Islam Islam (; ar, ۘالِإسلَام, , ) is an Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic Monotheism#Islam, monotheistic religion centred primarily around the Quran, a religious text considered by Muslims to be the direct word of God in Islam, God (or ...

arrived in

Kerala Kerala ( ; ) is a state on the Malabar Coast of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, following the passage of the States Reorganisation Act, by combining Malayalam-speaking regions of the erstwhile regions of Cochin, Malabar, South ...

, the

Malayalam Malayalam (; , ) is a Dravidian language spoken in the Indian state of Kerala and the union territories of Lakshadweep and Puducherry (Mahé district) by the Malayali people. It is one of 22 scheduled languages of India. Malayalam was des ...

-speaking region in the south-western tip of India, through Middle Eastern merchants.Miller, E. Roland. "Mappila Muslim Culture" State University of New York Press, Albany (2015); p. xi. The Indian coast has an ancient relation with West Asia and the Middle East, even during the pre-Islamic period. Kerala Muslims or Malayali Muslims from north Kerala are generally referred to as

Mappila Mappila Muslim, often shortened to Mappila, formerly anglicized as Moplah/Mopla and historically known as Jonaka/Chonaka Mappila or Moors Mopulars/Mouros da Terra and Mouros Malabares, in general, is a member of the Muslim community of same n ...

s. Mappilas are but one among the many communities that forms the Muslim population of Kerala.Kunhali, V. "Muslim Communities in Kerala to 1798" PhD Dissertation Aligarh Muslim University (1986

/ref> According to some scholars, the Mappilas are the oldest settled Muslim community in South Asia.Miller, R. E. "Mappila" in ''The Encyclopedia of Islam'' Volume VI. Leiden E. J. Brill 1988 p. 458-6

/ref> As per some studies, the term "Mappila" denotes not a single community but a variety of Malayali Muslims from Kerala (former

Malabar District Malabar District, also known as Malayalam District, was an administrative district on the southwestern Malabar Coast of Bombay Presidency (1792-1800) and Madras Presidency (1800-1947) in British India, and independent India's Madras State (19 ...

) of different origins. Native Muslims of

were known as Mouros da Terra, or Mouros Malabares in medieval period. Settled foreign Muslims of Kerala were known as Mouros da Arabia/Mouros de Meca.Subrahmanyam, Sanjay."The Political Economy of Commerce: Southern India 1500–1650" Cambridge University Press, (2002) Very much unlike other parts of South Asia, the

caste system Caste is a form of social stratification characterised by endogamy, hereditary transmission of a style of life which often includes an occupation, ritual status in a hierarchy, and customary social interaction and exclusion based on cultura ...

doesn't exist among the Muslims of Kerala. Muslims in Kerala share a common language (

) with the rest of the non-Muslim population and have a culture commonly regarded as the Malayali culture.Pg 461, Roland Miller, The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Vol VI, Brill 1988
/ref> Islam is the second largest practised religion in Kerala (26.56%) next to

Hinduism Hinduism () is an Indian religion or '' dharma'', a religious and universal order or way of life by which followers abide. As a religion, it is the world's third-largest, with over 1.2–1.35 billion followers, or 15–16% of the global p ...

. The calculated Muslim population (Indian Census, 2011) in Kerala state is 8,873,472.T. Nandakumar, "54.72 % of population in Kerala are Hindus" ''The Hindu'' August 26, 201

/ref> Most of the Muslims in Kerala follow

Sunni Islam Sunni Islam () is the largest branch of Islam, followed by 85–90% of the world's Muslims. Its name comes from the word '' Sunnah'', referring to the tradition of Muhammad. The differences between Sunni and Shia Muslims arose from a disagre ...

of Shāfiʿī School of thought, while a large minority follow modern movements (such as

Salafism The Salafi movement or Salafism () is a Islah, reform branch movement within Sunni Islam that originated during the nineteenth century. The name refers to advocacy of a return to the traditions of the "pious predecessors" (), the first three g ...

) that developed within

.Miller, Roland. E., "Mappila" in "The Encyclopedia of Islam". Volume VI. E. J. Brill, Leiden. 1987 pp. 458–56.

History

Kerala has been a major spice exporter since 3000 BCE, according to

Sumerian records Sumerian Records is an American independent record label based in Los Angeles, Washington D.C., and London. The label was founded in 2006 by Ash Avildsen. Kerala's spices attracted ancient

Arab The Arabs (singular: Arab; singular ar, عَرَبِيٌّ, DIN 31635: , , plural ar, عَرَب, DIN 31635: , Arabic pronunciation: ), also known as the Arab people, are an ethnic group mainly inhabiting the Arab world in Western Asia, ...

Babylonians Babylonia (; Akkadian: , ''māt Akkadī'') was an ancient Akkadian-speaking state and cultural area based in the city of Babylon in central-southern Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq and parts of Syria). It emerged as an Amorite-ruled state c. ...

Assyria Assyria (Neo-Assyrian cuneiform: , romanized: ''māt Aššur''; syc, ܐܬܘܪ, ʾāthor) was a major ancient Mesopotamian civilization which existed as a city-state at times controlling regional territories in the indigenous lands of the A ...

ns and

Egyptians Egyptians ( arz, المَصرِيُون, translit=al-Maṣriyyūn, ; arz, المَصرِيِين, translit=al-Maṣriyyīn, ; cop, ⲣⲉⲙⲛ̀ⲭⲏⲙⲓ, remenkhēmi) are an ethnic group native to the Nile, Nile Valley in Egypt. Egyptian ...

to the Malabar Coast in the 3rd and 2nd millennia BCE.

Phoenicians Phoenicia () was an ancient Semitic-speaking peoples, ancient thalassocracy, thalassocratic civilization originating in the Levant region of the eastern Mediterranean, primarily located in modern Lebanon. The territory of the Phoenician city-st ...

established trade with Kerala during this period.

s and

were the first to enter

Malabar Coast The Malabar Coast is the southwestern coast of the Indian subcontinent. Geographically, it comprises the wettest regions of southern India, as the Western Ghats intercept the moisture-laden monsoon rains, especially on their westward-facing m ...

to trade

Spice A spice is a seed, fruit, root, bark, or other plant substance primarily used for flavoring or coloring food. Spices are distinguished from herbs, which are the leaves, flowers, or stems of plants used for flavoring or as a garnish. Spices a ...

s. The Arabs on the coasts of

Yemen Yemen (; ar, ٱلْيَمَن, al-Yaman), officially the Republic of Yemen,, ) is a country in Western Asia. It is situated on the southern end of the Arabian Peninsula, and borders Saudi Arabia to the Saudi Arabia–Yemen border, north and ...

Oman Oman ( ; ar, عُمَان ' ), officially the Sultanate of Oman ( ar, سلْطنةُ عُمان ), is an Arabian country located in southwestern Asia. It is situated on the southeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula, and spans the mouth of t ...

, and the

Persian Gulf The Persian Gulf ( fa, خلیج فارس, translit=xalij-e fârs, lit=Gulf of Persis, Fars, ), sometimes called the ( ar, اَلْخَلِيْجُ ٱلْعَرَبِيُّ, Al-Khalīj al-ˁArabī), is a Mediterranean sea (oceanography), me ...

, must have made the first long voyage to Kerala and other eastern countries. They must have brought the

Cinnamon Cinnamon is a spice obtained from the inner bark of several tree species from the genus ''Cinnamomum''. Cinnamon is used mainly as an aromatic condiment and flavouring additive in a wide variety of cuisines, sweet and savoury dishes, breakfa ...

of Kerala to the

Middle East The Middle East ( ar, الشرق الأوسط, ISO 233: ) is a geopolitical region commonly encompassing Arabian Peninsula, Arabia (including the Arabian Peninsula and Bahrain), Anatolia, Asia Minor (Asian part of Turkey except Hatay Pro ...

. The Greek historian

Herodotus Herodotus ( ; grc, , }; BC) was an ancient Greek historian and geographer from the Greek city of Halicarnassus, part of the Persian Empire (now Bodrum, Turkey) and a later citizen of Thurii in modern Calabria ( Italy). He is known f ...

(5th century BCE) records that in his time the cinnamon spice industry was monopolized by the Egyptians and the Phoenicians. In the past, there were many Muslim traders in the ports of Malabar. There had been considerable trade relations between

and

even before the time of

Prophet Muhammad Muhammad ( ar, مُحَمَّد; 570 – 8 June 632 CE) was an Arab religious, social, and political leader and the founder of Islam. According to Islamic doctrine, he was a prophet divinely inspired to preach and confirm the monoth ...

(c. 570 – 632 AD).P. P., Razak Abdul "Colonialism and community formation in Malabar: a study of muslims of Malabar" Unpublished PhD thesis (2013) Department of History, University of Calicu

/ref> Muslim tombstones with ancient dates, short inscriptions in medieval mosques, and rare Arab coin collections are the major sources of early Muslim presence on the Malabar Coast. Islam arrived in

, a part of the larger

Indian Ocean The Indian Ocean is the third-largest of the world's five oceanic divisions, covering or ~19.8% of the water on Earth's surface. It is bounded by Asia to the north, Africa to the west and Australia to the east. To the south it is bounded by th ...

rim, via spice and silk traders from the

. Historians do not rule out the possibility of

being introduced to Kerala as early as the seventh century CE.Katz 2000; Koder 1973; Thomas Puthiakunnel 1973; David de Beth Hillel, 1832; Lord, James Henry 1977. Notable has been the occurrence of

Cheraman Perumal Tajuddin Perumal (the 'Great One') is the name of a Hindu deity. It was also a medieval Indian royal title of: *Western Ganga dynasty Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala''. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 171. **Sripurusha **Rajamalla **Nitim ...

, the Hindu King that moved to

Arabia The Arabian Peninsula, (; ar, شِبْهُ الْجَزِيرَةِ الْعَرَبِيَّة, , "Arabian Peninsula" or , , "Island of the Arabs") or Arabia, is a peninsula of Western Asia, situated northeast of Africa on the Arabian Plate. ...

to meet the Islamic

Prophet In religion, a prophet or prophetess is an individual who is regarded as being in contact with a divine being and is said to speak on behalf of that being, serving as an intermediary with humanity by delivering messages or teachings from the s ...

Muhammad Muhammad ( ar, مُحَمَّد; 570 – 8 June 632 Common Era, CE) was an Arab religious, social, and political leader and the founder of Islam. According to Muhammad in Islam, Islamic doctrine, he was a prophet Divine inspiration, di ...

and converted to Islam. Kerala Muslims are generally referred to as the

s. Mappilas are but one among the many communities that forms the Muslim population of Kerala. According to the

Legend of Cheraman Perumals The legend of Cheraman Perumals is the medieval tradition associated with the Cheraman Perumals (Chera kings) of Kerala.Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 31-32. The sources of the legend include p ...

, the first Indian mosque was built in 624 AD at

Kodungallur Kodungallur (; also Cranganore, Portuguese: Cranganor; formerly known as Mahodayapuram, Shingly, Vanchi, Muchiri, Muyirikkode, and Muziris) is a historically significant town situated on the banks of river Periyar on the Malabar Coast in Thr ...

with the mandate of the last the ruler (the Cheraman Perumal) of Chera dynasty, who converted to Islam during the lifetime of

(c. 570–632). According to ''

Qissat Shakarwati Farmad ''Qissat Shakarwati Farmad'' (alternatively ''Qissat Shakruti Firmad'', literally ''"Tale of the Great Chera Ruler"'') is an Arabic manuscript of anonymous authorship, apparently written in Malabar Coast, south India.O. Loth, ''Arabic Manuscripts ...

'', the ''Masjids'' at

Kollam Kollam (), also known by its former name Quilon , is an ancient seaport and city on the Malabar Coast of India bordering the Laccadive Sea, which is a part of the Arabian Sea. It is north of the state capital Thiruvananthapuram. The city i ...

Madayi Madayi (a.k.a. Madai). is a Census Town and Grama panchayat in Kannur district of Kerala state, India. Bhagavathy shrine, Madayi Kavu (Thiruvar Kadu Bhagavathi Temple) where devotees worship Bhadrakali, is located here. The Goddess is on ...

Barkur Barkur (also spelt Barcoor) is an area in the Brahmavara taluk, Udupi district of Karnataka state in India, comprising three villages, Hosala, Hanehalli, and Kachoor. The area is located on the bank of River Seetha. It is also referred to ...

Mangalore Mangalore (), officially known as Mangaluru, is a major port city of the Indian state of Karnataka. It is located between the Arabian Sea and the Western Ghats about west of Bangalore, the state capital, 20 km north of Karnataka–Ker ...

Kasaragod Kasaragod () is a municipal town and administrative headquarters of Kasaragod district in the state of Kerala, India. Established in 1966, Kasaragod was the first municipal town in the district. It is the northernmost district of Kerala and ...

Kannur Kannur (), formerly known in English as Cannanore, is a city and a municipal corporation in the state of Kerala, India. It is the administrative headquarters of the Kannur district and situated north of the major port city and commercial hu ...

Dharmadam Dharmadom or Dharmadam is a census town in Thalassery taluk of Kannur district in the state of Kerala, India. This town is located in between Anjarakandi River and Ummanchira river, and Palayad town and Arabian sea. It is known for the 100-year ...

, Panthalayini, and

Chaliyam Chaliyam is a village situated at the estuary of Chaliyar (River Beypore) in Kozhikode district of Kerala, India. Chaliyam forms an island, bounded by the Chaliyar in the north, and River Kadalundi in south, and the Conolly Canal in the east. ...

, were built during the era of

Malik Dinar Malik Dinar ( ar-at, مالك دينار, Mālik b. Dīnār, Malayalam: മാലിക് ദീനാര്‍) (died 748 CE)Al-Hujwiri, "Kashf al-Mahjoob", 89 was a Muslim scholar and traveller. He was one of the first known Muslims to have co ...

, and they are among the oldest ''Masjid''s in

Indian Subcontinent The Indian subcontinent is a list of the physiographic regions of the world, physiographical region in United Nations geoscheme for Asia#Southern Asia, Southern Asia. It is situated on the Indian Plate, projecting southwards into the Indian O ...

. It is believed that

died at

Thalangara Thalangara is a part of Kasaragod Town, the district headquarters of the Kasaragod district in the South Indian state of Kerala. Malik Bin Deenar, Malik Deenar Jama Masjid and Dargah is located here. Its economy is dependent on remittance from e ...

town.Pg 58, Cultural heritage of

: an introduction, A. Sreedhara Menon, East-West Publications, 1978 According to popular tradition,

was brought to

Lakshadweep Lakshadweep (), also known as Laccadives (), is a union territory of India. It is an archipelago of 36 islands in the Arabian sea, located off the Malabar Coast. The name ''Lakshadweep'' means "one lakh islands" in Sanskrit, though the Lac ...

islands, situated just to the west of

, by Ubaidullah in 661 CE. His grave is believed to be located on the island of

Andrott Andrott Island, also known as Androth Island, is a small inhabited island in the Union Territory of Lakshadweep, a group of 36 coral islands scattered in the Arabian Sea off the western coast of India It has a distance of west of the city of ...

. A few

Umayyad The Umayyad Caliphate (661–750 CE; , ; ar, ٱلْخِلَافَة ٱلْأُمَوِيَّة, al-Khilāfah al-ʾUmawīyah) was the second of the four major caliphates established after the death of Muhammad. The caliphate was ruled by the ...

(661–750 AD) coins were discovered from

Kothamangalam Kothamangalam, , is a municipality in Ernakulam district of Kerala, India. The town is in the foothills of the Western Ghats, and is a part of the Idukki Lok Sabha constituency. The town serves as the headquarters of a taluk and a municipality ...

in the eastern part of

Ernakulam district Ernakulam, ; ISO: ''Eṟaṇākuḷaṁ'', in Malayalam: എറണാകുളം), is one of the 14 districts in the Indian state of Kerala, that takes its name from the eponymous city division in Kochi. It is situated in the central part o ...

The known earliest mention about

Muslim Muslims ( ar, المسلمون, , ) are people who adhere to Islam, a monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God of Abrah ...

s of Kerala is in the

Quilon Syrian copper plates Kollam/Quilon Syrian copper plates, also known as Kollam Tarisappalli copper plates, or Kottayam inscription of Sthanu Ravi, or Tabula Quilonensis record a royal grant issued by the chieftain of Kollam (Ayyan Adikal) to a Syrian Christian merc ...

of 9th century CE, granted by the ruler of

. A number of foreign accounts have mentioned about the presence of considerable

population in the

. Arab writers such as

Al-Masudi Al-Mas'udi ( ar, أَبُو ٱلْحَسَن عَلِيّ ٱبْن ٱلْحُسَيْن ٱبْن عَلِيّ ٱلْمَسْعُودِيّ, '; –956) was an Arab historian, geographer and traveler. He is sometimes referred to as the "Herodotus ...

Baghdad Baghdad (; ar, بَغْدَاد , ) is the capital of Iraq and the second-largest city in the Arab world after Cairo. It is located on the Tigris near the ruins of the ancient city of Babylon and the Sassanid Persian capital of Ctesiphon ...

(896–956 AD),

Muhammad al-Idrisi Abu Abdullah Muhammad al-Idrisi al-Qurtubi al-Hasani as-Sabti, or simply al-Idrisi ( ar, أبو عبد الله محمد الإدريسي القرطبي الحسني السبتي; la, Dreses; 1100 – 1165), was a Muslim geographer, cartograp ...

(1100–1165 AD),

Abulfeda Ismāʿīl b. ʿAlī b. Maḥmūd b. Muḥammad b. ʿUmar b. Shāhanshāh b. Ayyūb b. Shādī b. Marwān ( ar, إسماعيل بن علي بن محمود بن محمد بن عمر بن شاهنشاه بن أيوب بن شادي بن مروان ...

(1273–1331 AD), and

Al-Dimashqi The Arabic '' nisbah'' (attributive title) Al-Dimashqi ( ar, الدمشقي) denotes an origin from Damascus, Syria. Al-Dimashqi may refer to: * Al-Dimashqi (geographer): a medieval Arab geographer. * Abu al-Fadl Ja'far ibn 'Ali al-Dimashqi: 12th- ...

(1256–1327 AD) mention the Muslim communities in Kerala. Some historians assume that the

s can be considered as the first native, settled Muslim community in

South Asia South Asia is the southern subregion of Asia, which is defined in both geographical and ethno-cultural terms. The region consists of the countries of Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka.;;;;;;;; ...

Al-Biruni Abu Rayhan Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Biruni (973 – after 1050) commonly known as al-Biruni, was a Khwarazmian Iranian in scholar and polymath during the Islamic Golden Age. He has been called variously the "founder of Indology", "Father of Co ...

(973–1048 CE) appears to be the first writer to call

as ''Malabar''. Authors such as

Ibn Khordadbeh Abu'l-Qasim Ubaydallah ibn Abdallah ibn Khordadbeh ( ar, ابوالقاسم عبیدالله ابن خرداذبه; 820/825–913), commonly known as Ibn Khordadbeh (also spelled Ibn Khurradadhbih; ), was a high-ranking Persian bureaucrat and ...

and

Al-Baladhuri ʾAḥmad ibn Yaḥyā ibn Jābir al-Balādhurī ( ar, أحمد بن يحيى بن جابر البلاذري) was a 9th-century Muslim historian. One of the eminent Middle Eastern historians of his age, he spent most of his life in Baghdad and ...

mention Malabar ports in their works. The Arab writers had called this place ''Malibar'', ''Manibar'', ''Mulibar'', and ''Munibar''. ''Malabar'' is reminiscent of the word ''Malanad'' which means ''the land of hills''. According to William Logan, the word ''Malabar'' comes from a combination of the

word ''Mala'' (hill) and the

Persian Persian may refer to: * People and things from Iran, historically called ''Persia'' in the English language ** Persians, the majority ethnic group in Iran, not to be conflated with the Iranic peoples ** Persian language, an Iranian language of the ...

Arabic Arabic (, ' ; , ' or ) is a Semitic languages, Semitic language spoken primarily across the Arab world.Semitic languages: an international handbook / edited by Stefan Weninger; in collaboration with Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck, Janet C ...

word ''Barr'' (country/continent). The Kodungallur Mosque, has a granite foundation exhibiting 11th–12th century architectural style. The

inscription on a copper slab within the Madayi Mosque in

records its foundation year as 1124 CE. The monopoly of overseas spice trade from

was safe with the West Asian shipping magnates of Kerala ports. The Muslims were a major financial power to be reckoned with in the kingdoms of Kerala and had great political influence in the

Hindu Hindus (; ) are people who religiously adhere to Hinduism.Jeffery D. Long (2007), A Vision for Hinduism, IB Tauris, , pages 35–37 Historically, the term has also been used as a geographical, cultural, and later religious identifier for ...

royal courts. Travellers have recorded the considerably huge presence of Muslim merchants and settlements of sojourning traders in most of the ports of Kerala. Immigration, intermarriage and missionary activity/conversion — secured by the common interest in the spice trade — helped in this development.Prange, Sebastian R. ''Monsoon Islam: Trade and Faith on the Medieval Malabar Coast''. Cambridge University Press, 2018. The Koyilandy Jumu'ah Mosque contains an

Old Malayalam Old Malayalam, inscriptional language found in Kerala from ''c.'' 9th to ''c.'' 13th century AD, is the earliest attested form of Malayalam. The language was employed in several official records and transactions (at the level of the Chera Perumal ...

inscription written in a mixture of ''

Vatteluttu ''Vatteluttu,'' popularly romanised as ''Vattezhuthu'' ( ta, வட்டெழுத்து, ' and ml, വട്ടെഴുത്ത്, ', ), was a syllabic alphabet of south India (Tamil Nadu and Kerala) and Sri Lanka used for writing t ...

'' and

Grantha script The Grantha script ( ta, கிரந்த எழுத்து, Granta eḻuttu; ml, ഗ്രന്ഥലിപി, granthalipi) is a South Indian script, found particularly in Tamil Nadu and Kerala. Originating from the Pallava script, t ...

s which dates back to 10th century CE.Aiyer, K. V. Subrahmanya (ed.), ''South Indian Inscriptions.'' VIII, no. 162, Madras: Govt of India, Central Publication Branch, Calcutta, 1932. p. 69. It is a rare surviving document recording patronage by a

king (Bhaskara Ravi) to the

s of Kerala. A 13th century granite inscription, written in a mixture of Old Malayalam and

, at

Muchundi Mosque Muchundi Mosque (Malayalam language, Malayalam: മുച്ചുന്തിപ്പള്ളി Muccunti Palli, formerly Muchiyan/Machinde/Muchandi Palli) is a mosque located at Kuttichira, within in the city of Kozhikode (Calicut) in the In ...

Kozhikode Kozhikode (), also known in English as Calicut, is a city along the Malabar Coast in the state of Kerala in India. It has a corporation limit population of 609,224 and a metropolitan population of more than 2 million, making it the second la ...

mentions a donation by the king to the mosque.M. G. S. Narayanan. "Kozhikkodinte Katha". Malayalam/Essays. Mathrubhumi Books. Second Edition (2017) The Moroccan traveller

Ibn Battuta Abu Abdullah Muhammad ibn Battutah (, ; 24 February 13041368/1369),; fully: ; Arabic: commonly known as Ibn Battuta, was a Berbers, Berber Maghrebi people, Maghrebi scholar and explorer who travelled extensively in the lands of Afro-Eurasia, ...

h (14th century) has recorded the considerably huge presence of Muslim merchants and settlements of sojourning traders in most of the ports of Kerala. By the early decades of the 14th century, travellers speak of Calicut (Kozhikode) as the major port city in Kerala. Some of the important administrative positions in the kingdom of

Zamorin of Calicut The Samoothiri (Anglicised as Zamorin; Malayalam: , Arabic: ''Sāmuri'', Portuguese: ''Samorim'', Dutch: ''Samorijn'', Chinese: ''Shamitihsi''Ma Huan's Ying-yai Sheng-lan: 'The Overall Survey of the Ocean's Shores' 433 Translated and Edited by ...

, such as that of the port commissioner, were held by

s.K. V. Krishna Iyer, ''Zamorins of Calicut: From the earliest times to AD 1806''. Calicut: Norman Printing Bureau, 1938. The port commissioner, the ''Shah Bandar'', represented commercial interests of the Muslim merchants. In his account, Ibn Battutah mentions Shah Bandars in

Calicut Kozhikode (), also known in English as Calicut, is a city along the Malabar Coast in the state of Kerala in India. It has a corporation limit population of 609,224 and a metropolitan population of more than 2 million, making it the second la ...

as well as

Quilon Kollam (), also known by its former name Quilon , is an ancient seaport and city on the Malabar Coast of India bordering the Laccadive Sea, which is a part of the Arabian Sea. It is north of the state capital Thiruvananthapuram. The city i ...

(Ibrahim Shah Bandar and Muhammed Shah Bandar). The

Ali Raja The Sultan Ali Raja or Ali Raja or Adi Raja was the title of the Muslim king of Arakkal kingdom from the sixteenth to early nineteenth century. Arakkal dynasty Reigning rajas and beebis * Ali Raja Ali I (1545–1591) * Ali Raja Abubakar I (1591– ...

s of

Arakkal kingdom Arakkal Kingdom was a Sultanate, Muslim kingdom in Kannur town in Kannur district, in the state of Kerala, South India. The king was called Ali Raja and the ruling queen was called Arakkal Beevi. Arakkal kingdom included little more than the K ...

, based at

, ruled the

Islands.

s had the monopoly of trade in

and

until the

Portuguese Portuguese may refer to: * anything of, from, or related to the country and nation of Portugal ** Portuguese cuisine, traditional foods ** Portuguese language, a Romance language *** Portuguese dialects, variants of the Portuguese language ** Portu ...

Age of Discovery The Age of Discovery (or the Age of Exploration), also known as the early modern period, was a period largely overlapping with the Age of Sail, approximately from the 15th century to the 17th century in European history, during which seafarin ...

. The "nakhudas", merchant magnates owning ships, spread their shipping and trading business interests across the Indian Ocean. The arrival of the

explorers in the late 15th century checked the then well-established and wealthy Muslim community's progress. Following the discovery of sea route from

Europe Europe is a large peninsula conventionally considered a continent in its own right because of its great physical size and the weight of its history and traditions. Europe is also considered a Continent#Subcontinents, subcontinent of Eurasia ...

in 1498, the Portuguese began to expand their territories and ruled the seas between

Ormus The Kingdom of Ormus (also known as Hormoz; fa, هرمز; pt, Ormuz) was located in the eastern side of the Persian Gulf and extended as far as Bahrain in the west at its zenith. The Kingdom was established in 11th century initially as a depe ...

and the

and south to

Ceylon Sri Lanka (, ; si, ශ්‍රී ලංකා, Śrī Laṅkā, translit-std=ISO (); ta, இலங்கை, Ilaṅkai, translit-std=ISO ()), formerly known as Ceylon and officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, is an ...

. The ''

Tuhfat Ul Mujahideen 'Tuhfat al-Mujahidin fi ba‘d Akhbar al-Burtughaliyin' (Arabic:تحفة المجاهدين في بعض اخبار البرتغاليين, often shortened as 'Tuhfat al-Mujahidin') is a historical work by Zainuddin Makhdoom II on the struggle betw ...

'' written by

Zainuddin Makhdoom II Sheikh Ahmad Zainuddin Makhdoom bin Sheikh Muhammad Al Gazzali (Arabic: شيخ احمد زين الدين بن شيخ محمد غزالي المليباري; Ahmad Zayn al-Din ibn Muhammad al-Ghazāli al-Malibári), grandson of Sheikh Zainud ...

(born around 1532) of

Ponnani Ponnani () is a municipality in Ponnani Taluk, Malappuram District, in the state of Kerala, India. It serves as the administrative center of the Taluk and Block Panchayat of the same name. It is situated at the estuary of Bharatappuzha (Riv ...

during 16th-century CE is the first-ever known book fully based on the history of Kerala, written by a Keralite. It is written in

and contains pieces of information about the resistance put up by the navy of

Kunjali Marakkar Kunjali Marakkar (alternatively spelled Kunhali Marakkar) was the title inherited by the Admiral of the fleet of the Samoothiri / Zamorin, the king of Kozhikode / Calicut, in present-day Kerala, India. There were four Marakkars whose war tacti ...

alongside the

from 1498 to 1583 against Portuguese attempts to colonize

Malabar coast The Malabar Coast is the southwestern coast of the Indian subcontinent. Geographically, it comprises the wettest regions of southern India, as the Western Ghats intercept the moisture-laden monsoon rains, especially on their westward-facing m ...

.AG Noorani It was first printed and published in

Lisbon Lisbon (; pt, Lisboa ) is the capital and largest city of Portugal, with an estimated population of 544,851 within its administrative limits in an area of 100.05 km2. Grande Lisboa, Lisbon's urban area extends beyond the city's administr ...

. A copy of this edition has been preserved in the library of

Al-Azhar University , image = جامعة_الأزهر_بالقاهرة.jpg , image_size = 250 , caption = Al-Azhar University portal , motto = , established = *970/972 first foundat ...

Cairo Cairo ( ; ar, القاهرة, al-Qāhirah, ) is the capital of Egypt and its largest city, home to 10 million people. It is also part of the largest urban agglomeration in Africa, the Arab world and the Middle East: The Greater Cairo metro ...

.A. Sreedhara Menon. ''Kerala History and its Makers''. D C Books (2011)A G Noorani. Islam in Kerala. Book

/ref> ''Tuhfatul Mujahideen'' also describes the history of

community of Kerala as well as the general condition of

in the 16th century CE. With the end of Portugal, Portuguese era,

s lost their monopoly of trade in

.A Survey of Kerala History, A. Sreedhara Menon, DC Books, Kottayam (2007) As the Portuguese tried to establish monopoly in spice trade, bitter naval battles with the zamorin ruler of Calicut became a common sight. The Portuguese naval forces attacked and looted the Muslim dominated port towns in the Kerala. Ships containing trading goods were drowned, often along with the crew. This activities, in the long run, resulted in the Muslims losing control of the spice trade they had dominated for more than five hundred years. Historians note that in the post-Portuguese period, once-rich Muslim traders turned inland (southern interior Malabar) in search of alternative occupations to commerce. By the mid-18th century the majority of the Muslims of Kerala were landless labourers, poor fishermen and petty traders, and the community was in "a psychological retreat". The community tried to reverse the trend during the

Mysore Mysore (), officially Mysuru (), is a city in the southern part of the state of Karnataka, India. Mysore city is geographically located between 12° 18′ 26″ north latitude and 76° 38′ 59″ east longitude. It is located at an altitude of ...

invasion of Malabar District (late 18th century). The victory of the

English East India Company The East India Company (EIC) was an English, and later British, joint-stock company founded in 1600 and dissolved in 1874. It was formed to trade in the Indian Ocean region, initially with the East Indies (the Indian subcontinent and Southe ...

and princely Hindu confederacy in 1792 over the Kingdom of Mysore placed the Muslims once again in economical and cultural subjection. The subsequent partisan rule of British authorities throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries brought the landless Muslim peasants of Malabar District into a condition of destitution, and this led to a series of uprisings (against the Hindu landlords and British administration). The series of violence eventually exploded as the Mappila Uprising (1921–22).Pg 179–183, Kerala district gazetteers: Volume 4 Kerala (India),

A. Sreedhara Menon Alappat Sreedhara Menon (18 December 1925 – 23 July 2010), known as A. Sreedhara Menon, was an Indian historian from Kerala. He is best known as the State Editor (1958–68) of Kerala District Gazetteers (1961–1975). He served as registrar o ...

, Superintendent of Govt. Presses https://books.google.com/books?id=ZF0bAAAAIAAJ The Muslim material strength - along with modern education, theological reform, and active participation in democratic process - recovered slowly after the 1921-22 Uprising. The Muslim numbers in state and central government posts remained staggeringly low. The Muslim literacy rate was only 5% in 1931. A large number of Muslims of Kerala found extensive employment in the

Persian Gulf countries The Arab states of the Persian Gulf refers to a group of Arab states which border the Persian Gulf. There are seven member states of the Arab League in the region: Bahrain, Kuwait, Iraq, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates. ...

in the following years (c. 1970s). This widespread participation in the "Gulf Rush" produced huge economic and social benefits for the community. A great influx of funds from the earnings of the employed followed. Issues such as widespread poverty, unemployment, and educational backwardness began to change. The Muslims in Kerala are now considered as section of Indian Muslims marked by recovery, change, and positive involvement in the modern world. Malayali Muslim women are now not reluctant to join professional vocations and assuming leadership roles.

University of Calicut The University of Calicut, also known as Calicut University, is a State ownership, state-run public university headquartered at Tenhipalam in Malappuram district of the state of Kerala, India. Established in 1968, it is the first university to ...

, with the former Malabar District being its major catchment area, was established in 1968.

Calicut International Airport Calicut International Airport , also known as Kozhikode Airport or Karipur Airport, is an international airport located in Karipur, Malappuram district of Kerala, India. It serves the Malabar region of Kozhikode, Malappuram, Wayanad and Palak ...

, currently the twelfth busiest airport in India, was inaugurated in 1988. An

Indian Institute of Management The Indian Institutes of Management (IIMs) are central government-owned-public business schools for management offering undergraduate, postgraduate, doctoral and executive programmes along with some additional courses in the field of busine ...

(IIM) was established at Kozhikode in 1996.

Demography

The last Indian Census was conducted in 2011. According to the

2011 Census of India The 2011 Census of India or the 15th Indian Census was conducted in two phases, house listing and population enumeration. The House listing phase began on 1 April 2010 and involved the collection of information about all buildings. Information ...

, the district-wise distribution of the Muslim population is as shown below:

Theological orientations/denominations

Most of the Muslims of Kerala follow

of Shāfiʿī school of religious law (known in Kerala as the traditionalist 'Sunnis') while a large minority follow modern movements that developed within

. The latter section consists of majority Salafists (the Mujahids) and the minority

Islamists Islamism (also often called political Islam or Islamic fundamentalism) is a political ideology which posits that modern states and regions should be reconstituted in constitutional, economic and judicial terms, in accordance with what is c ...

. Both the traditional Sunnis and Mujahids again have been divided to sub-identities. * Sunnī IslamIslamism and Social Reform in Kerala, South India
Modern Asian Studies ** Shāfi'ī—mainly two groups (majority of traditional Sunnis in Kerala are Shafiis). ** Ḥanafī * Salafists (the Mujahids)—with different splinter factions (with varying degrees of puritanism).

Kerala Nadvathul Mujahideen Kerala Nadvathul Mujahideen (KNM) is an Islamic organization in the state of Kerala founded in 1950. The organization is part of the Islamic reformist ''Mujahid'' Movement and follows the principles of Salafism. The Kerala Nadvathul Mujahideen ...

(K. N. M) is the largest Mujahid organisation in Kerala. *

( the Jama'at-i-Islami India)—representing

political Islam Political Islam is any interpretation of Islam as a source of political identity and action. It can refer to a wide range of individuals and/or groups who advocate the formation of state and society according to their understanding of Islamic pri ...

in Kerala. * Shīiah Islam *Ahmadiyya Muslim Jama'at – Head Quarters of

Ahmadiyya Muslim Community Ahmadiyya (, ), officially the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community or the Ahmadiyya Muslim Jama'at (AMJ, ar, الجماعة الإسلامية الأحمدية, al-Jamāʿah al-Islāmīyah al-Aḥmadīyah; ur, , translit=Jamā'at Aḥmadiyyah Musl ...

in Kerala is located at Baitul Quddoos, G.H Road Kozhikode (Calicut).

Ahmadiyya Ahmadiyya (, ), officially the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community or the Ahmadiyya Muslim Jama'at (AMJ, ar, الجماعة الإسلامية الأحمدية, al-Jamāʿah al-Islāmīyah al-Aḥmadīyah; ur, , translit=Jamā'at Aḥmadiyyah Musl ...

Muslim Community.

Communities

Mappilas Mappila Muslim, often shortened to Mappila, formerly anglicized as Moplah/Mopla and historically known as Jonaka/Chonaka Mappila or Moors Mopulars/Mouros da Terra and Mouros Malabares, in general, is a member of the Muslim community of same n ...

: The largest community among the Muslims of Kerala. As per some studies, the term "Mappila" denotes not a single community but a variety of Malayali Muslims from north Kerala (former Malabar District) of different ethnic origins. In south Kerala Malayali Muslims are not called Mappilas. A Mappila is either, # A descendant of any native convert) to Islam (or) # A descendant of a marriage alliance between a

Middle Eastern The Middle East ( ar, الشرق الأوسط, ISO 233: ) is a geopolitical region commonly encompassing Arabia (including the Arabian Peninsula and Bahrain), Asia Minor (Asian part of Turkey except Hatay Province), East Thrace (European ...

individual and a native low caste woman The term Mappila is still in use in Malayalam to mean "bridegroom" or "son-in-law". * Pusalans: Mostly converts from the Mukkuvan caste. Formerly a low status group among the Muslims of Kerala. The other Mappilas used call them "Kadappurattukar", while themselves were known as "Angadikkar". The Kadappurattukar were divided into two endogamous groups on the basis of their occupation, "Valakkar" and "Bepukar". The Bepukar were considered superior to Valakkar. In addition to the two endogamous groups there were other service castes like "Kabaru Kilakkunnavar", "Alakkukar", and "Ossans" in Pusalan settlements. Ossan occupied the lowest position in the old hierarchy. *

Ossan Ossan is a community/status group of Muslims in Kerala, south India. The Ossan men were the traditional barbers and circumcisers among the Muslims of the central Malabar Coast (northern Kerala).Kunhali, V. "Muslim Communities in Kerala to 1798" ...

s: the Ossans were the traditional barbers among the Muslims of Kerala. Formed the lowest rank in the old hierarchy, and were an indispensable part of the village community of Muslims of Kerala. *

Thangal The thangals (also spelled tangals) are a social group among the Muslims of Kerala, south India.Kunhali, V. "Muslim Communities in Kerala to 1798" PhD Dissertation Aligarh Muslim University (1986/ref> The thangals are often regarded as roughly e ...

s (the

Sayyid ''Sayyid'' (, ; ar, سيد ; ; meaning 'sir', 'Lord', 'Master'; Arabic plural: ; feminine: ; ) is a surname of people descending from the Prophets in Islam, Islamic prophet Muhammad through his grandsons, Hasan ibn Ali and Husayn ibn Ali ...

s): Claiming descent from the family of

Muhammed Muhammad ( ar, مُحَمَّد; 570 – 8 June 632 CE) was an Arab religious, social, and political leader and the founder of Islam. According to Islamic doctrine, he was a prophet divinely inspired to preach and confirm the monot ...

. People who had migrated from Middle East. Elders of a number of widely respected Thangal families often served as the focal point of the Muslim community in old Malabar District. *

Rowther Rowther (anglicised as ''Irauttar'', ''Rawther, Ravuttar'' ''Ravutta'', ''Rahtore'', ''Ravuthar'') is a Tamil Speaking Muslim community from the Indian state of Tamil Nadu and Kerala. Rowthers are Tamil tribes converted to islam by Preacher Nath ...

s: The Muslim community originated in

Tamilakam Tamiḻakam (Tamil: தமிழகம்; Malayalam: തമിഴകം), refers to the geographical region inhabited by the ancient Tamil people, covering the southernmost region of the Indian subcontinent. Tamilakam covered today's Tamil Nad ...

. Mainly they settled in

Trivandrum Thiruvananthapuram (; ), also known by its former name Trivandrum (), is the capital of the Indian state of Kerala. It is the most populous city in Kerala with a population of 957,730 as of 2011. The encompassing urban agglomeration populati ...

Alapuzha Alappuzha or Alleppey () is the administrative headquarters of Alappuzha district in state of Kerala, India. The Backwaters of Alappuzha are one of the most popular tourist attractions in India which attracts millions of domestic and internat ...

Kochi Kochi (), also known as Cochin ( ) ( the official name until 1996) is a major port city on the Malabar Coast of India bordering the Laccadive Sea, which is a part of the Arabian Sea. It is part of the district of Ernakulam in the state of K ...

kottayam Kottayam () is a municipal town in the Indian state of Kerala. Flanked by the Western Ghats on the east and the Vembanad Lake and paddy fields of Kuttanad on the west. It is the district headquarters of Kottayam district, located in south-we ...

kollam Kollam (), also known by its former name Quilon , is an ancient seaport and city on the Malabar Coast of India bordering the Laccadive Sea, which is a part of the Arabian Sea. It is north of the state capital Thiruvananthapuram. The city i ...

, Idukki,

Pathanamthitta Pathanamthitta (), is a municipality situated in the Central Travancore region in the state of Kerala, India, spread over an area of 23.50 km2. It is the administrative capital of Pathanamthitta district. The town has a population of 37 ...

Pandalam Pandalam is a municipal town in Pathanamthitta district Kerala, India. Pandalam is considered a holy town due to its connection with Lord Ayyappa and Sabarimala. Rightly recognised to be the ''educational and cultural capital of Central Travan ...

Palakkad Palakkad (), formerly known as Palghat, historically known as Palakkattussery is a city and municipality in the Indian state of Kerala. It is the administrative headquarters of the Palakkad District. Palakkad is most densely populated municipal ...

regions in kerala. Rowther sect is a prominent and prosperous muslim community in

Tamil Nadu Tamil Nadu (; , TN) is a States and union territories of India, state in southern India. It is the List of states and union territories of India by area, tenth largest Indian state by area and the List of states and union territories of India ...

and

. * Vattakkolis (the Bhatkalis) or Navayats: ancient community of Muslims, claiming Arab origin, originally settled at Bhatkal, Uttara Kannada. Speaks Navayati language. Once distributed in the towns of northern Kerala as a mercantile community. They are mainly distributed in the Northern parts of Malabar bordering

Karnataka Karnataka (; ISO: , , also known as Karunāḍu) is a state in the southwestern region of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, with the passage of the States Reorganisation Act. Originally known as Mysore State , it was renamed ''Karnat ...

. * * Nahas: The origin of the name Naha is supposed to be a transformation of "nakhuda" which means captain of ship. Community concentrated mainly in

Parappanangadi Parappanangadi, , is a major town and a municipality in Tirurangadi taluk of Malappuram district, Kerala, India. It is a coastal town located close to the Arabian sea. Parappanangadi railway station is one of the oldest railway stations in Kera ...

, south of Kozhikode who trace their origins to

ship owners. *

Marakkar Marakkar/Maricar/Marecar/Marikkar/Markiyar/Marican/Marecan (Malayalam:Marakkar; Tamil: Marrakayar)(Sinhalese: Marakkala), is a South Asian Muslim community found in parts of the Indian states of Kerala (The Malabar Coast), Tamil Nadu (the Palk ...

s: once multilingual maritime trading community settled in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, the Palk Strait and Sri Lanka. The most famous of the Marakkar were "

s", or the naval captains of the

. The Muslims of pure Middle Eastern descent held themselves superior to Marakkars and Marakkars considered themselves superior to Labbais. * Keyis: community of wealthy merchants, mainly settled in

Thalassery Thalassery (), formerly Tellicherry, is a municipality, Commercial City on the Malabar Coast in Kannur district, in the state of Kerala, India, bordered by the districts of Mahé (Pondicherry), Kozhikode, Wayanad, Kasaragod and Kodagu (Karna ...

and

with

Iranian Iranian may refer to: * Iran, a sovereign state * Iranian peoples, the speakers of the Iranian languages. The term Iranic peoples is also used for this term to distinguish the pan ethnic term from Iranian, used for the people of Iran * Iranian lan ...

origin. * Koyas: Muslim community, in the city of Kozhikode forming a significant majority in Kozhikode and its adjoining areas. May be of

Omani Oman ( ; ar, عُمَان ' ), officially the Sultanate of Oman ( ar, سلْطنةُ عُمان ), is an Arabian country located in southwestern Asia. It is situated on the southeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula, and spans the mouth of t ...

origin. It is said that the name is a corruption of “Khawaja”. Held administrative positions in the Kozhikode court of the zamorins. * Kurikkals: a community of Muslims, claiming Arab origin, settled around

Manjeri Manjeri () is a major town and municipality in Malappuram district, Kerala, India. It is the fourth-most populous municipality in state. It is situated southeast to Karipur International Airport and northeast to Malappuram, the district hea ...

in Malappuram District.The family was first settled in Mavvancheri in North Malabar and moved to Manjeri in the beginning of the 16th century. Many of the members of the family served as instructor in the use of fire-arms in the employ of various chiefs of Malabar. * Nainars: a community of Tamil origin. Settled only in

Cochin Kochi (), also known as Cochin ( ) ( the official name until 1996) is a major port city on the Malabar Coast of India bordering the Laccadive Sea, which is a part of the Arabian Sea. It is part of the district of Ernakulam in the state of K ...

, Mattanchery,

Fort Kochi Fort Kochi, Fort Cochin in English, Cochim de Baixo ("Lower Kochi") in Cochin Portuguese creole, is a neighbourhood of Cochin (Kochi) city in Kerala, India. Fort Kochi takes its name from the Fort Manuel of Cochin, the first European fort ...

and

. It is believed that the Nainars first settled in Kerala in the 15th century, entering into contract for certain works with the chiefs of Cochin. * Dakhnis or Pathans: "

Dakhni Deccani (also known as Deccani Urdu and Deccani Hindi). https://knowledgehubadda.blogspot.com/2022/02/blog-post_74.html? m=1 or Dakni, Dakhni, Dakhini, Dakkhani and Dakkani (, ''dekanī'' or , ''dakhanī''), is a variety of Hindustani spoken ...

" speaking community. Migrated as cavalry men under various chiefs, especially in South Travancore. Some of them came South India along with the invasion of the Coromandel by the Khaljis. Many of the Dakhnis had also come as traders and businessmen. *

Kutchi Memon Kutchi Memons ( gu, કચ્છી મેમોન, ur, کچھی میمن), also spelled as Cutchi Memons, are an ethnic group or caste from Kutch in Gujarat, India, who speak the Kutchi language. They are related to the Memons associated with ...

s: They are a Kutchi speaking Gujarati ethnic group from the Kutch region. They are descended from the

Lohana Lohana, also referred to as Loharana, Thakkar and Lohrana, are an Indian trading or mercantile ''jāti''. Lohanas claim to be descendants of the Lava, son of Rama, and to descend from the Raghuvanshi dynasty.Lachaier, Pierre. "Cérémonies D'hom ...

community among Gujarati Hindus.They were mainly traders who had migrated to Central Kerala with the other Gujarati traders. * Beary/Byary: Muslims: community Stretching along the Tulunadu region. In Kerala they inhabits the coastal area of Kasargod district.They speak their own tongue which is called

Beary language Beary or Byari (ಬ್ಯಾರಿ ಬಾಸೆ ''Byāri Bāse'') is a Dravidian languages, Dravidian language spoken by the Muslim communities mainly of Karnataka (Dakshina Kannada and Udupi District, Udupi districts) and extreme northern end ...

. They are originally mercantile community, hece the name 'beary', from the Sanskrit word 'Vyapari'(merchant). * Bohras ( Daudi Bohras): Western ( Mustaalis) Ismaili

Shiah Shīʿa Islam or Shīʿīsm is the second-largest branch of Islam. It holds that the Islamic prophet Muhammad designated ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib as his successor (''khalīfa'') and the Imam (spiritual and political leader) after him, mos ...

community. Settled in a few major town in Kerala like

and

Alappuzha Alappuzha or Alleppey () is the administrative headquarters of Alappuzha district in States and territories of India, state of Kerala, India. The Kerala Backwaters, Backwaters of Alappuzha are one of the most popular tourist attractions in Indi ...

. Bohras migrated from

Gujarat Gujarat (, ) is a state along the western coast of India. Its coastline of about is the longest in the country, most of which lies on the Kathiawar peninsula. Gujarat is the fifth-largest Indian state by area, covering some ; and the ninth ...

to Kerala. They form the major part of the Shia community in Kerala.

Culture

Literature

Mappila Songs (or Mappila Poems) is a famous

folklore Folklore is shared by a particular group of people; it encompasses the traditions common to that culture, subculture or group. This includes oral traditions such as tales, legends, proverbs and jokes. They include material culture, ranging ...

tradition emerged in ''c.'' 16th century. The ballads are compiled in complex blend of Dravidian (Malayalam/Tamil) and Arabic, Persian/Urdu in a modified Arabic script. Mappila songs have a distinct cultural identity, as they sound a mix of the ethos and culture of Dravidian South India as well as West Asia. They deal with themes such as religion, satire, romance, heroism, and politics. Moyinkutty Vaidyar (1875–91) is generally considered as the poet laureate of Mappila Songs. As the modern Malayali Muslim literature developed after the 1921–22 Uprising, religious publications dominated the field. Vaikom Muhammad Basheer (1910–1994), followed by, U. A. Khader, K. T. Muhammed, N. P. Muhammed and Moidu Padiyath are leading Kerala Muslim authors of the modern age. Muslim periodical literature and newspaper dailies – all in Malayalam – are also extensive and critically read among the Muslims. The newspaper known as " Chandrika", founded in 1934, played as significant role in the development of the Muslim community.

Kerala Muslim folk arts

* Oppana was a popular form of social entertainment. It was generally performed by a group of women, as a part of wedding ceremonies a day before the wedding day. The bride, dressed in all finery, covered with gold ornaments, is the chief "spectator"; she sits on a pitham, around which the singing and dancing take place. While the women sing, they clap their hands rhythmically and move around the bride in steps. * Kolkkali was a dance form popular among the Muslims. It was performed by a group of dozen young men with two sticks, similar to the

Dandiya Raas or Dandiya Raas is the socio-religious folk dance originating from Indian state of Gujarat and popularly performed in the festival of Navaratri. The dance is performed in the Marwar region of Rajasthan too. The etymology of Dandiya-Raas ...

dance of Gujarat in Western India. * Duff Muttu (also called Dubh Muttu) was an art form prevalent among Muslims, using the traditional duff, or daf, also called tappitta. Performers dance to the rhythm as they beat the duff. * Arabana muttu was an art form named after the ''aravana'', a hand-held, one-sided flat tambourine or drumlike musical instrument. It is made of wood and animal skin, similar to the duff but a little thinner and bigger. * Muttum Viliyum was a traditional orchestral musical performance. It is basically the confluence of three musical instruments—kuzhal, chenda and cheriya chenda. Muttum Viliyum is also known by the name "Cheenimuttu". * Vattappattu was an art form once performed in the Malabar region on the eve of the wedding. It was traditionally performed by a group of men from the groom’s side with the putiyappila (the groom) sitting in the middle.

Mappila Cuisine

The

cuisine is a blend of traditional

, Yemenese and

food culture. This confluence of culinary cultures is best seen in the preparation of most dishes. ''Kallummakkaya'' (

mussels Mussel () is the common name used for members of several families of bivalve mollusc Mollusca is the second-largest phylum of invertebrate animals after the Arthropoda, the members of which are known as molluscs or mollusks (). Around 85,0 ...

)

curry A curry is a dish with a sauce seasoned with spices, mainly associated with South Asian cuisine. In southern India, leaves from the curry tree may be included. There are many varieties of curry. The choice of spices for each dish in tradit ...

, ''irachi puttu'' (''irachi'' meaning meat), ''parottas'' (soft flatbread), ''

Pathiri Pathiri ( ml, പത്തിരി, pronounced ) is a pancake made of rice flour. It is part of the local cuisine among the Mappilas of Malabar region in Kerala State of Southern India. Today, pathiri is still a popular dish among the Musli ...

'' (a type of rice pancake) and ''

ghee Ghee is a type of clarified butter, originating from India. It is commonly used in India for cooking, as a traditional medicine, and for religious rituals. Description Ghee is typically prepared by simmering butter, which is churned from c ...

'' rice are some of the other specialties. The characteristic use of spices is the hallmark of Mappila cuisine—

black pepper Black pepper (''Piper nigrum'') is a flowering vine in the family Piperaceae, cultivated for its fruit, known as a peppercorn, which is usually dried and used as a spice and seasoning. The fruit is a drupe (stonefruit) which is about in diame ...

cardamom Cardamom (), sometimes cardamon or cardamum, is a spice made from the seeds of several plants in the genera ''Elettaria'' and ''Amomum'' in the family Zingiberaceae. Both genera are native to the Indian subcontinent and Indonesia. They are rec ...

and

clove Cloves are the aromatic flower buds of a tree in the family Myrtaceae, ''Syzygium aromaticum'' (). They are native to the Maluku Islands (or Moluccas) in Indonesia, and are commonly used as a spice, flavoring or fragrance in consumer products, ...

are used profusely. The

Malabar Malabar may refer to the following: People * Malabars, people originating from the Malabar region of India * Malbars or Malabars, people of Tamil origin in Réunion Places * Malabar Coast, or Malabar, a region of the southwestern shoreline o ...

version of ''

biryani Biryani () is a mixed rice dish originating among the Muslims of the Indian subcontinent. It is made with Indian spices, rice, and usually some type of meat (chicken, beef, goat, lamb, prawn, fish) or in some cases without any meat, and so ...

'', popularly known as ''kuzhi mandi'' in

is another popular item, which has an influence from

. Various varieties of ''biriyanis'' like Thalassery ''biriyani'', Kannur ''biriyani'', Kozhikode ''biriyani'' and Ponnani ''biriyani'' are prepared by the Mappila community. The snacks include '' unnakkaya'' (deep-fried, boiled ripe

banana A banana is an elongated, edible fruit – botanically a berry – produced by several kinds of large herbaceous flowering plants in the genus ''Musa''. In some countries, bananas used for cooking may be called "plantains", distinguis ...

paste covering a mixture of cashew,

raisins A raisin is a dried grape. Raisins are produced in many regions of the world and may be eaten raw or used in cooking, baking, and brewing. In the United Kingdom, Ireland, New Zealand, and Australia, the word ''raisin'' is reserved for the da ...

and

sugar Sugar is the generic name for sweet-tasting, soluble carbohydrates, many of which are used in food. Simple sugars, also called monosaccharides, include glucose, fructose, and galactose. Compound sugars, also called disaccharides or double ...

), '' pazham nirachathu'' (ripe banana filled with

coconut The coconut tree (''Cocos nucifera'') is a member of the palm tree family ( Arecaceae) and the only living species of the genus ''Cocos''. The term "coconut" (or the archaic "cocoanut") can refer to the whole coconut palm, the seed, or the ...

grating,

molasses Molasses () is a viscous substance resulting from refining sugarcane or sugar beets into sugar. Molasses varies in the amount of sugar, method of extraction and age of the plant. Sugarcane molasses is primarily used to sweeten and flavour foods ...

or sugar), '' muttamala'' made of

eggs Humans and human ancestors have scavenged and eaten animal eggs for millions of years. Humans in Southeast Asia had domesticated chickens and harvested their eggs for food by 1,500 BCE. The most widely consumed eggs are those of fowl, especial ...

, ''

chatti pathiri Chatti pathiri is a layered pastry made in the Malabar Malabar District, Malabar region, of Kerala, India. It is made in both sweet and savoury variations. The dish is similar to the Italian lasagna, but instead of pasta, pastry sheets / panca ...

'', a

dessert Dessert is a course (food), course that concludes a meal. The course consists of sweet foods, such as confections, and possibly a beverage such as dessert wine and liqueur. In some parts of the world, such as much of Greece and West Africa, and ...

made of flour, like a baked, layered ''chapati'' with rich filling, ''arikkadukka'', and more.

Bibliography

* P. Shabna & K. Kalpana (2022) Re-making the self: Discourses of ideal Islamic womanhood in Kerala, Asian Journal of Women's Studies, 28:1, 24-43, DOI: 10.1080/12259276.2021.2010907