cornfields (in the broad sense of "corn", referring to gr ...
(''C. cyanus'') as larval food; later generations switch to yellow starthistle. The flies are generally considered less efficient in destroying the growing seedheads than the weevils, but may be superior under certain conditions; employing flies and weevils in combination is expensive and does not noticeably increase their effect.
Use by humans
Although the genus may be considered by a quite significant number of relatively informed individuals to have an overall negative impact on human interests, particularly agricultural interests, the situation is not straightforward enough to simply declare the genus, or, at least, its most aggressively-spreading species, altogether negative. For instance, due to their moderate to high nectar production, which can occur over a comparatively long duration, many species of ''Centaurea'' are popular food sources for
insect
Insects (from Latin ') are pancrustacean hexapod invertebrates of the class Insecta. They are the largest group within the arthropod phylum. Insects have a chitinous exoskeleton, a three-part body ( head, thorax and abdomen), three ...
s that may otherwise attack certain
crop
A crop is a plant that can be grown and harvested extensively for profit or subsistence. When the plants of the same kind are cultivated at one place on a large scale, it is called a crop. Most crops are cultivated in agriculture or hydropon ...
s. It may be advisable for some types of farms to allow certain species in this genus, such as
cornflower
''Centaurea cyanus'', commonly known as cornflower or bachelor's button, is an annual flowering plant in the family Asteraceae native to Europe. In the past, it often grew as a weed in cornfields (in the broad sense of "corn", referring to gr ...
(''C. cyanus'') in a European setting, to grow adjacent to fields. Although they support and attract many types of beneficial life (not just beetles), these areas are known as
beetle bank
A beetle bank, in agriculture and horticulture, is a form of biological pest control. It is a strip, preferably raised, planted with grasses (bunch grasses) and/or perennial plants, within a crop field or a garden, that fosters and provides habita ...
s. When they are present, some pests may be drawn away from crops to them and predatory insects and
arachnid
Arachnida () is a class of joint-legged invertebrate animals (arthropods), in the subphylum Chelicerata. Arachnida includes, among others, spiders, scorpions, ticks, mites, pseudoscorpions, harvestmen, camel spiders, whip spiders and vinegar ...
s that feed upon pest insects will be better-supported by these more naturalized areas. They additionally have the beneficial aspect of supporting
pollinators, unlike many field crops such as
maize
Maize ( ; ''Zea mays'' subsp. ''mays'', from es, maíz after tnq, mahiz), also known as corn (North American and Australian English), is a cereal grain first domesticated by indigenous peoples in southern Mexico about 10,000 years ago. The ...
. Moreover, being untreated with
pesticides and providing more
diversity
Diversity, diversify, or diverse may refer to:
Business
*Diversity (business), the inclusion of people of different identities (ethnicity, gender, age) in the workforce
*Diversity marketing, marketing communication targeting diverse customers
* ...
, plants growing in more wild areas adjacent to farms produce more insects that attract and support birds which can also feed on pests that would harm crops. Insect production is especially high for beetle banks that have enough plants that serve in the role of host plant for immature insects, rather than just in the roles of adult food and/or shelter provision.
Some plants which are considered invasive or problematic in certain areas can have beneficial qualities that outweigh their negative qualities from a human and/or human agricultural point of view, although this sometimes requires some human management – particularly if adequate biological control has not been established for the more aggressive species. An example is wild parsnip, ''
Pastinaca sativa
The parsnip ('' Pastinaca sativa'') is a root vegetable closely related to carrot and parsley, all belonging to the flowering plant family Apiaceae. It is a biennial plant usually grown as an annual. Its long taproot has cream-colored ski ...
'', which produces florets that feed predatory (and other beneficial) insects as well as large tubular stems that provide winter shelter for native bees, wasps, and other organisms that can be beneficial for agriculture. The plant is considered invasive in some areas of the United States and is also often considered undesirable due to its ability to cause contact skin irritation. However, it also serves as a host plant for the black swallowtail butterfly, helps to bring nutrients up from soils with its deep taproot, and possesses evergreen foliage even in climate zones such as US zone 6. This foliage increases soil warmth and moisture which can be beneficial for certain types of life. Perhaps the most dramatic example of a generally disliked plant's beneficial qualities being usually overlooked is the often-despised ragwort, ''
Jacobaea vulgaris
''Jacobaea vulgaris'', syn. ''Senecio jacobaea'', is a very common wild flower in the family Asteraceae that is native to northern Eurasia, usually in dry, open places, and has also been widely distributed as a weed elsewhere.
Common names inc ...
'', which topped the list by a large amount for nectar production in a UK study, with a production per floral unit of (2921 ± 448μg).
This very high nectar production, coupled with its early blooming period, makes the plant helpful for the establishment of bee colonies in spring — a period that is often not well-served by commercial flower meadow seed mixes.
It also has the situationally-beneficial quality of being a spring
ephemeral
Ephemerality (from the Greek word , meaning 'lasting only one day') is the concept of things being transitory, existing only briefly. Academically, the term ephemeral constitutionally describes a diverse assortment of things and experiences, fr ...
, as well as an annual that lacks difficult-to-combat roots. Plants that provide necessary structural supports for
invertebrate
Invertebrates are a paraphyletic group of animals that neither possess nor develop a vertebral column (commonly known as a ''backbone'' or ''spine''), derived from the notochord. This is a grouping including all animals apart from the chordate ...
and small
vertebrate
Vertebrates () comprise all animal taxa within the subphylum Vertebrata () (chordates with backbones), including all mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fish. Vertebrates represent the overwhelming majority of the phylum Chordata, with c ...
predator
Predation is a biological interaction where one organism, the predator, kills and eats another organism, its prey. It is one of a family of common feeding behaviours that includes parasitism and micropredation (which usually do not kill th ...
s can help to keep overall pest populations low.
The abundant
nectar produced by ''C. solstitialis'' flowers attracts many
pollinators. This is another reason for the success of the (situationally) highly
invasive species. Due to genetic differences related to evolutionary adaption, not all members of ''Centaurea'' produce the same amount of nectar. Growing conditions, such as climate and soil, can have a very strong impact, even if the plants grow and flower. For instance, cornflower plants, ''Centaurea cyanus'', produced 33% less seasonal nectar than ''Centaurea nigra'' in a UK study.
''C. nigra'' also ranked higher than ragwort in another UK study, although ragwort was still in the top 10 for yearly nectar production.
The strong nectar production of certain members of the genus can be exploited to the farmer's advantage, possibly in combination with
biological control
Biological control or biocontrol is a method of controlling pests, such as insects, mites, weeds, and plant diseases, using other organisms. It relies on predation, parasitism, herbivory, or other natural mechanisms, but typically also i ...
. In particular, the
yellow starthistle
''Centaurea solstitialis'', the yellow star-thistle, is a species of thorny plant in the genus ''Centaurea'', which is part of the family Asteraceae. A winter annual, it is native to the Mediterranean Basin region and invasive in many other ...
(''C. solstitialis'') as well as
spotted knapweed
''Centaurea stoebe'', the spotted knapweed or panicled knapweed, is a species of ''Centaurea'' native to eastern Europe, although it has spread to North America, where it is considered an invasive species. It forms a tumbleweed, helping to in ...
(''C. maculosa'') are major
honey
Honey is a sweet and viscous substance made by several bees, the best-known of which are honey bees. Honey is made and stored to nourish bee colonies. Bees produce honey by gathering and then refining the sugary secretions of plants (primar ...
plants for
beekeeper
A beekeeper is a person who keeps honey bees.
Beekeepers are also called honey farmers, apiarists, or less commonly, apiculturists (both from the Latin '' apis'', bee; cf. apiary). The term beekeeper refers to a person who keeps honey bees i ...
s.
Monofloral honey
Monofloral honey is a type of honey which has a distinctive flavor or other attribute due to its being predominantly from the nectar of a single plant species. It is stored and labeled separately so as to command a premium price. While there may ...
from these plants is light and slightly tangy, and one of the finest honeys produced in the United States – due to its better availability, it is even fraudulently relabeled and sold as the scarce and expensive
sourwood
''Oxydendrum arboreum'', the sourwood or sorrel tree, is the sole species in the genus ''Oxydendrum'', in the family Ericaceae. It is native to eastern North America, from southern Pennsylvania south to northwest Florida and west to southern I ...
honey of the
Appalachian Mountains
The Appalachian Mountains, often called the Appalachians, (french: Appalaches), are a system of mountains in eastern to northeastern North America. The Appalachians first formed roughly 480 million years ago during the Ordovician Period. They ...
. Placing
beehive
A beehive is an enclosed structure in which some honey bee species of the subgenus '' Apis'' live and raise their young. Though the word ''beehive'' is commonly used to describe the nest of any bee colony, scientific and professional literature ...
s near stands of ''Centaurea'' will cause increased pollination. As most seedheads fail however when biocontrol pests have established themselves, the plants will bloom ever more abundantly in an attempt to replace the destroyed seedheads, to the point where they exhaust their resources in providing food for the pests (seeds), bees (
pollen) and humans (honey). Output of
allelopathic compounds is also liable to be reduced under such conditions – the plant has to compromise between allocating energy to reproduction and defense. This renders the weeds more likely to be suppressed by native vegetation or crops in the following years, especially if properly timed
controlled burning
A controlled or prescribed burn, also known as hazard reduction burning, backfire, swailing, or a burn-off, is a fire set intentionally for purposes of forest management, farming, prairie restoration or greenhouse gas abatement. A control ...
[ and/or targeted grazing by suitable ]livestock
Livestock are the domesticated animals raised in an agricultural setting to provide labor and produce diversified products for consumption such as meat, eggs, milk, fur, leather, and wool. The term is sometimes used to refer solely to animal ...
are also employed. While yellow starthistle and perhaps other species are toxic
Toxicity is the degree to which a chemical substance or a particular mixture of substances can damage an organism. Toxicity can refer to the effect on a whole organism, such as an animal, bacterium, or plant, as well as the effect on a subs ...
to equine
Equinae is a subfamily of the family Equidae, which have lived worldwide (except Indonesia and Australia) from the Hemingfordian stage of the Early Miocene (16 million years ago) onwards. They are thought to be a monophyletic grouping.B. J. Ma ...
s, some other livestock may eat the non-spiny knapweeds with relish. In Europe, common knapweed
''Centaurea nigra'' is a species of flowering plant in the family Asteraceae known by the common names lesser knapweed, common knapweed and black knapweed. A local vernacular name is hardheads.
It is native to Europe but it is known on other ...
(''C. nigra'') and globe knapweed ('' C. macrocephala'') are locally important pollen sources for honeybees in mid-late summer.
8-Hydroxyquinoline
8-Hydroxyquinoline (also known as oxine) is a chelate, chelating agent which has been used for the Quantitative analysis (chemistry), quantitative determination of metal ions.
In aqueous solution 8-hydroxyquinoline has a pKa value of ca. 9.9 It r ...
has been identified as a main allelopathic compound produced by diffuse knapweed
''Centaurea diffusa'', also known as diffuse knapweed, white knapweed or tumble knapweed, is a member of the genus ''Centaurea'' in the family Asteraceae. This species is common throughout western North America but is not actually native to the ...
(''C. diffusa''); native North American plants are typically sensitive to it, while those of Eastern Europe
Eastern Europe is a subregion of the European continent. As a largely ambiguous term, it has a wide range of geopolitical, geographical, ethnic, cultural, and socio-economic connotations. The vast majority of the region is covered by Russia, whic ...
and Asia Minor
Anatolia, tr, Anadolu Yarımadası), and the Anatolian plateau, also known as Asia Minor, is a large peninsula in Western Asia and the westernmost protrusion of the Asian continent. It constitutes the major part of modern-day Turkey. The re ...
usually have coevolved
In biology, coevolution occurs when two or more species reciprocally affect each other's evolution through the process of natural selection. The term sometimes is used for two traits in the same species affecting each other's evolution, as well ...
with the knapweed and are little harmed if at all, aided by native microorganism
A microorganism, or microbe,, ''mikros'', "small") and ''organism'' from the el, ὀργανισμός, ''organismós'', "organism"). It is usually written as a single word but is sometimes hyphenated (''micro-organism''), especially in olde ...
s that break down or even feed on the abundantly secreted compound.[ Thus, 8-hydroxyquinoline is potentially useful to control American plants that have become invasive weeds in the diffuse knapweed's native range.
Arctiin, found in ''C. imperialis'', has shown ]anticancer An anticarcinogen (also known as a carcinopreventive agent) is a substance that counteracts the effects of a carcinogen or inhibits the development of cancer. Anticarcinogens are different from anticarcinoma agents (also known as anticancer or an ...
activity in laboratory studies. The roots of the long-lost '' C. foliosa'', an endemic
Endemism is the state of a species being found in a single defined geographic location, such as an island, state, nation, country or other defined zone; organisms that are indigenous to a place are not endemic to it if they are also found else ...
of Hatay Province (Turkey), are used in folk medicine, and other species are presumably too. A South Italian variety of the purple starthistle
''Centaurea calcitrapa'' is a species of flowering plant known by several common names, including red star-thistle and purple star thistle. It is native to Europe but is rarely found there, it is known across the globe as an introduced species an ...
(''C. calcitrapa'') is traditionally consumed by ethnic Albanians ( Arbëreshë people) in the Vulture area
The Vulture ( it, Il Vulture, italic=no, ), also known as the Vulture-Melfese or Vulture-Alto Bradano is a geographical and historical region in the northern part of the province of Potenza, in the Basilicata region of Italy.
Geography
The are ...
(southern Italy); e.g. in the Arbëreshë communities in Lucania
Lucania was a historical region of Southern Italy. It was the land of the Lucani, an Oscan people. It extended from the Tyrrhenian Sea to the Gulf of Taranto.
It bordered with Samnium and Campania in the north, Apulia in the east, and Bruttiu ...
the young whorls of ''C. calcitrapa'' are boiled and fried in mixtures with other weedy non-cultivated greens. According to research by the Michael Heinrich group at the Centre for Pharmacognosy and Phytotherapy (School of Pharmacy, University of London
The UCL School of Pharmacy (formerly The School of Pharmacy, University of London) is the pharmacy school of University College London (UCL). The School forms part of UCL's Faculty of Life Sciences and is located in London, United Kingdom.
The ...
) "the antioxidant activity ..of the young whorls
A whorl ( or ) is an individual circle, oval, volution or equivalent in a whorled pattern, which consists of a spiral or multiple concentric objects (including circles, ovals and arcs).
Whorls in nature
File:Photograph and axial plane floral ...
of ''Centaurea calcitrapa'', both in the DPPH
DPPH is a common abbreviation for the organic chemical compound 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl. It is a dark-colored crystalline powder composed of stable free radical molecules. DPPH has two major applications, both in laboratory research: one is ...
and in the lipid peroxidation inhibition assays, svery interesting and hespecies should be investigated phytochemically and biochemically focusing on these properties". Extracts from ''C. calcitrapa'' were furthermore found to have significant xanthine oxidase
Xanthine oxidase (XO, sometimes XAO) is a form of xanthine oxidoreductase, a type of enzyme that generates reactive oxygen species. These enzymes catalyze the oxidation of hypoxanthine to xanthine and can further catalyze the oxidation of xanthin ...
(XO)-inhibiting activity.
Spotted knapweed as well as other species are rich in cnicin, a bitter
Bitter may refer to:
Common uses
* Resentment, negative emotion or attitude, similar to being jaded, cynical or otherwise negatively affected by experience
* Bitter (taste), one of the five basic tastes
Books
* '' Bitter (novel)'', a 2022 nove ...
compound found mainly in the leaves and often used to flavor the digestif amaro. In western Crete
Crete ( el, Κρήτη, translit=, Modern: , Ancient: ) is the largest and most populous of the Greek islands, the 88th largest island in the world and the fifth largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, after Sicily, Sardinia, Cyprus, ...
, Greece
Greece,, or , romanized: ', officially the Hellenic Republic, is a country in Southeast Europe. It is situated on the southern tip of the Balkans, and is located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, and Africa. Greece shares land borders ...
a local variety
Variety may refer to:
Arts and entertainment Entertainment formats
* Variety (radio)
* Variety show, in theater and television
Films
* ''Variety'' (1925 film), a German silent film directed by Ewald Andre Dupont
* ''Variety'' (1935 film), ...
of ''C. calcitrapa'' called ''gourounaki'' (γουρουνάκι "little pig") also has its leaves eaten boiled by the locals. In the same island an endemic local species, '' C. idaea'' called ''katsoula'' (κατσούλα), ''tsita'' (τσίτα) or ''aspragatha'' (ασπραγκάθα), has its leaves eaten boiled by the locals too.
Some species are cultivated as ornamental plant
Ornamental plants or garden plants are plants that are primarily grown for their beauty but also for qualities such as scent or how they shape physical space. Many flowering plants and garden varieties tend to be specially bred cultivars that ...
s in garden
A garden is a planned space, usually outdoors, set aside for the cultivation, display, and enjoyment of plants and other forms of nature. The single feature identifying even the wildest wild garden is ''control''. The garden can incorporate bot ...
s. As regards other aspects of popular culture
Popular culture (also called mass culture or pop culture) is generally recognized by members of a society as a set of practices, beliefs, artistic output (also known as, popular art or mass art) and objects that are dominant or prevalent in a ...
, cornflower
''Centaurea cyanus'', commonly known as cornflower or bachelor's button, is an annual flowering plant in the family Asteraceae native to Europe. In the past, it often grew as a weed in cornfields (in the broad sense of "corn", referring to gr ...
(''C. cyanus'') is the floral emblem
In a number of countries, plants have been chosen as symbols to represent specific geographic areas. Some countries have a country-wide floral emblem; others in addition have symbols representing subdivisions. Different processes have been used to ...
of Östergötland province (Sweden) – where is it called ''blåklint'', literally "blue mountain" – and of Päijänne Tavastia region in Finland
Finland ( fi, Suomi ; sv, Finland ), officially the Republic of Finland (; ), is a Nordic country in Northern Europe. It shares land borders with Sweden to the northwest, Norway to the north, and Russia to the east, with the Gulf of B ...
, where it is known as ''ruiskaunokki'' (" rye-beaks") or ''ruiskukka'' ("rye-flower"). It is also the national flower of Estonia
Estonia, formally the Republic of Estonia, is a country by the Baltic Sea in Northern Europe. It is bordered to the north by the Gulf of Finland across from Finland, to the west by the sea across from Sweden, to the south by Latvia, a ...
where its local name ''rukkilill'' means "rye-lily
''Lilium'' () is a genus of herbaceous flowering plants growing from bulbs, all with large prominent flowers. They are the true lilies. Lilies are a group of flowering plants which are important in culture and literature in much of the world. M ...
", Belarus
Belarus,, , ; alternatively and formerly known as Byelorussia (from Russian ). officially the Republic of Belarus,; rus, Республика Беларусь, Respublika Belarus. is a landlocked country in Eastern Europe. It is bordered by ...
where it is called ''vałoška'' ( be, валошка), and one of those of Germany where it is called ''Kornblume'' ("cornflower"). The origin of the name "caltrop
A caltrop (also known as caltrap, galtrop, cheval trap, galthrap, galtrap, calthrop, jackrock or crow's foot''Battle of Alesia'' (Caesar's conquest of Gaul in 52 BC), Battlefield Detectives program, (2006), rebroadcast: 2008-09-08 on History Cha ...
" for the ancient low-tech area denial
An area denial weapon is a defensive device used to prevent an adversary from occupying or traversing an area of land, sea or air. The specific method used does not have to be totally effective in preventing passage (and sometimes is not) as lon ...
weapon is probably in some way connected with ''C. calcitrapa'' and its spiny seeds. This plant is attested to by the colloquial name "caltrop" at a time when the weapons were still called by their Roman
Roman or Romans most often refers to:
*Rome, the capital city of Italy
*Ancient Rome, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD
*Roman people, the people of ancient Rome
*'' Epistle to the Romans'', shortened to ''Romans'', a lette ...
name ''tribulus''. Lastly, the color
Color (American English) or colour (British English) is the visual perceptual property deriving from the spectrum of light interacting with the photoreceptor cells of the eyes. Color categories and physical specifications of color are assoc ...
cornflower blue is named after ''C. cyanus''. Cornflower is also used as a cut flower.
Systematics and taxonomy
As namesake member of the subtribe Centaureinae of tribe
The term tribe is used in many different contexts to refer to a category of human social group. The predominant worldwide usage of the term in English is in the discipline of anthropology. This definition is contested, in part due to confli ...
Cynareae
The Cardueae are a tribe of flowering plants in the daisy family (Asteraceae) and the subfamily Carduoideae. Most of them are commonly known as thistles; four of the best known genera are ''Carduus'', ''Cynara'' (containing the widely eaten arti ...
, the knapweeds are probably most closely related to genera such as '' Carthamus'' (distaff thistles), ''Cnicus
''Cnicus benedictus'', known by the common names St. Benedict's thistle, blessed thistle, holy thistle and spotted thistle, is a thistle-like plant in the family Asteraceae, native to the Mediterranean region, from Portugal north to southern F ...
'' (blessed thistle), ''Crupina
''Crupina'' is a small genus of plants in the tribe Cardueae within the family Asteraceae.
The common crupina '' Crupina vulgaris'' is a notorious noxious weed on several continents. The other species, '' Crupina crupinastrum'', also has the po ...
'' (crupinas) or ''Notobasis
''Notobasis'' is a genus in the tribe Cardueae within the family Asteraceae. It is native to the Mediterranean region and the Middle East, from Madeira, the Canary Islands, Morocco and Portugal east to Egypt, Iran and Azerbaijan.
; Species
* '' ...
'' (Syrian thistle), and somewhat less closely to most other thistle
Thistle is the common name of a group of flowering plants characterised by leaves with sharp prickles on the margins, mostly in the family Asteraceae. Prickles can also occur all over the planton the stem and on the flat parts of the leaves ...
s. The monotypic
In biology, a monotypic taxon is a taxonomic group (taxon) that contains only one immediately subordinate taxon. A monotypic species is one that does not include subspecies or smaller, infraspecific taxa. In the case of genera, the term "unispe ...
''Cnicus'' seems in fact to properly belong in ''Centaurea''.
Research in the late 20th century shows that ''Centaurea'' as traditionally defined is polyphyletic
A polyphyletic group is an assemblage of organisms or other evolving elements that is of mixed evolutionary origin. The term is often applied to groups that share similar features known as homoplasies, which are explained as a result of conver ...
. A number of 19th- and 20th-century efforts to reorganize the genus were not successful, and it is not yet clear what the consequences of the recent research will be for classification of this genus and other related genera. The type species
In zoological nomenclature, a type species (''species typica'') is the species name with which the name of a genus or subgenus is considered to be permanently taxonomically associated, i.e., the species that contains the biological type specime ...
'' C. centaurium'' stands somewhat apart from the main lineage of knapweeds and thus the taxonomic consequences of a rearrangement might be severe, with hundreds of species needing to be moved to new genera. It has thus been proposed to change the type species to one of the main lineages to avoid this problem. What seems certain however is that the basketflowers – presently treated as a section
Section, Sectioning or Sectioned may refer to:
Arts, entertainment and media
* Section (music), a complete, but not independent, musical idea
* Section (typography), a subdivision, especially of a chapter, in books and documents
** Section sig ...
''Plectocephalus'' – will be reinstated as a distinct genus in the near future. The rock-centauries (''Cheirolophus''), formerly usually included in ''Centaurea'', are now already treated as separate genus.[
]
Synonyms
*''Acosta'' Adans.
*''Aegialophila'' Boiss.
Pierre Edmond Boissier (25 May 1810 Geneva – 25 September 1885 Valeyres-sous-Rances) was a Swiss prominent botanist, explorer and mathematician.
He was the son of Jacques Boissier (1784-1857) and Caroline Butini (1786-1836), daughter of Pierr ...
& Heldr.
Theodor Heinrich Hermann von Heldreich (3 March 1822 – 7 September 1902) was a German botanist born in Dresden. In 1851, he settled in Greece for the rest of his life. He carried out botanical experiments in the country. He published thirtee ...
*''Calcitrapa'' Vaill.
*''Calcitrapoides'' Vaill.
*''Chartolepis'' Cass.
Count Alexandre Henri Gabriel de Cassini (9 May 1781 – 23 April 1832) was a French botanist and naturalist, who specialised in the sunflower family (Asteraceae) (then known as family Compositae).
He was the youngest of five children of Jacque ...
*''Cheirolepis'' Boiss.
Pierre Edmond Boissier (25 May 1810 Geneva – 25 September 1885 Valeyres-sous-Rances) was a Swiss prominent botanist, explorer and mathematician.
He was the son of Jacques Boissier (1784-1857) and Caroline Butini (1786-1836), daughter of Pierr ...
*''Cnicus'' L., ''nom. cons.''
*''Colymbada'' Hill
A hill is a landform that extends above the surrounding terrain. It often has a distinct summit.
Terminology
The distinction between a hill and a mountain is unclear and largely subjective, but a hill is universally considered to be not a ...
*''Crocodilium'' Vaill.
*''Grossheimia'' Sosn. & Takht.
*''Hyalea'' (DC.) Jaub. & Spach
*''Jacea'' Mill.
*''Melanoloma'' Cass.
*''Phaeopappus'' (DC.
Augustin Pyramus (or Pyrame) de Candolle (, , ; 4 February 17789 September 1841) was a Swiss botanist. René Louiche Desfontaines launched de Candolle's botanical career by recommending him at a herbarium. Within a couple of years de Candolle ...
) Boiss.
*''Plectocephalus'' D. Don
*''Stephanochilus'' Maire
*''Tomanthea'' DC.
*''Wagenitzia'' Dostál
*''Amberboa'' sect. ''Phaeopappus'' DC.
*''Centaurea'' sect. ''Hyalaea'' DC.
File:Centaurea macrocephala cropped-2832.jpg, Globe knapweed ('' C. macrocephala''
File:Centaurea napifolia Sardinia LM.jpg, '' Centaurea napifolia''
File:Centaurea nervosa (fabrizio.binello).jpg, '' Centaurea nervosa''
File:Centaurea pseudophrygia DSCF1538.JPG, '' Centaurea pseudophrygia''
File:Centaurea pulcherrima0.jpg, ''Centaurea pulcherrima
''Centaurea'' () is a genus of over 700 species of herbaceous thistle-like flowering plants in the family Asteraceae. Members of the genus are found only north of the equator, mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere; the Middle East and surrounding ...
''
File:Centaurea triumfettii.jpeg, '' Centaurea triumfettii''
File:0 Centaurea uniflora - Centaurée à un capitule.JPG, '' Centaurea uniflora''
Species
Better-known ''Centaurea'' species include:
* '' Centaurea acaulis''
* '' Centaurea adpressa''
* '' Centaurea aegyptiaca''
* '' Centaurea aeolica''
* ''Centaurea aggregata
''Centaurea'' () is a genus of over 700 species of herbaceous thistle-like flowering plants in the family Asteraceae. Members of the genus are found only north of the equator, mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere; the Middle East and surrounding reg ...
''
* '' Centaurea akamantis'' – Akamas centaurea
* '' Centaurea alba''
* ''Centaurea albonitens
''Centaurea'' () is a genus of over 700 species of herbaceous thistle-like flowering plants in the family Asteraceae. Members of the genus are found only north of the equator, mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere; the Middle East and surrounding re ...
'' Turrill
* '' Centaurea alpestris''
* '' Centaurea alpina''
* '' Centaurea ambigua''
* '' Centaurea amblyolepis''
* '' Centaurea americana'' – American basketflower, American starthistle
* ''Centaurea ammocyanus
''Centaurea ammocyanus'' is a species of flowering plant in the family Asteraceae. It is found in Sicily and Malta.
References
External links
*
*
Centaurea, ammocyanus
Taxa named by Pierre Edmond Boissier
{{Cynareae-stub ...
''
* '' Centaurea antennata'' Dufour
* '' Centaurea antiochia'' Boiss.
* '' Centaurea aplolepa''
** ''Centaurea aplolepa'' subsp. ''carueliana''
* '' Centaurea appendicigera'' C.Koch
* '' Centaurea argentea''
* ''Centaurea ascalonica
''Centaurea'' () is a genus of over 700 species of herbaceous thistle-like flowering plants in the family Asteraceae. Members of the genus are found only north of the equator, mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere; the Middle East and surrounding re ...
''
* '' Centaurea aspera'' L. – rough starthistle
* '' Centaurea atacamensis'' (Reiche) I.M.Johnst.
* '' Centaurea atropurpurea''
* '' Centaurea ×aurata''
* '' Centaurea babylonica'' L.
* ''Centaurea balsamita
''Centaurea'' () is a genus of over 700 species of herbaceous thistle-like flowering plants in the family Asteraceae. Members of the genus are found only north of the equator, mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere; the Middle East and surrounding reg ...
''
* ''Centaurea behen
''Centaurea behen'' is a species of ''Centaurea'' that grows in the wild under full sun in northern Iraq and Armenia and in many other areas of Western and Central Asia with a roughly similar environment, stretching from Lebanon to Kazakhstan.
T ...
'' L. – ''ak behmen'' ( Turkish)
* ''Centaurea bella
''Psephellus bellus'' is a species in the genus '' Psephellus'', subtribe Centaureinae, found in Anatolia
Anatolia, tr, Anadolu Yarımadası), and the Anatolian plateau, also known as Asia Minor, is a large peninsula in Western Asia an ...
''
* '' Centaurea benedicta – ''Cnicus''
* '' Centaurea bieberseinii''
* '' Centaurea borjae''
* '' Centaurea bovina''
* '' Centaurea bracteata''
* ''Centaurea brevifimbriata
''Centaurea'' () is a genus of over 700 species of herbaceous thistle-like flowering plants in the family Asteraceae. Members of the genus are found only north of the equator, mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere; the Middle East and surrounding re ...
'' Hub.-Mor.
* '' Centaurea bulbosa''
* ''Centaurea busambarensis
''Centaurea'' () is a genus of over 700 species of herbaceous thistle-like flowering plants in the family Asteraceae. Members of the genus are found only north of the equator, mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere; the Middle East and surrounding reg ...
'' Guss.
* '' Centaurea cachinalensis''
* ''Centaurea calcitrapa
''Centaurea calcitrapa'' is a species of flowering plant known by several common names, including red star-thistle and purple star thistle. It is native to Europe but is rarely found there, it is known across the globe as an introduced species an ...
'' – purple starthistle, red starthistle, "caltrop
A caltrop (also known as caltrap, galtrop, cheval trap, galthrap, galtrap, calthrop, jackrock or crow's foot''Battle of Alesia'' (Caesar's conquest of Gaul in 52 BC), Battlefield Detectives program, (2006), rebroadcast: 2008-09-08 on History Cha ...
"
* '' Centaurea calcitrapoides''
* '' Centaurea cariensis'' Boiss.
* '' Centaurea cariensiformis'' Hub.-Mor.
* ''Centaurea caroli-henrici
''Centaurea caroli-henrici'', the Karl-henrikh's centaury, is a species of flowering plant in the Asteraceae family.
Distribution
Its natural habitat is the Transcaucasus.
Taxonomy
It was named by Manfred Dittrich, and Elenora Tzolakovna ...
'' Gabrieljan & Dittrich
* ''Centaurea centaurium
''Centaurea'' () is a genus of over 700 species of herbaceous thistle-like flowering plants in the family Asteraceae. Members of the genus are found only north of the equator, mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere; the Middle East and surrounding reg ...
'' L.
* ''Centaurea chilensis
''Centaurea'' () is a genus of over 700 species of herbaceous thistle-like flowering plants in the family Asteraceae. Members of the genus are found only north of the equator, mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere; the Middle East and surrounding reg ...
''
* '' Centaurea cineraria'' – velvet centaurea, dusty miller
* '' Centaurea clementei''
* ''Centaurea collina
''Centaurea collina'' is a species of ''Centaurea'' found in Portugal
Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic ( pt, República Portuguesa, links=yes ), is a country whose mainland is located on the Iberian Peninsula of Southwestern E ...
'' L.
* '' Centaurea corymbosa''
* '' Centaurea crithmifolia''
* '' Centaurea crocodylium''
* '' Centaurea cyanoides'' J.Berggr. & Wahlenb.
* '' Centaurea cyanus'' – cornflower, bachelor's button, boutonniere flower, hurtsickle, bluebottle, basketflower
* '' Centaurea damascena''
* ''Centaurea debeauxii
''Centaurea'' () is a genus of over 700 species of herbaceous thistle-like flowering plants in the family Asteraceae. Members of the genus are found only north of the equator, mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere; the Middle East and surrounding reg ...
'' Gren. & Godr.
* '' Centaurea demirizii'' Wagenitz
* ''Centaurea depressa
''Centaurea depressa'', the low cornflower, is a species of ''Centaurea''. It is native to southwestern and central Asia
Asia (, ) is one of the world's most notable geographical regions, which is either considered a continent in its o ...
'' – low cornflower
* ''Centaurea deusta
''Centaurea'' () is a genus of over 700 species of herbaceous thistle-like flowering plants in the family Asteraceae. Members of the genus are found only north of the equator, mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere; the Middle East and surrounding reg ...
''
* ''Centaurea diffusa
''Centaurea diffusa'', also known as diffuse knapweed, white knapweed or tumble knapweed, is a member of the genus ''Centaurea'' in the family Asteraceae. This species is common throughout western North America but is not actually native to the ...
'' – diffuse knapweed, white knapweed, tumble knapweed
* '' Centaurea diluta'' – North African knapweed
* '' Centaurea drabifolia'' Sm.
* '' Centaurea drabifolioides'' Hub.-Mor.
* ''Centaurea dschungarica
''Centaurea'' () is a genus of over 700 species of herbaceous thistle-like flowering plants in the family Asteraceae. Members of the genus are found only north of the equator, mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere; the Middle East and surrounding re ...
''
* '' Centaurea emilae Hüseynova et Qaraxani''AMEA Botanika İnstitutunun əməkdaşları Azərbaycan florasında yeni növ aşkarlayıblar.
science.gov.az
* '' Centaurea eriophora''
* '' Centaurea eryngioides''
* '' Centaurea filiformis''
* '' Centaurea fischeri'' Willd.
* ''Centaurea floccosa
''Centaurea'' () is a genus of over 700 species of herbaceous thistle-like flowering plants in the family Asteraceae. Members of the genus are found only north of the equator, mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere; the Middle East and surrounding reg ...
''
* '' Centaurea foliosa'' Boiss. & Kotschy
* ''Centaurea forojuliensis
''Centaurea'' () is a genus of over 700 species of herbaceous thistle-like flowering plants in the family Asteraceae. Members of the genus are found only north of the equator, mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere; the Middle East and surrounding reg ...
''
* '' Centaurea friderici'' Vis. – ''palagruška zečina'' ( Croatian)
* ''Centaurea gayana
''Centaurea'' () is a genus of over 700 species of herbaceous thistle-like flowering plants in the family Asteraceae. Members of the genus are found only north of the equator, mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere; the Middle East and surrounding re ...
''
* ''Centaurea glaberrima
''Centaurea'' () is a genus of over 700 species of herbaceous thistle-like flowering plants in the family Asteraceae. Members of the genus are found only north of the equator, mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere; the Middle East and surrounding reg ...
'' Tausch
* ''Centaurea glastifolia
''Centaurea'' () is a genus of over 700 species of herbaceous thistle-like flowering plants in the family Asteraceae. Members of the genus are found only north of the equator, mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere; the Middle East and surrounding reg ...
''
* '' Centaurea grinensis''
* ''Centaurea gymnocarpa
''Centaurea gymnocarpa,'' also known as fiordaliso di Capraia (Italian) (centaury of Capraia/Caprian cornflower (English)) is a species of flowering plant in the family Asteraceae. It is a rare species endemic to Italy found only on Capraia, a sm ...
''
* '' Centaurea haradjianii'' Wagenitz
* '' Centaurea hedgei''
* '' Centaurea helenioides'' Boiss.
* '' Centaurea hermannii'' F.Hermann
* '' Centaurea horrida'' Badarò – ''fiordaliso spinoso'' (Italian
Italian(s) may refer to:
* Anything of, from, or related to the people of Italy over the centuries
** Italians, an ethnic group or simply a citizen of the Italian Republic or Italian Kingdom
** Italian language, a Romance language
*** Regional Ita ...
)
* '' Centaurea hyalolepis''
* '' Centaurea hypoleuca''
* ''Centaurea iberica
''Centaurea iberica'', the Iberian knapweed or Iberian star-thistle, is a species of ''Centaurea''. It is native to southeastern Europe and southwestern Asia. It is known elsewhere as an introduced species and a noxious weed.
Control
Aminocycl ...
'' – Iberian starthistle, Iberian knapweed
* ''Centaurea idaea
''Centaurea idaea'' is a species of flowering plant in the family Asteraceae. It is endemic to Crete.
References
idaea
Idaea or Idaia (Ancient Greek: Ἰδαία) is the name of several figures in Greek mythology, it means "she who comes f ...
'' – ''katsoula'', ''tsita'' (Cretan Greek
Cretan Greek, or the Cretan dialect ( el, Κρητική Διάλεκτος, ), is a variety of Modern Greek spoken in Crete and by the Cretan diaspora.
Geographic distribution
The Cretan dialect is spoken by the majority of the Cretan Greeks ...
)
* '' Centaurea imperialis'' Hausskn. ex Bornm.
* '' Centaurea jabukensis''
* '' Centaurea jacea'' – brown knapweed, brownray knapweed
* '' Centaurea kasakorum''
* '' Centaurea kopetaghensis''
* ''Centaurea kotschyana
''Centaurea'' () is a genus of over 700 species of herbaceous thistle-like flowering plants in the family Asteraceae. Members of the genus are found only north of the equator, mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere; the Middle East and surrounding reg ...
'' Heuff.
* '' Centaurea lanulata''
* '' Centaurea leptophylla''
* '' Centaurea leucophylla''
* ''Centaurea limbata
''Centaurea'' () is a genus of over 700 species of herbaceous thistle-like flowering plants in the family Asteraceae. Members of the genus are found only north of the equator, mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere; the Middle East and surrounding reg ...
''
* '' Centaurea lydia'' Boiss.
* '' Centaurea macrocephala'' Puschk. ex Willd. – globe knapweed, Armenian basketflower
* ''Centaurea maculosa
''Centaurea stoebe'', the spotted knapweed or panicled knapweed, is a species of ''Centaurea'' native to eastern Europe, although it has spread to North America, where it is considered an invasive species. It forms a tumbleweed, helping to increa ...
'' – spotted knapweed (might belong in ''C. stoebe'' subsp. ''micranthos'')
* '' Centaurea mannagettae''
* '' Centaurea margaritalba'' Klok.
* '' Centaurea marschalliana''
* '' Centaurea melitensis'' – Maltese starthistle; ''tocalote, tocolote'' (California
California is a state in the Western United States, located along the Pacific Coast. With nearly 39.2million residents across a total area of approximately , it is the most populous U.S. state and the 3rd largest by area. It is also the m ...
)
* ''Centaurea minor
''Centaurea'' () is a genus of over 700 species of herbaceous thistle-like flowering plants in the family Asteraceae. Members of the genus are found only north of the equator, mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere; the Middle East and surrounding reg ...
''
* ''Centaurea moschata
''Amberboa moschata'' (common name sweetsultan) is a Southwest Asian species of plants in the family Asteraceae. It is native to Turkey, Iraq, Iran, and the Caucasus. It is also widely cultivated in many places as an ornamental, and is reportedly ...
'' – sweet sultan
* '' Centaurea ×moncktonii'' C.E.Britton – meadow knapweed, protean knapweed (= ''C. ×pratensis'' Thuill non Salisb.)
* '' Centaurea monocephala''
* ''Centaurea montana
''Centaurea montana'', the perennial cornflower, mountain cornflower, bachelor's button, montane knapweed or mountain bluet, is a species of flowering plant in the family Asteraceae, endemic to Europe. It is widespread and common in the more so ...
'' – montane knapweed, perennial cornflower, mountain cornflower, mountain bluet
* '' Centaurea napifolia'' L. – ''fiordaliso romano'' (Italian)
* '' Centaurea nervosa'' Rchb. ex Steud.
* '' Centaurea nigra'' – common knapweed, black knapweed, lesser knapweed, hardheads
* ''Centaurea nigrescens
''Centaurea nigrescens'', the Tyrol knapweed, short-fringed knapweed or Tyrol thistle, is a perennial plant in the genus ''Centaurea'' that grows natively in Central and South-eastern Europe (from Southern Germany and Northern Italy to Romania an ...
'' – Tyrol knapweed, short-fringed knapweed, Tyrol thistle
* '' Centaurea nigrifimbria'' (C.Koch) Sosn.
* '' Centaurea nivea'' (Bornm.) Wagenitz
* ''Centaurea onopordifolia
''Centaurea'' () is a genus of over 700 species of herbaceous thistle-like flowering plants in the family Asteraceae. Members of the genus are found only north of the equator, mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere; the Middle East and surrounding re ...
''
* ''Centaurea orientalis
''Centaurea'' () is a genus of over 700 species of herbaceous thistle-like flowering plants in the family Asteraceae. Members of the genus are found only north of the equator, mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere; the Middle East and surrounding reg ...
'' L.
* '' Centaurea ornata'' Willd.
* ''Centaurea ovina
''Centaurea'' () is a genus of over 700 species of herbaceous thistle-like flowering plants in the family Asteraceae. Members of the genus are found only north of the equator, mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere; the Middle East and surrounding re ...
''
* ''Centaurea pallescens
''Centaurea'' () is a genus of over 700 species of herbaceous thistle-like flowering plants in the family Asteraceae. Members of the genus are found only north of the equator, mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere; the Middle East and surrounding re ...
'' Delile
* ''Centaurea paniculata
''Centaurea paniculata'', the Jersey knapweed, is a species of ''Centaurea'' found in France
France (), officially the French Republic ( ), is a country primarily located in Western Europe. It also comprises of Overseas France, overs ...
'' L.
* ''Centaurea parlatoris
''Centaurea'' () is a genus of over 700 species of herbaceous thistle-like flowering plants in the family Asteraceae. Members of the genus are found only north of the equator, mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere; the Middle East and surrounding re ...
''
* '' Centaurea pecho''
* '' Centaurea phrygia'' – wig knapweed
* ''Centaurea pindicola
''Centaurea'' () is a genus of over 700 species of herbaceous thistle-like flowering plants in the family Asteraceae. Members of the genus are found only north of the equator, mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere; the Middle East and surrounding reg ...
''
* ''Centaurea polypodiifolia
''Centaurea'' () is a genus of over 700 species of herbaceous thistle-like flowering plants in the family Asteraceae. Members of the genus are found only north of the equator, mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere; the Middle East and surrounding reg ...
''
* ''Centaurea ×pratensis
''Centaurea'' () is a genus of over 700 species of herbaceous thistle-like flowering plants in the family Asteraceae. Members of the genus are found only north of the equator, mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere; the Middle East and surrounding re ...
'' Salisb. (''C. jacea × C. nigra'') – meadow knapweed
* ''Centaurea procurrens
''Centaurea'' () is a genus of over 700 species of herbaceous thistle-like flowering plants in the family Asteraceae. Members of the genus are found only north of the equator, mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere; the Middle East and surrounding re ...
''
* ''Centaurea ×psammogena
''Centaurea'' () is a genus of over 700 species of herbaceous thistle-like flowering plants in the family Asteraceae. Members of the genus are found only north of the equator, mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere; the Middle East and surrounding reg ...
'' G.Gayer. (''C. diffusa × C. stoebe'' sybsp. ''micranthos'')
* ''Centaurea pseudocaerulescens
''Centaurea'' () is a genus of over 700 species of herbaceous thistle-like flowering plants in the family Asteraceae. Members of the genus are found only north of the equator, mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere; the Middle East and surrounding reg ...
''
* '' Centaurea pseudophrygia'' C.A.Mey.
* ''Centaurea pulcherrima
''Centaurea'' () is a genus of over 700 species of herbaceous thistle-like flowering plants in the family Asteraceae. Members of the genus are found only north of the equator, mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere; the Middle East and surrounding ...
'' Willd.
* ''Centaurea pullata
''Centaurea pullata'' is a species of '' Centaurea'' found in Southwest Europe and Northwest Africa.
References
External links
*
*
pullata
Flora of Southwestern Europe
Flora of North Africa
{{Cynareae-stub ...
'' L.
* '' Centaurea pumilio''
* '' Centaurea ragusina'' L.
* '' Centaurea rigida''
* '' Centaurea rothrockii'' Greenm. – Mexican basketflower, Rothrock's basketflower, Rothrock's knapweed
* '' Centaurea ruthenica''
* '' Centaurea rutifolia'' Sm.
* '' Centaurea sadleriana'' – Pannonian knapweed
* '' Centaurea salicifolia'' Bieb. ex Willd.
* '' Centaurea scabiosa'' – greater knapweed
* ''Centaurea scannensis
''Centaurea'' () is a genus of over 700 species of herbaceous thistle-like flowering plants in the family Asteraceae. Members of the genus are found only north of the equator, mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere; the Middle East and surrounding ...
''
* '' Centaurea scoparia''
* '' Centaurea scopulorum'' Boiss. & Heldr.
* '' Centaurea seguenzae''
* '' Centaurea seridis'' L.
* '' Centaurea sibirica''
* ''Centaurea simplicicaulis
''Centaurea'' () is a genus of over 700 species of herbaceous thistle-like flowering plants in the family Asteraceae. Members of the genus are found only north of the equator, mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere; the Middle East and surrounding reg ...
''
* ''Centaurea sinaica
''Centaurea'' () is a genus of over 700 species of herbaceous thistle-like flowering plants in the family Asteraceae. Members of the genus are found only north of the equator, mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere; the Middle East and surrounding reg ...
''
* ''Centaurea solstitialis
''Centaurea solstitialis'', the yellow star-thistle, is a species of thorny plant in the genus '' Centaurea'', which is part of the family Asteraceae. A winter annual, it is native to the Mediterranean Basin region and invasive in many other ...
'' – yellow starthistle, golden starthistle, yellow cockspur, St. Barnaby's thistle, Barnaby thistle
* ''Centaurea speciosa
''Centaurea'' () is a genus of over 700 species of herbaceous thistle-like flowering plants in the family Asteraceae. Members of the genus are found only north of the equator, mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere; the Middle East and surrounding reg ...
''
* ''Centaurea sphaerocephala
''Centaurea sphaerocephala'' is a species of ''Centaurea'' found in the Iberian Peninsula
The Iberian Peninsula (),
**
* Aragonese and Occitan: ''Peninsula Iberica''
**
**
* french: Péninsule Ibérique
* mwl, Península Eibérica
...
'' L.
* ''Centaurea stenolepis
''Centaurea'' () is a genus of over 700 species of herbaceous thistle-like flowering plants in the family Asteraceae. Members of the genus are found only north of the equator, mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere; the Middle East and surrounding reg ...
''
* '' Centaurea stoebe'' L.
** ''Centaurea stoebe'' subsp. ''micranthos'' (Gugler) Hayek
* '' Centaurea straminicephala''
* ''Centaurea sulphurea
''Centaurea sulphurea'', the Sicilian star thistle or sulphur star knapweed, is an annual herb species in the family Asteraceae. It is native to southwestern Europe and it is known on other continents as an introduced species. It is one of the ...
'' – Sicilian starthistle
* ''Centaurea tauromenitana
''Centaurea tauromenitana'' is a species of ''Centaurea'' found in Sicily
(man) it, Siciliana (woman)
, population_note =
, population_blank1_title =
, population_blank1 =
, demographics_type1 ...
'' Guss.
* '' Centaurea tenoreana''
* ''Centaurea tommasinii
''Centaurea'' () is a genus of over 700 species of herbaceous thistle-like flowering plants in the family Asteraceae. Members of the genus are found only north of the equator, mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere; the Middle East and surrounding reg ...
''
* '' Centaurea transalpina'' Schleich. ex DC.
* ''Centaurea tchihatcheffii
''Centaurea tchihatcheffii'' is a species of flowering plant in the family Asteraceae. The flowers are most attractive as the pale or dark pinkish-red marginal florets (the most frequent colour form) take on an iridescent shimmer in the sun and w ...
'' — ''yanardöner'' ( Turkish)
* ''Centaurea trichocephala
''Centaurea'' () is a genus of over 700 species of herbaceous thistle-like flowering plants in the family Asteraceae. Members of the genus are found only north of the equator, mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere; the Middle East and surrounding reg ...
'' Bieb. ex Willd. – featherhead knapweed
* ''Centaurea triniifolia
''Centaurea'' () is a genus of over 700 species of herbaceous thistle-like flowering plants in the family Asteraceae. Members of the genus are found only north of the equator, mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere; the Middle East and surrounding reg ...
''
* '' Centaurea triumfettii'' All.
* '' Centaurea ucriae'' Lacaita
* '' Centaurea uniflora'' Turra
* '' Centaurea verbascifolia'' Vahl
* ''Centaurea verutum
''Centaurea'' () is a genus of over 700 species of herbaceous thistle-like flowering plants in the family Asteraceae. Members of the genus are found only north of the equator, mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere; the Middle East and surrounding reg ...
'' L.
* ''Centaurea virgata
''Centaurea virgata'' is a species of ''Centaurea''. It is native to Western Asia
Western Asia, West Asia, or Southwest Asia, is the westernmost subregion of the larger geographical region of Asia, as defined by some academics, UN bodies and ...
''
** ''Centaurea virgata'' subsp. ''squarrosa'' – squarrose knapweed
* '' Centaurea wiedemanniana'' Fisch. & Mey.
* '' Centaurea yozgatensis'' Wagenitz
Formerly placed here
Plant species placed in ''Centaurea'' in former times include:
* ''Acroptilon repens
''Rhaponticum repens'', synonym ''Acroptilon repens'', with the common name Russian knapweed, is a bushy rhizomatous perennial, up to 80 cm tall. Stems and leaves are finely arachnoid-tomentose becoming glabrous and green with age. The rosette l ...
'' – Russian knapweed (as ''C. repens'')
* ''Cheirolophus crassifolius
''Cheirolophus crassifolius'', the Maltese centaury, Maltese rock-centaury or Widnet il-Baħar, is a species of flowering plant in the family Asteraceae. It is endemic to Malta, where it has been the national plant of Malta since 1973. Its natur ...
'' – Maltese rock-centaury (as ''C. crassifolia, C. spathulata'')
* ''Femeniasia balearica
''Femeniasia balearica'' is a species of flowering plant in the family Asteraceae, and the only species in the genus ''Femeniasia''.
Distribution and conservation
''Femeniasia'' is endemic to the north-western coast of Menorca, Spain. Its natura ...
'' (as ''C. balearica'')
* '' Volutaria muricata'' (as ''C. muricata'')
Footnotes
References
* (2005): Effects of timing of prescribed fire on the demography of an invasive plant, spotted knapweed ''Centaurea maculosa''. '' J. Appl. Ecol.'' 42(1): 60-69. (HTML abstract)
* (2003): Allelopathy and exotic plant invasion. ''Plant and Soil
''Plant and Soil'' is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal covering research on the relationships between plants and soil, such as relationships and interactions of plants with minerals, water and microbes, the anatomy and morphology of roots ...
'' 256(1): 29–39. PDF fulltext
* (2006): 21. ''Plectocephalus. In: Flora of North America North of Mexico
The ''Flora of North America North of Mexico'' (usually referred to as ''FNA'') is a multivolume work describing the native plants and naturalized plants of North America, including the United States, Canada, St. Pierre and Miquelon, and Greenlan ...
'' Vol. 19 (Magnoliophyta: Asteridae, part 6: Asteraceae, part 1). Oxford University Press. HTML fulltext
* (2006): 24. ''Centaurea. In: Flora of North America North of Mexico
The ''Flora of North America North of Mexico'' (usually referred to as ''FNA'') is a multivolume work describing the native plants and naturalized plants of North America, including the United States, Canada, St. Pierre and Miquelon, and Greenlan ...
'' Vol. 19 (Magnoliophyta: Asteridae, part 6: Asteraceae, part 1). Oxford University Press. HTML fulltext
* (2002): Toward a phylogenetic subfamilial classification for the Compositae (Asteraceae). '' Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash.'' 115(4): 909–922
PDF fulltext
* (2002): ''In vitro'' Antioxidant Activity of Non-cultivated Vegetables of Ethnic Albanians in Southern Italy. '' Phytother. Res.'' 16(5): 467–473. PDF fulltext
* (Κ. Γ. Σταυριδάκης) (2006): ''Wild edible plants of Crete'' - Η Άγρια βρώσιμη χλωρίδα της Κρήτης nglish and Greek Rethymnon Crete.
* (2004): Biogeographical variation in community response to root allelochemistry: Novel weapons and exotic invasion. '' Ecol. Lett.'' 7(4): 285–292. PDF fulltext
* (2005): ''Plant-Provided Food for Carnivorous Insects - a protective mutualism and its applications''. Cambridge University Press, UK. Preview
at Google Books
Google Books (previously known as Google Book Search, Google Print, and by its code-name Project Ocean) is a service from Google Inc. that searches the full text of books and magazines that Google has scanned, converted to text using optical ...
Further reading
* Mabberley, D.J. 1987. ''The Plant Book. A portable dictionary of the higher plants''. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 706 p. .
* Robbins, W.W., M. K. Bellue, and W. S. Ball. 1970. ''Weeds of California''. State of California, Dept. of Agriculture. 547 p.
External links
*
*
''Centaurea'' images
Flora Europaea: ''Centaurea''
USDA Plant Profile: ''Centaurea''
Flora of China: ''Centaurea'' species list
Flora of Chile: ''Centaurea'' (pdf)
{{Authority control
Asteraceae genera
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus