Kimchi Dishes
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''Kimchi'' (; ko, 김치, gimchi, ), is a traditional Korean side dish of salted and fermented vegetables, such as napa cabbage and Korean radish. A wide selection of seasonings are used, including '' gochugaru'' (Korean chili powder), spring onions,
garlic Garlic (''Allium sativum'') is a species of bulbous flowering plant in the genus ''Allium''. Its close relatives include the onion, shallot, leek, chive, Allium fistulosum, Welsh onion and Allium chinense, Chinese onion. It is native to South A ...
,
ginger Ginger (''Zingiber officinale'') is a flowering plant whose rhizome, ginger root or ginger, is widely used as a spice A spice is a seed, fruit, root, bark, or other plant substance primarily used for flavoring or coloring food. Spices ...
, and ''
jeotgal ''Jeotgal'' () or ''jeot'' (), translated as salted seafood, is a category of salted preserved dishes made with seafood such as shrimps, oysters, clams, fish, and roe. Depending on the ingredients, ''jeotgal'' can range from flabby, solid piece ...
'' (salted seafood), etc. Kimchi is also used in a variety of soups and stews. As a
staple food A staple food, food staple, or simply a staple, is a food that is eaten often and in such quantities that it constitutes a dominant portion of a standard diet for a given person or group of people, supplying a large fraction of energy needs and ...
in
Korean cuisine Korean cuisine has evolved through centuries of social and political change. Originating from ancient agricultural and nomadic traditions in Korea and southern Manchuria, Korean cuisine reflects a complex interaction of the natural envi ...
, it is eaten as a side dish with almost every Korean meal. There are hundreds of different types of kimchi made with different vegetables as the main ingredients. Traditionally, winter kimchi, called kimjang, was stored in large earthenware fermentation vessels, called '' onggi'', in the ground to prevent freezing during the winter months and to keep it cool enough to slow down the fermentation process during summer months. The vessels are also kept outdoors in special terraces called jangdokdae. In contemporary times, household kimchi refrigerators are more commonly used.


Etymology


''Ji''

The term ''ji'' (), which has its origins in archaic Korean ''dihi'' (), has been used to refer to kimchi since ancient times. The
sound change A sound change, in historical linguistics, is a change in the pronunciation of a language. A sound change can involve the replacement of one speech sound (or, more generally, one phonetic feature value) by a different one (called phonetic chang ...
can be roughly described as: * ''dihi'' () > ''di'' () > ''ji'' () The Middle Korean form ''dihi'' is found in several books from ''
Joseon Joseon (; ; Middle Korean: 됴ᇢ〯션〮 Dyǒw syéon or 됴ᇢ〯션〯 Dyǒw syěon), officially the Great Joseon (; ), was the last dynastic kingdom of Korea, lasting just over 500 years. It was founded by Yi Seong-gye in July 1392 and re ...
'' (1392–1897). (from the original ''Jiālǐ'' by Zhu Xi) In Modern Korean, the word remains as the suffix ''-ji'' in the
standard language A standard language (also standard variety, standard dialect, and standard) is a language variety that has undergone substantial codification of grammar and usage, although occasionally the term refers to the entirety of a language that includes ...
(as in '' jjanji'', ''seokbak-ji''), and as the suffix ''-ji'' as well as the noun ''ji'' in
Gyeongsang Gyeongsang ( ko, 경상도, ''Gyeongsang-do''; ) was one of the eight provinces of Korea during the Joseon dynasty. Gyeongsang was located in the southeast of Korea. The provincial capital was Daegu. The region was the birthplace of the Kingdom ...
and Jeolla dialects. The unpalatalized form ''di'' is preserved in P'yŏngan dialect.


''Kimchi''

''Kimchi'' () is the accepted word in both North and South Korean standard languages. Earlier forms of the word include ''timchɑi'' (), a Middle Korean transcription of the Sino-Korean word (literally "submerged vegetable"). ''Timchɑi'' appears in ''Sohak Eonhae'', the 16th century Korean rendition of the Chinese book, ''Xiaoxue''. Sound changes from Middle Korean to Modern Korean regarding the word can be described as: * ''timchɑi'' (; ) > ''dimchɑi'' () > ''jimchɑi'' () > ''jimchui'' () > ''gimchi'' () The aspirated first consonant of ''timchae'' became unaspirated in ''dimchɑe'', then underwent
palatalization Palatalization may refer to: *Palatalization (phonetics), the phonetic feature of palatal secondary articulation *Palatalization (sound change) Palatalization is a historical-linguistic sound change that results in a palatalized articulation ...
in ''jimchɑe''. The word then became ''jimchui'' with the loss of the vowel ''ɑ'' () in Korean language, then ''Kimchi'', with the depalatalized word-initial consonant. In Modern Korean, the hanja characters are pronounced ''chimchae'' (), and are not used to refer to kimchi, or anything else. The word ''Kimchi'' is not considered as a
Sino-Korean word Sino-Korean vocabulary or Hanja-eo () refers to Korean words of Chinese origin. Sino-Korean vocabulary includes words borrowed directly from Chinese, as well as new Korean words created from Chinese characters, and words borrowed from Sino-Japane ...
. Older forms of the word are retained in many regional dialects: ''jimchae'' (Jeolla, Hamgyŏng dialects), ''jimchi'' ( Chungcheong,
Gangwon Gangwon or Kangwŏn may refer to: * Gangwon Province (historical), the Goryeo, Joseon Dynasty and the Japanese Korean province * Gangwon Province (South Korea), a province of South Korea, with its capital at Chuncheon. Before the division of Kore ...
, Gyeonggi, Gyeongsang, Hamgyŏng, Jeolla dialects), and ''dimchi'' (P'yŏngan dialect). The English word "kimchi" perhaps originated from ''kimch'i'', the
McCune–Reischauer McCune–Reischauer romanization () is one of the two most widely used Korean language romanization systems. A modified version of McCune–Reischauer was the official romanization system in South Korea until 2002, when it was replaced by the Re ...
transcription of the Korean word ''Kimchi'' ().


History


Early history

''
Samguk Sagi ''Samguk Sagi'' (, ''History of the Three Kingdoms'') is a historical record of the Three Kingdoms of Korea: Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla. The ''Samguk Sagi'' is written in Classical Chinese, the written language of the literati of ancient Korea, ...
'', a historical record of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, also mentions the pickle jar used to ferment vegetables, which indicates that fermented vegetables were commonly eaten during this time. During the Silla dynasty (57 BC – AD 935), kimchi became prevalent as Buddhism caught on throughout the nation and fostered a vegetarian lifestyle. The pickling of vegetables was an ideal method, prior to refrigerators, that helped to preserve the lifespan of foods. In Korea, kimchi was made during the winter by fermenting vegetables, and burying it in the ground in traditional brown ceramic pots called '' onggi''. This labor further allowed a bonding among women within the family. A poem on Korean radish written by Yi Gyubo, a 13th-century literatus, shows that radish kimchi was a commonplace in Goryeo (918–1392). Kimchi has been a staple in Korean culture, but historical versions were not a spicy dish. Early records of kimchi do not mention garlic or chili pepper. Chili peppers, now a standard ingredient in kimchi, had been unknown in Korea until the early seventeenth century due to its being a New World crop. Chili peppers, originally native to the Americas, were introduced to East Asia by Portuguese traders. The first mention of chili pepper is found in ''
Jibong yuseol ''Jibong yuseol'' ("Topical Discourses of Jibong") is a Korean encyclopedia written by Yi Su-gwang. It was published in 1614 during the reign of King Gwanghaegun. The author was a silhak scholar and a military officer of the mid-Joseon period o ...
'', an encyclopedia published in 1614. ''
Sallim gyeongje ''Sallim gyeongje'', roughly translated as "Farm Management", However, it was not until the 19th century that the use of chili peppers in kimchi was widespread. The recipes from early 19th century closely resemble today's kimchi. A 1766 book, ''
Jeungbo sallim gyeongje ''Jeungbo sallim gyeongje'' is a Korean book on agriculture compiled by Yu Jung-rim (柳重臨) as revised and enlarged from the ''Sallim gyeongje'' written by Hong Man-seon (洪萬選 1643∼1715). Yu Jung-rim was a physician during the reign of ...
'', reports kimchi varieties made with myriad ingredients, including ''chonggak-kimchi'' (kimchi made with
chonggak radish ''Chonggakmu'' or Chonggak radish, also called ponytail radish, is a variety of white radish. It is a small radish with many fine roots; of which the entire plant, including the leaves and stems, is used in Korean cuisine. Names and etymology ...
), ''oi-sobagi'' (with cucumber), ''seokbak-ji'' (with '' jogi-jeot''), and '' dongchimi''. However, napa cabbage was introduced to Korea only at the end of 19th century, and whole-cabbage kimchi similar to its current form is described in '' Siuijeonseo'', a cookbook published around that time.


Modern history

During South Korea's involvement in the Vietnam War the industrialization and commercialization of kimchi production became increasingly important because the Korean government wanted to provide rations for its troops. The Korean government requested American help to ensure that South Korean troops, reportedly "desperate" for the food, could obtain it in the field. In 2008, South Korean scientists created a special low-calorie, vitamin-rich "space kimchi" for
Yi So-yeon Yi So-yeon (born June 2, 1978) is a South Korean astronaut and biotechnologist who became the first Korean to fly in space. Upon return from her mission aboard the International Space Station (ISS), Yi continued as a KARI researcher attending ...
, the first Korean astronaut, to take to space. It was bacteria-free, unlike normal Kimchi in which bacteria are essential for fermentation. It was feared that cosmic rays might mutate the bacteria. South Korea developed programs for adult
Korean adoptees The international adoption of South Korean children was at first started as a result of a large number of orphaned mixed children from the Korean War after 1953, but later included orphaned Korean children. Religious organizations in the United S ...
to return to South Korea and learn about what it means to be Korean. One of these programs was learning how to make kimchi.


1996 kimchi standard dispute with Japan

In 1996, Korea protested against Japanese commercial production of kimchi arguing that the Japanese-produced product ('' kimuchi'', ) was different from kimchi. In particular, Japanese kimchi was not fermented and more similar to
asazuke (literally: ''shallow pickle'') is a Japanese pickling method characterized by its short preparation time. The name implies a food pickled in the morning and ready by the evening. The word ''asazuke'' can also refer to the items pickled in this ...
. Korea lobbied for an international standard from the
Codex Alimentarius The Codex Alimentarius () is a collection of internationally recognized standards, codes of practice, guidelines, and other recommendations published by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations relating to food, food production ...
, an organization associated with the World Health Organization that defines voluntary standards for food preparation for international trade purposes.Sims, Calvin (February 2000
"Cabbage Is Cabbage? Not to Kimchi Lovers; Koreans Take Issue with a Rendition of Their National Dish Made in Japan"
'' The New York Times''.
In 2001, the Codex Alimentarius published a voluntary standard defining kimchi as "a fermented food that uses salted napa cabbages as its main ingredient mixed with seasonings, and goes through a lactic acid production process at a low temperature", but which neither specified a minimum amount of fermentation nor forbade the use of any additives. Following the inclusion of the kimchi standard, kimchi exports in Korea did increase, but so did the production of kimchi in China and the import of Chinese kimchi into Korea.


2010 Kimchi ingredient price crisis

Due to heavy rainfall shortening the harvesting time for cabbage and other main ingredients for kimchi in 2010, the price of kimchi ingredients and kimchi itself rose greatly. Korean and international newspapers described the rise in prices as a national crisis. Some restaurants stopped offering kimchi as a free side dish, which ''The New York Times'' compared to an American hamburger restaurant no longer offering free ketchup. In response to the kimchi price crisis, the South Korean government announced the temporary reduction of tariffs on imported cabbage to coincide with the kimjang season.


Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity

Kimchi-related items have been inscribed on UNESCO's Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity by both South and North Korea. This makes kimchi the second intangible heritage that was submitted by two countries, the other one being the folk song " Arirang" which was also submitted by both the Koreas.


= Submitted by South Korea (inscribed 2013)

= Kimjang, the tradition of making and sharing kimchi that usually takes place in late autumn, was added to the list as "Gimjang, making and sharing kimchi in the Republic of Korea". The practice of Gimjang reaffirms Korean identity and strengthens family cooperation. Gimjang is also an important reminder for many Koreans that human communities need to live in harmony with nature.


= Submitted by North Korea (inscribed 2015)

= North Korean kimchi-making was inscribed on the list in December 2015 as "Tradition of kimchi-making in the Democratic People's Republic of Korea". North Korean kimchi tends to be less spicy and red than South Korean kimchi. Seafood is used less often and less salt is added. Additional sugar is used to help with fermentation in the cold climate.


Kimchi Day

In the United States, states California, Virginia, Maryland and
New York New York most commonly refers to: * New York City, the most populous city in the United States, located in the state of New York * New York (state), a state in the northeastern United States New York may also refer to: Film and television * '' ...
, and capital city Washington D.C. have issued proclamations declaring November 22 as 'Kimchi Day' to recognize the importance of the dish as part of Korean culture.


Conflicts with China


= 2012 effective ban by China of Korean kimchi imports

= Since 2012, the Chinese government has effectively banned the import of Korean kimchi through government regulations. Ignoring the standards of kimchi outlined by the Codex Alimentarius, China defined kimchi as a derivative of one of its own cuisines, called
pao cai ''Pao cai'' (), also romanization as ''Pao tsai'', also known as Chinese pickles (), Chinese sauerkraut, or pickled cabbage, refers to fermented vegetables in Chinese, which typically use different vegetables (e.g. Chinese cabbage, cabbage, radi ...
. However, due to significantly different preparation techniques from pao cai, kimchi has significantly more lactic acid bacteria through its fermentation process, which exceeds China's regulations. Since 2012, commercial exports of Korean kimchi to China has reached zero; the only minor amounts of exports accounting for Korean kimchi are exhibition events held in China.


= Boycott in China

= A 2017 article in '' The New York Times'' said that
anti-Korean sentiment in China Anti-Korean sentiment in China refers to opposition, hostility, hatred, distrust, fear, and general dislike of Korean people or culture in China. This is sometimes referred to in China as the ''xianhan'' (dislike of Korea) sentiment, which some h ...
has risen after South Korea's acceptance of the deployment of THAAD in South Korea, government-run Chinese news media has encouraged the boycott of South Korean goods, and Chinese nationalists have vowed to not eat kimchi. The move was criticized by other Chinese nationalists, who noted that China officially considered Koreans an integral ethnic group in the multinational state, and that kimchi is also indigenous to the Koreans in the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture. Chinese nationalists have also criticized Korean kimchi, by calling them "merely pickles", whereas Chinese kimchi pao cai's literal meaning is "pickled vegetable".


= 2020 kimchi origin dispute with China

= In November 2020, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) posted new regulations for the making of
pao cai ''Pao cai'' (), also romanization as ''Pao tsai'', also known as Chinese pickles (), Chinese sauerkraut, or pickled cabbage, refers to fermented vegetables in Chinese, which typically use different vegetables (e.g. Chinese cabbage, cabbage, radi ...
. The same month, BBC News reported that Chinese news organization '' Global Times'' claimed the new ISO standard was "an international standard for the kimchi industry led by China". This sparked strong anger from South Korean media and people, as well as the responses from some Chinese people who argued China held the right to claim Kimchi as their own. After the controversy emerged, Global Times explained the controversy as the "misunderstanding in translation", and stated that "Kimchi refers to a kind of fermented cabbage dish that plays an integral role in Korean cuisine, while ''paocai'', or Sichuan ''paocai'', refers to pickled vegetables that are popular originally in Southwest China's Sichuan Province, but now in most parts of northern China." Global Times also reported that Baidu Baike, the Chinese online encyclopedia, removed the controversial phrase "Korean kimchi originated from China" after the request. The South Korean
Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism South Korea's Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism (MCST) is a central government agency responsible for the areas of tourism, culture, art, religion, and sports. It has two vice ministers, three assistant ministers, one commission, and ...
subsequently presented the guidelines to set the term "xin qi" as the new proper Chinese translation of Kimchi while "pao cai" was an acceptable translation prior to the controversy.


Ingredients

Kimchi varieties are determined by the main vegetable ingredients and the mix of seasoning used to flavor the kimchi.


Vegetables

For many families, the pungent and often spicy meal is a source of pride and recalls the taste of a good home. Cabbages ( napa cabbages, bomdong, headed cabbages) and radishes ( Korean radishes,
ponytail radish ''Chonggakmu'' or Chonggak radish, also called ponytail radish, is a variety of white radish. It is a small radish with many fine roots; of which the entire plant, including the leaves and stems, is used in Korean cuisine. Names and etymology ...
es,
gegeol radish ''Gegeolmu'', or gegeol radish, is a variety of white radish. It is a round, pungent radish with a thick rind and firm flesh that does not get soft even after a few years of storage as kimchi. Being a speciality crop of Icheon and Yeoju in Kore ...
es, yeolmu radishes) are the most commonly used kimchi vegetables. Other kimchi vegetables include:
aster Aster or ASTER may refer to: Biology * ''Aster'' (genus), a genus of flowering plants ** List of ''Aster'' synonyms, other genera formerly included in ''Aster'' and still called asters in English * Aster (cell biology), a cellular structure shap ...
, balloon flower roots,
burdock ''Arctium'' is a genus of biennial plants commonly known as burdock, family Asteraceae. Native to Europe and Asia, several species have been widely introduced worldwide. Burdock's clinging properties, in addition to providing an excellent mecha ...
roots, celery, chamnamul, cilantro, cress,
crown daisy greens ''Glebionis coronaria'', formerly called ''Chrysanthemum coronarium'', is a species of flowering plant in the daisy family. It is native to the Mediterranean region. It is cultivated and naturalized in East Asia and in scattered locations in N ...
,
cucumber Cucumber (''Cucumis sativus'') is a widely-cultivated Vine#Horticultural climbing plants, creeping vine plant in the Cucurbitaceae family that bears usually cylindrical Fruit, fruits, which are used as culinary vegetables.
,
eggplant Eggplant ( US, Canada), aubergine ( UK, Ireland) or brinjal (Indian subcontinent, Singapore, Malaysia, South Africa) is a plant species in the nightshade family Solanaceae. ''Solanum melongena'' is grown worldwide for its edible fruit. Mos ...
, garlic chives,
garlic Garlic (''Allium sativum'') is a species of bulbous flowering plant in the genus ''Allium''. Its close relatives include the onion, shallot, leek, chive, Allium fistulosum, Welsh onion and Allium chinense, Chinese onion. It is native to South A ...
scapes,
ginger Ginger (''Zingiber officinale'') is a flowering plant whose rhizome, ginger root or ginger, is widely used as a spice A spice is a seed, fruit, root, bark, or other plant substance primarily used for flavoring or coloring food. Spices ...
,
Korean angelica-tree ''Aralia elata'', the Japanese angelica tree, Chinese angelica-tree, or Korean angelica-tree, is a woody plant belonging to the family Araliaceae. It is known as ''tara-no-ki'' (; ) in Japanese, and ''dureup-namu'' () in Korean. Description It i ...
shoots, Korean parsley,
Korean wild chive ''Allium monanthum'', the Korean wild chive, is a spring vegetable with minuscule bulbous roots that have a mild onion flavor and found in the woodlands of Korea, Japan, northeastern Russia (Primorye), and northeastern China (Hebei, Heilongjiang ...
, lotus roots, mustard greens, onions, perilla leaves, bamboo shoot,
momordica charantia ''Momordica charantia'' (commonly called bitter melon; Goya; bitter apple; bitter gourd; bitter squash; balsam-pear; with many more names listed below) is a tropical and subtropical vine of the family Cucurbitaceae, widely grown in Asia, Afr ...
,
pumpkin A pumpkin is a vernacular term for mature winter squash of species and varieties in the genus ''Cucurbita'' that has culinary and cultural significance but no agreed upon botanical or scientific meaning. The term ''pumpkin'' is sometimes use ...
s,
radish greens The radish ('' Raphanus raphanistrum'' subsp. ''sativus'') is an edible root vegetable of the family Brassicaceae that was domesticated in Asia prior to Roman times. Radishes are grown and consumed throughout the world, being mostly eaten ...
, rapeseed leaves, scallions,
seaweed Seaweed, or macroalgae, refers to thousands of species of macroscopic, multicellular, marine algae. The term includes some types of '' Rhodophyta'' (red), ''Phaeophyta'' (brown) and ''Chlorophyta'' (green) macroalgae. Seaweed species such as ...
,
soybean sprout Soybean sprout is a culinary vegetable grown by sprouting soybeans. It can be grown by placing and watering the sprouted soybeans in the shade until the roots grow long. Soybean sprouts are extensively cultivated and consumed in Asian countries. ...
s,
spinach Spinach (''Spinacia oleracea'') is a leafy green flowering plant native to central and western Asia. It is of the order Caryophyllales, family Amaranthaceae, subfamily Chenopodioideae. Its leaves are a common edible vegetable consumed either f ...
,
sugar beet A sugar beet is a plant whose root contains a high concentration of sucrose and which is grown commercially for sugar production. In plant breeding, it is known as the Altissima cultivar group of the common beet (''Beta vulgaris''). Together wi ...
s,
sweet potato The sweet potato or sweetpotato (''Ipomoea batatas'') is a dicotyledonous plant that belongs to the Convolvulus, bindweed or morning glory family (biology), family, Convolvulaceae. Its large, starchy, sweet-tasting tuberous roots are used as a r ...
vines, and tomatoes.


Seasonings

Brining salt Korean brining salt, also called Korean sea salt, is a variety of edible salt with a larger grain size compared to common kitchen salt. It is called ''gulgeun-sogeum'' (; "coarse salt") or ''wang-sogeum'' (; "king/queen salt") in Korean. The salt ...
(with a larger grain size compared to kitchen salt) is used mainly for initial salting of kimchi vegetables. Being minimally processed, it serves to help develop flavors in fermented foods. Cabbage is usually salted twice when making spicy kimchi. Commonly used seasonings include '' gochugaru'' (chili powder), scallions,
garlic Garlic (''Allium sativum'') is a species of bulbous flowering plant in the genus ''Allium''. Its close relatives include the onion, shallot, leek, chive, Allium fistulosum, Welsh onion and Allium chinense, Chinese onion. It is native to South A ...
,
ginger Ginger (''Zingiber officinale'') is a flowering plant whose rhizome, ginger root or ginger, is widely used as a spice A spice is a seed, fruit, root, bark, or other plant substance primarily used for flavoring or coloring food. Spices ...
, and ''
jeotgal ''Jeotgal'' () or ''jeot'' (), translated as salted seafood, is a category of salted preserved dishes made with seafood such as shrimps, oysters, clams, fish, and roe. Depending on the ingredients, ''jeotgal'' can range from flabby, solid piece ...
'' (salted seafood) ''Jeotgal'' can be replaced with raw seafood in colder Northern parts of the Korean peninsula. If used, milder '' saeu-jeot'' (salted shrimp) or '' jogi-jeot'' (salted croaker) is preferred and the amount of ''jeotgal'' is also reduced in Northern and Central regions. In Southern Korea, on the other hand, generous amount of stronger '' myeolchi-jeot'' (salted anchovies) and ''
galchi-jeot ''Jeotgal'' () or ''jeot'' (), translated as salted seafood, is a category of salted preserved dishes made with seafood such as shrimps, oysters, clams, fish, and roe. Depending on the ingredients, ''jeotgal'' can range from flabby, solid piece ...
'' (salted
hairtail The cutlassfishes are about 45 species of predatory fish in the family Trichiuridae of the order Scombriformes found in seas throughout the world. Fish of this family are long, slender, and generally steely blue or silver in colour, giving rise ...
) is commonly used. Raw seafood or ''
daegu-agami-jeot ''Jeotgal'' () or ''jeot'' (), translated as salted seafood, is a category of salted preserved dishes made with seafood such as shrimps, oysters, clams, fish, and roe. Depending on the ingredients, ''jeotgal'' can range from flabby, solid pie ...
'' (salted cod gills) are used in the East coast areas. Salt, scallions, garlic, fish sauce, and sugar are commonly added to flavor the kimchi.


Production

The first step in the making of any kimchi is to slice the cabbage or daikon into smaller, uniform pieces to increase the surface area. The pieces are then coated with salt as a preservative method, as this draws out the water to lower the free water activity. This inhibits the growth of undesirable microorganisms by limiting the water available for them to utilize for growth and metabolism. The salting stage can use 5 to 7% salinity for 12 hours, or 15% for 3 to 7 hours. The excess water is then drained away, and seasoning ingredients are added. The sugar that is sometimes added also acts to bind free water that still remains, further reducing free water activity. Finally, the brined vegetables are placed into an airtight canning jar and left to sit for 24 to 48 hours at room temperature. The ideal salt concentration during the fermentation process is about 3%. Since the fermentation process results in the production of carbon dioxide, the jar should be "burped" daily to release the gas. The more fermentation that occurs, the more carbon dioxide will be incorporated, which results in a very carbonated-drink-like effect.


Microorganisms in kimchi

The microorganisms present in kimchi include ''
Bacillus mycoides ''Bacillus mycoides'' is a bacterium of the genus ''Bacillus''. Like other ''Bacillus'' species, ''B. mycoides'' is Gram positive, rod-shaped, and forms spores. ''B. mycoides'' is distinguished from other ''Bacillus'' species by its unusual growt ...
'', '' B. pseudomycoides'', ''
B. subtilis ''Bacillus subtilis'', known also as the hay bacillus or grass bacillus, is a Gram-positive, catalase-positive bacterium, found in soil and the gastrointestinal tract of ruminants, humans and marine sponges. As a member of the genus ''Bacillus' ...
'', '' Lactobacillus brevis'', '' Lb. curvatus'', '' Lb. kimchii'', '' Lb. parabrevis'', '' Lb. pentosus'', '' Lb. plantarum'', '' Lb. sakei'', '' Lb. spicheri'', ''
Lactococcus carnosum ''Lactococcus'' is a genus of lactic acid bacteria that were formerly included in the genus ''Streptococcus'' Group N1. They are known as homofermenters meaning that they produce a single product, lactic acid in this case, as the major or only pr ...
'', '' Lc. gelidum'', '' Lc. lactis'', ''
Leuconostoc carnosum ''Leuconostoc carnosum'' is a lactic acid bacterium; its type strain is NCFB 2776. Its genome has been sequenced. Its name derives from the fact that it was first isolated from chill-stored meats. Its significance is that it thrives in anaerobic ...
'', '' Ln. citreum'', '' Ln. gasicomitatum'', '' Ln. gelidum'', '' Ln. holzapfelii'', '' Ln. inhae'', '' Ln. kimchii'', '' Ln. lactis'', '' Ln. mesenteroides'', '' Serratia marcescens'', ''
Weissella cibaria ''Weissella cibaria'' is a species of Gram-positive bacteria Bacteria (; singular: bacterium) are ubiquitous, mostly free-living organisms often consisting of one biological cell. They constitute a large domain of prokaryotic microorga ...
'', '' W. confusa'', '' W. kandleri'', '' W. kimchii''. '' W. koreensis'', and '' W. soli''.
Archaea Archaea ( ; singular archaeon ) is a domain of single-celled organisms. These microorganisms lack cell nuclei and are therefore prokaryotes. Archaea were initially classified as bacteria, receiving the name archaebacteria (in the Archaebac ...
and yeasts, such as Saccharomyces, Candida, Pichia, and Kluyveromyces are also present in kimchi, with the latter being responsible for undesirable white colonies that sometimes form in the product as well as food spoilages and off-flavors. In early fermentation stages, the '' Leuconostoc'' variety is found more dominantly in kimchi fermentation because of its lower acid tolerance and microaerophilic properties; the '' Leuconostoc'' variety also grows better at low salt concentrations. Throughout the fermentation process, as acidity rises, the '' Lactobacillus'' and ''
Weissella ''Weissella'' is a genus of gram-positive bacteria placed within the family Lactobacillaceae, formerly considered species of the ''Leuconostoc paramesenteroides'' group. The morphology of ''Weissella'' species varies from spherical or lenticula ...
'' variety become dominant because of their higher acid tolerance. ''Lactobacillus'' also grows better in conditions with a higher salt concentration. These microorganisms are present due to the natural microflora provided by utilizing unsterilized food materials in the production of kimchi. The step of salting the raw materials as well as the addition of red pepper powder inhibit the pathogenic and putrefactive bacteria present in the microflora, allowing the lactic acid bacteria (LAB) to flourish and become the dominant microorganism. These anaerobic microorganisms steadily increase in number during the middle stages of fermentation, and prefer to be kept at low temperatures of about 10℃, pH of 4.2-4, and remain in the presence of 1.5% - 4% NaCl. A faster fermentation at a higher temperature may be chosen as well to accelerate the growth of bacterial cultures for a faster decrease in pH level. Since the raw cruciferous vegetables themselves are the source of LAB required for fermentation, no starter culture is required for the production of kimchi; rather, spontaneous fermentation occurs. The total population of microorganisms present at the beginning of processing determine the outcome of fermentation, causing the final product to be highly variable in terms of quality and flavor. Currently, there are no recommended approaches to control the microbial community during fermentation to predict the outcome. In the industrial production of kimchi, starter cultures made up of '' Leu. mesenteroides'', '' Leu. citreum'', and '' Lb. plantarum'' are used, which are often unsuccessful because they fail to outcompete the naturally occurring cultures on the raw materials.


By-products of microorganisms

The lactic acid bacteria (LAB) produce lactic acid, hydrogen peroxide, and carbon dioxide as by-products during metabolism. Lactic acid quickly lowers the pH, creating an acidic environment that is uninhabitable for most other microorganisms that survived salting. This also modifies the flavor of sub-ingredients and can increase the nutritive value of the raw materials, as the microbial community in the fermentation process can synthesize B vitamins and hydrolyze cellulose in plant tissues to free nutrients that are normally indigestible by the human gastrointestinal tract. Hydrogen peroxide is formed by the oxidation of reduced
nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) is a coenzyme central to metabolism. Found in all living cells, NAD is called a dinucleotide because it consists of two nucleotides joined through their phosphate groups. One nucleotide contains an aden ...
(NADH) and provides an antibiotic to inhibit some undesirable microorganisms. Carbon dioxide functions as a preservative, flushing out oxygen to create an anaerobic environment, as well as creating the desired carbonation in the final product.


Odor

Kimchi is known for its strong, spicy, flavors and odors, although milder varieties exist. Variations in the fermentation process cause the final product to be highly variable in terms of quality and flavor. The strong odor is especially tied to the sulfur compounds from garlic and ginger of kimchi, which can be less appealing to non-Koreans. Thus, scientists are experimenting with the types of bacteria used in its production to minimize the odor to increase the appeal for international markets. These efforts are not universally appreciated by lovers of kimchi, as the flavor is affected in the process, and some see that "South Korea's narrative about its own culinary staple" is being manipulated to suit the foreigners' tastes.


Varieties

Kimchi is one of the most important staples of
Korean cuisine Korean cuisine has evolved through centuries of social and political change. Originating from ancient agricultural and nomadic traditions in Korea and southern Manchuria, Korean cuisine reflects a complex interaction of the natural envi ...
. The Korean term "Kimchi" refers to fermented vegetables, and encompasses salt and seasoned vegetables. It is mainly served as a side dish with every meal, but also can be served as a main dish. Kimchi is mainly recognized as a spicy fermented cabbage dish globally. New variations of kimchi continue to be created, and the taste can vary depending on the region and season. Conventionally, the secret of kimchi preparation was passed down by mothers to their daughters in a bid to make them suitable wives to their husbands. However, with the current technological advancement and increase in social media use, many individuals worldwide can now access recipes for kimchi preparation. Kimchi can be categorized by main ingredients, regions or seasons. Korea's northern and southern sections have a considerable temperature difference."Kimchi." Yahoo Korean Encyclopedia
There are over 180 recognized varieties of kimchi. The most common kimchi variations are: * '' Baechu-kimchi'' () spicy napa cabbage kimchi, made from whole cabbage leaves * ''Baechu-geotjeori'' () unfermented napa cabbage kimchi * ''Bossam-kimchi'' () wrapped kimchi * '' Baek-kimchi'' () white kimchi, made without chili pepper * '' Dongchimi'' () a non-spicy watery kimchi * ''
Nabak-kimchi ''Nabak-kimchi'' * () is a watery kimchi, similar to ''dongchimi'', in Korean cuisine. It is made of Korean radish and napa cabbage (called ''baechu'', hangul 배추, in Korean) as main ingredients, thinly sliced into rectangular shapes, salte ...
'' () a mildly spicy watery kimchi * ''Chonggak-kimchi'' () cubed chonggak "ponytail" radish, a popular spicy kimchi * '' Kkakdugi'' () spicy cubed Korean radish strongly-scented kimchi containing fermented shrimp * ''Oi-sobagi'' () cucumber kimchi that can be stuffed with seafood and chili paste, and is a popular choice during the spring and summer seasons * '' Pa-kimchi'' () spicy green onion kimchi * '' Yeolmu-kimchi'' () is also a popular choice during the spring and summer, and is made with yeolmu radishes, and does not necessarily have to be fermented. * '' Gat-kimchi'' (), made with Indian mustard * ''Yangbaechu-kimchi'' (양배추 김치) spicy cabbage kimchi, made from "headed"
cabbage Cabbage, comprising several cultivars of ''Brassica oleracea'', is a leafy green, red (purple), or white (pale green) biennial plant grown as an annual vegetable crop for its dense-leaved heads. It is descended from the wild cabbage ( ''B.&nb ...
leaves (as opposed to napa cabbage) Kimchi from the northern parts of Korea tends to have less salt and red chili and usually does not include brined seafood for seasoning. Northern kimchi often has a watery consistency. Kimchi made in the southern parts of Korea, such as Jeolla-do and Gyeongsang-do, uses salt, chili peppers and ''
myeolchijeot ''Myeolchi-jeot'' () or salted anchovies is a variety of ''jeotgal'' (salted seafood), made by salting and fermenting anchovies. * Along with ''saeu-jeot'' (salted shrimps), it is one of the most commonly consumed ''jeotgal'' in Korean cuisine. I ...
'' (, brined anchovy allowed to ferment) or ''
saeujeot ''Saeu-jeot'' * () is a variety of ''jeotgal'', salted and fermented food made with small shrimp in Korean cuisine. It is the most consumed ''jeotgal'' along with ''myeolchi-jeot'' (멸치젓, salted anchovy ''jeot'') in South Korea. The name c ...
'' (, brined shrimp allowed to ferment), ''myeolchiaekjeot'' (), ''kkanariaekjeot'' (), liquid anchovy jeot, similar to fish sauce used in Southeast Asia, but thicker. ''
Saeujeot ''Saeu-jeot'' * () is a variety of ''jeotgal'', salted and fermented food made with small shrimp in Korean cuisine. It is the most consumed ''jeotgal'' along with ''myeolchi-jeot'' (멸치젓, salted anchovy ''jeot'') in South Korea. The name c ...
'' () or ''myeolchijeot'' is not added to the kimchi spice-seasoning mixture, but is simmered first to reduce odors, eliminate tannic flavor and fats, and then is mixed with a thickener made of rice or wheat starch (). This technique has been falling into disuse in the past 40 years.


Color

White kimchi Baek-kimchi * () or white kimchi is a variety of kimchi made without the chili pepper powder commonly used for fermenting kimchi in Korean cuisine. ''Baek kimchi'' has a mild and clean flavor, which appeals to children and the elderly, to whom t ...
are neither red nor spicy. It includes white napa cabbage kimchi and other varieties such as white radish kimchi ('' dongchimi''). Watery white kimchi varieties are sometimes used as an ingredient in a number of dishes such as cold noodles in ''dongchimi''
brine Brine is a high-concentration solution of salt (NaCl) in water (H2O). In diverse contexts, ''brine'' may refer to the salt solutions ranging from about 3.5% (a typical concentration of seawater, on the lower end of that of solutions used for br ...
(''dongchimi-guksu'').


Age

* ''
Geotjeori ''Kimchi'' (; ko, 김치, gimchi, ), is a traditional Korean side dish of salted and fermented vegetables, such as napa cabbage and Korean radish. A wide selection of seasonings are used, including ''gochugaru'' (Korean chili powder), sprin ...
'' () are fresh, unfermented kimchi. * ''Mugeun-ji'' (), also known as ''mugeun-kimchi'' (), aged kimchi


Region

The following regional classification dates to the 1960s. Since then, kimchi-making practices and trends in Korea have diverged from it. * '' Pyongan-do'' (North Korea, outside of Pyongyang): Non-traditional ingredients have been adopted in rural areas due to severe food shortages. * '' Hamgyeong-do'' (Upper Northeast): Due to its proximity to the ocean, people in this particular region use fresh fish and oysters to season their kimchi. * ''
Hwanghae-do Hwanghae Province (''Hwanghae-do'' ) was one of the Eight Provinces of Korea during the Joseon era. Hwanghae was located in the northwest of Korea. The provincial capital was Haeju. The regional name for the province was Haeseo. History In 139 ...
'' (Midwest): The taste of kimchi in Hwanghae-do is not bland but not extremely spicy. Most kimchi from this region has less color since red chili flakes are not used. The typical kimchi for Hwanghae-do is called hobakji (호박지). It is made with pumpkin (''bundi''). * ''
Gyeonggi-do Gyeonggi-do (, ) is the most populous province in South Korea. Its name, ''Gyeonggi'', means "京 (the capital) and 畿 (the surrounding area)". Thus, ''Gyeonggi-do'' can be translated as "Seoul and the surrounding areas of Seoul". Seoul, the na ...
'' (Lower Midwest of Hwanghae-do) * ''
Chungcheong-do Chungcheong (''Chungcheong-do''; ) was one of the eight provinces of Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. Chungcheong was located in the southwest of Korea. The provincial capital was located at Gongju, which had been the capital of the kingdom o ...
'' (between Gyeonggi-do and Jeolla-do): Instead of using fermented fish, people in the region rely on salt and fermentation to make savory kimchi. Chungcheong-do has the most varieties of kimchi. * '' Gangwon-do (South Korea)/
Kangwon-do (North Korea) Kangwon Province (Kangwŏndo; ) is a province of North Korea, with its capital at Wŏnsan. Before the division of Korea in 1945, Kangwŏn Province and its South Korean neighbour Gangwon Province (also spelled ''Kangwon Province'' sometimes) f ...
'' (Mideast): In Gangwon-do, kimchi is stored for longer periods. Unlike other coastal regions in Korea, kimchi in this area does not contain much salted fish. * '' Jeolla-do'' (Lower Southwest): Salted
yellow corvina ''Larimichthys polyactis'', called the redlip croaker, small yellow croaker, little yellow croaker or yellow corvina, is a species of Sciaenidae, croaker native to the western Pacific, generally in temperate waters such as the East China Sea and ...
and salted
butterfish Butterfish may refer to: * Stromateidae, found in coastal waters off the Americas, western Africa and in the Indo-Pacific * Sablefish The sablefish (''Anoplopoma fimbria'') is one of two members of the fish family Anoplopomatidae and the onl ...
are used in this region to create different seasonings for kimchi. * '' Gyeongsang-do'' (Lower Southeast): This region's cuisine is saltier and spicier. The most common seasoning components include
myeolchijeot ''Myeolchi-jeot'' () or salted anchovies is a variety of ''jeotgal'' (salted seafood), made by salting and fermenting anchovies. * Along with ''saeu-jeot'' (salted shrimps), it is one of the most commonly consumed ''jeotgal'' in Korean cuisine. I ...
() which produce a briny and savory flavor. * ''Foreign countries'': In some places of the world people sometimes make kimchi with western
cabbage Cabbage, comprising several cultivars of ''Brassica oleracea'', is a leafy green, red (purple), or white (pale green) biennial plant grown as an annual vegetable crop for its dense-leaved heads. It is descended from the wild cabbage ( ''B.&nb ...
and many other alternative ingredients such as broccoli.


Seasonal variations

Different types of kimchi were traditionally made at different times of the year, based on when various vegetables were in season and also to take advantage of hot and cold seasons before the era of refrigeration. Although the advent of modern refrigeration – including kimchi refrigerators specifically designed with precise controls to keep different varieties of kimchi at optimal temperatures at various stages of fermentation – has made this seasonality unnecessary, Koreans continue to consume kimchi according to traditional seasonal preferences.


Spring

After a long period of consuming ''
gimjang Gimjang (), also spelled kimjang, is the traditional process of preparation and preservation of kimchi, the spicy Korean fermented vegetable dish, in the wintertime. During the summer months, kimchi is made fresh, from seasonal vegetables. For one ...
kimchi'' () during the winter, fresh
potherb Leaf vegetables, also called leafy greens, pot herbs, vegetable greens, or simply greens, are plant leaves eaten as a vegetable, sometimes accompanied by tender petioles and shoots. Leaf vegetables eaten raw in a salad can be called salad gre ...
s and vegetables were used to make kimchi. These kinds of kimchi were not fermented or even stored for long periods of time but were consumed fresh.


Summer

Yeolmu radishes and cucumbers are summer vegetables made into kimchi, '' yeolmu-kimchi'' () which is eaten in several bites. Brined fish or shellfish can be added, and freshly ground dried chili peppers are often used.


Autumn

'' Baechu kimchi'' is prepared by inserting blended stuffing materials, called ''sok'' (literally ''inside''), between layers of salted leaves of uncut, whole Napa cabbage. The ingredients of ''sok'' () can vary, depending on the regions and weather conditions. Generally, ''baechu kimchi'' used to have a strong salty flavor until the late 1960s, before which a large amount of ''
myeolchijeot ''Myeolchi-jeot'' () or salted anchovies is a variety of ''jeotgal'' (salted seafood), made by salting and fermenting anchovies. * Along with ''saeu-jeot'' (salted shrimps), it is one of the most commonly consumed ''jeotgal'' in Korean cuisine. I ...
'' or ''
saeujeot ''Saeu-jeot'' * () is a variety of ''jeotgal'', salted and fermented food made with small shrimp in Korean cuisine. It is the most consumed ''jeotgal'' along with ''myeolchi-jeot'' (멸치젓, salted anchovy ''jeot'') in South Korea. The name c ...
'' had been used. ''Gogumasoon Kimchi'' is made from sweet potato stems.


Winter

Traditionally, the greatest varieties of kimchi were available during the winter. In preparation for the long winter months, many types of kimjang kimchi () were prepared in early winter and stored in the ground in large kimchi pots. Today, many city residents use modern
kimchi refrigerator A kimchi refrigerator is a refrigerator designed specifically to meet the storage requirements of kimchi and facilitate different fermentation processes. The kimchi refrigerator aims to be colder, with more consistent temperature, more humidi ...
s offering precise temperature controls to store kimjang kimchi. November and December are traditionally when people begin to make kimchi; women often gather together in each other's homes to help with winter kimchi preparations. "Baechu kimchi" is made with salted baechu filled with thin strips of radish, parsley, pine nuts, pears, chestnuts, shredded red pepper, manna lichen (), garlic, and ginger.


Korean preference

As of 2004, the preference of kimchi preparation in Korean households from the most prepared type of kimchi to less prepared types of kimchi was: baechu kimchi, being the most prepared type of kimchi, then kkakdugi, then dongchimi and then chonggak kimchi. Baechu kimchi comprised more than seventy percent of marketed kimchi and radish kimchi comprised about twenty percent of marketed kimchi.Hui et al. (2004). Handbook of Vegetable Preservation and Processing. New York:
Marcel Dekker Marcel Dekker was a journal and encyclopedia publishing company with editorial boards found in New York City. Dekker encyclopedias are now published by CRC Press, part of the Taylor and Francis publishing group. History Initially a textbook pu ...
. Pages 190 & 191. Retrieved 23 March 2017, fro
link.
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Dishes usually served with kimchi

As a traditional side dish, Kimchi is almost always served along with other side dishes in most Korean family households and restaurants. Kimchi can be eaten alone or with white or brown rice, but it is also included in recipes of other traditional dishes, including porridges, soups, and rice cakes. Kimchi is also the basis for many derivative dishes such as kimchi stew (), kimchi pancake (), kimchi soup (), and kimchi fried rice (). Army base stew () is a popular dish made with
spam Spam may refer to: * Spam (food), a canned pork meat product * Spamming, unsolicited or undesired electronic messages ** Email spam, unsolicited, undesired, or illegal email messages ** Messaging spam, spam targeting users of instant messaging ( ...
, sausage, and kimchi. It originated after the Korean war based on ingredients scrounged from the army.


Nutrition

Kimchi is made of various vegetables and contains a high concentration of
dietary fiber Dietary fiber (in British English fibre) or roughage is the portion of plant-derived food that cannot be completely broken down by human digestive enzymes. Dietary fibers are diverse in chemical composition, and can be grouped generally by the ...
, while being low in calories. The vegetables used in kimchi also contribute to intake of vitamin A, thiamine (B1), riboflavin (B2), calcium, and iron. A 2003 article said that South Koreans consume 18kg (40lbs) of kimchi per person annually. Many credit the Korean Miracle in part to eating the dish. Adult Koreans eat from to of kimchi a day.Tamang, J.P. (2015). Health Benefits of Fermented Foods and Beverages.
CRC Press The CRC Press, LLC is an American publishing group that specializes in producing technical books. Many of their books relate to engineering, science and mathematics. Their scope also includes books on business, forensics and information tec ...
. Taylor & Francis Group. Pages 344, 350 & 351. Retrieved 21 March 2017, fro
link.
/ref>


Trade

South Korea spent around $129 million in 2017 to purchase 275,000 metric tons of foreign kimchi, more than 11 times the amount it exported, according to data released by the Korea Customs Service in 2017. South Korea consumes 1.85 million metric tons of kimchi annually, or 36.1 kg per person. It imports a significant fraction of that, mostly from China, and runs a $47.3 million kimchi trade deficit.


Food regulations

The Canadian Food Inspection Agency has regulations for the commercial production of kimchi. The final product should have a pH ranging from 4.2 to 4.5. Any low-acidity ingredients with a pH above 4.6, including white daikon and napa cabbage, should not be left under conditions that enable the growth of undesirable microorganisms and require a written illustration of the procedure designed to ensure this is available if requested. This procedural design should include steps that maintain sterility of the equipment and products used, and the details of all sterilization processes. The cutoff pH of 4.6 is a value common to many food safety regulations, initially defined because
botulism toxin Botulinum toxin, or botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT), is a neurotoxin, neurotoxic protein produced by the bacteria, bacterium ''Clostridium botulinum'' and related species. It prevents the release of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine from axon en ...
is not produced below this level.


Gallery

File:Korean cuisine-Gimjang-Preparation for making kimchi-01.jpg, Preparation for making kimchi File:Korean cuisine-Seongnyu kimchi-Pomegranate kimchi-01.jpg, ''Seokryu kimchi'' named after its pomegranate-like shape File:Koren cuisine-Jang kimchi-Pickled with soy sauce-01.jpg, ''Jang kimchi'', pickled with soy sauce File:Korean food-Packed kimchi-01.jpg, Displayed manufactured kimchi File:Oi-sobagi.jpg, ''Oi-sobagi'' (cucumber kimchi) File:Bok choy green kimchi.jpg, Homemade green kimchi, made with
bok choy Bok choy (American English, Canadian English, and Australian English), pak choi (British English) or pok choi (''Brassica rapa'' subsp. ''chinensis'') is a type of Chinese cabbage, used as food. ''Chinensis'' varieties do not form heads and have g ...
with a green onion and garlic scape-based chili paste


See also

* * * * * * * * – a variety of kimchi made of carrots by Koryo-saram * * * * . * *


References


Further reading

* * {{Portal bar, Korea, Food Banchan Brassica dishes Cabbage dishes Korean cuisine National dishes Pickles