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Hawaiian religion refers to the indigenous religious beliefs and practices of native Hawaiians, also known as the
kapu Kapu may refer to: * Kapu (Hawaiian culture), a Hawaiian code of conduct * Kapu (caste), a social group of India * Kapu, Karnataka, a town in Karnataka, India ** Kapu Assembly constituency * Kapu, Arunachal Pradesh, a settlement in Tirap district, A ...
system. Hawaiian religion is based largely on the tapu religion common in Polynesia and likely originated among the
Tahitians The Tahitians ( ty, Māohi; french: Tahitiens) are the Polynesian ethnic group indigenous to Tahiti and thirteen other Society Islands in French Polynesia. The numbers may also include the modern population in these islands of mixed Polynesia ...
and other
Pacific islanders Pacific Islanders, Pasifika, Pasefika, or rarely Pacificers are the peoples of the Pacific Islands. As an ethnic/ racial term, it is used to describe the original peoples—inhabitants and diasporas—of any of the three major subregions of Oce ...
who landed in
Hawaii Hawaii ( ; haw, Hawaii or ) is a state in the Western United States, located in the Pacific Ocean about from the U.S. mainland. It is the only U.S. state outside North America, the only state that is an archipelago, and the only stat ...
between 500 and 1300 AD. It is
polytheistic Polytheism is the belief in multiple deities, which are usually assembled into a pantheon of gods and goddesses, along with their own religious sects and rituals. Polytheism is a type of theism. Within theism, it contrasts with monotheism, the ...
and
animistic Animism (from Latin: ' meaning ' breath, spirit, life') is the belief that objects, places, and creatures all possess a distinct spiritual essence. Potentially, animism perceives all things—animals, plants, rocks, rivers, weather systems, ...
, with a belief in many deities and spirits, including the belief that spirits are found in non-human beings and objects such as other animals, the waves, and the sky. It was only during the reign of
Kamehameha I Kamehameha I (; Kalani Paiea Wohi o Kaleikini Kealiikui Kamehameha o Iolani i Kaiwikapu kaui Ka Liholiho Kūnuiākea;  – May 8 or 14, 1819), also known as Kamehameha the Great, was the conqueror and first ruler of the Kingdom of Hawaii. T ...
that a ruler from
Hawaii island Hawaii ( ; haw, Hawaii ) is the largest island in the United States, located in the state of Hawaii. It is the southeasternmost of the Hawaiian Islands, a chain of volcanic islands in the North Pacific Ocean. With an area of , it has 63% of t ...
attempted to impose a singular "Hawaiian" religion on all the Hawaiian islands that was not
Christianity Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. It is the world's largest and most widespread religion with roughly 2.38 billion followers representing one-third of the global pop ...
. Today, Hawaiian religious practices are protected by the
American Indian Religious Freedom Act The American Indian Religious Freedom Act, Public Law No. 95–341, 92 Stat. 469 (Aug. 11, 1978) (commonly abbreviated to AIRFA), codified at , is a United States federal law, enacted by joint resolution of the Congress in 1978. Prior to the ac ...
. Traditional Hawaiian religion is unrelated to the modern
New Age New Age is a range of spiritual or religious practices and beliefs which rapidly grew in Western society during the early 1970s. Its highly eclectic and unsystematic structure makes a precise definition difficult. Although many scholars consi ...
practice known as " Huna".Rothstein, Mikael, in Lewis, James R. and Daren Kemp. ''Handbook of New Age''. Brill Academic Publishers, 2007 Chai, Makana Risser. "Huna, Max Freedom Long, and the Idealization of William Brigham," ''The Hawaiian Journal of History,'' Vol. 45 (2011) pp. 101-121


Beliefs


Deities

Hawaiian religion is
polytheistic Polytheism is the belief in multiple deities, which are usually assembled into a pantheon of gods and goddesses, along with their own religious sects and rituals. Polytheism is a type of theism. Within theism, it contrasts with monotheism, the ...
, with many deities, most prominently
Kāne In Hawaiian mythology, Kāne is considered the highest of the three major Hawaiian deities, along with Kū and Lono. He represented the god of procreation and was worshipped as ancestor of chiefs and commoners. Kāne is the creator and gives ...
, ,
Lono In Hawaiian religion, the god Lono is associated with fertility, agriculture, rainfall, music and peace. In one of the many Hawaiian stories of Lono, he is a fertility and music god who descended to Earth on a rainbow to marry Laka. In agricultu ...
and
Kanaloa In the traditions of ancient Hawaii, Kanaloa is a god symbolized by the squid or by the octopus, and is typically associated with Kāne. It is also an alternative name for the island of Kahoolawe. In legends and chants, Kāne and Kanaloa are ...
. Other notable deities include Laka, Kihawahine,
Haumea Haumea (minor-planet designation 136108 Haumea) is a dwarf planet located trans-Neptunian object, beyond Neptune's orbit. It was discovered in 2004 by a team headed by Michael E. Brown, Mike Brown of Caltech at the Palomar Observatory in the United ...
, Papahānaumoku, and, most famously, Pele. In addition, each family is considered to have one or more guardian spirits known as ʻaumakua that protected family. One breakdown of the Hawaiian
pantheon Pantheon may refer to: * Pantheon (religion), a set of gods belonging to a particular religion or tradition, and a temple or sacred building Arts and entertainment Comics *Pantheon (Marvel Comics), a fictional organization * ''Pantheon'' (Lone S ...
consists of the following groups: * the four gods () – Kū, Kāne, Lono, and Kanaloa * the forty male gods or aspects of Kāne () * the four hundred gods and goddesses () * the great multitude of gods and goddesses () * the spirits () * the guardians () Another breakdown consists of three major groups: * the four gods, or akua: Kū, Kāne, Lono, Kanaloa * many lesser gods, or kupua, each associated with certain professions * guardian spirits, or
aumakua In Hawaiian mythology, an ʻaumakua (; often spelled aumakua, plural, aumākua) is a personal or family god that originated as a deified ancestor, and which takes on physical forms such as spirit vehicles. An 'aumakua may manifest as a shark, ow ...
, associated with particular families


Atheism

Not all ancient Hawaiian believed in deities. Some ancient Hawaiians were
atheists Atheism, in the broadest sense, is an absence of belief in the existence of deities. Less broadly, atheism is a rejection of the belief that any deities exist. In an even narrower sense, atheism is specifically the position that there no d ...
, referred to as 'aia'.


Creation

One Hawaiian
creation myth A creation myth (or cosmogonic myth) is a symbolic narrative of how the world began and how people first came to inhabit it., "Creation myths are symbolic stories describing how the universe and its inhabitants came to be. Creation myths develop ...
is embodied in the ''
Kumulipo In Hawaiian religion, the Kumulipo is the creation chant, first recorded by Westerners in the 18th century. It also includes a genealogy of the members of Hawaiian royalty and was created in honor of Kalaninuiamamao and passed down orally to his ...
'', an epic chant linking the '' alii'', or Hawaiian royalty, to the gods. The ''Kumulipo'' is divided into two sections: night, or , and day, or , with the former corresponding to divinity and the latter corresponding to
humankind Humans (''Homo sapiens'') are the most abundant and widespread species of primate, characterized by bipedalism and exceptional cognitive skills due to a large and complex brain. This has enabled the development of advanced tools, culture, ...
. After the birth of , the woman, and , the man, the man succeeds at seducing and reproducing with the woman before the god ''Kāne'' has a chance, thereby making the divine lineage of the gods younger than and thus subservient to the lineage of man. This, in turn, illustrates the transition of mankind from being symbols for the gods (the literal meaning of ) into the keeper of these symbols in the form of idols and the like. The Kumulipo was recited during the time of Makahiki, to honor the god of fertility, Lono.


''Kahuna'' and ''Kapu''

The were well respected, educated individuals that made up a social hierarchy class that served the King and the Courtiers and assisted the (Common People). Selected to serve many practical and governmental purposes, often were healers, navigators, builders, prophets/temple workers, and philosophers. They also talked with the spirits. Kahuna Kūpaiulu of Maui in 1867 described a counter-
sorcery Sorcery may refer to: * Magic (supernatural), the application of beliefs, rituals or actions employed to subdue or manipulate natural or supernatural beings and forces ** Witchcraft, the practice of magical skills and abilities * Magic in fiction, ...
ritual to heal someone ill due to , another’s evil thoughts. He said a (cloth) was shaken. Prayers were said. Then, "If the evil spirit suddenly appears () and possesses the patient, then he or she can be immediately saved by the conversation between the practitioner and that spirit." Pukui and others believed kahuna did not have mystical transcendent experiences as described in other religions. Although a person who was possessed () would go into a
trance Trance is a state of semi-consciousness in which a person is not self-aware and is either altogether unresponsive to external stimuli (but nevertheless capable of pursuing and realizing an aim) or is selectively responsive in following the dir ...
-like state, it was not an ecstatic experience but simply a communion with the known spirits. refers to a system of
taboo A taboo or tabu is a social group's ban, prohibition, or avoidance of something (usually an utterance or behavior) based on the group's sense that it is excessively repulsive, sacred, or allowed only for certain persons.''Encyclopædia Britannica ...
s designed to separate the spiritually pure from the potentially unclean. Thought to have arrived with Pāao, a priest or chief from Tahiti who arrived in Hawaii sometime around 1200 AD, the imposed a series of restrictions on daily life. Prohibitions included: * The separation of men and women during mealtimes (a restriction known as ) * Restrictions on the gathering and preparation of food * Women separated from the community during their menses * Restrictions on looking at, touching, or being in close proximity with chiefs and individuals of known spiritual power * Restrictions on
overfishing Overfishing is the removal of a species of fish (i.e. fishing) from a body of water at a rate greater than that the species can replenish its population naturally (i.e. the overexploitation of the fishery's existing fish stock), resulting in th ...
Hawaiian tradition shows that was an idea led by the in order for Wākea, the sky father, to get alone with his daughter, Hoohokukalani without his wahine, or wife, Papa, the earth mother, noticing. The spiritually pure or , meaning "sacred" and unclean or were to be separated. included: * The use of a different ovens to cook the food for men and women * Different eating places * Women were forbidden to eat pig, coconut, banana, and certain red foods because of their male symbolism. * During times of war, the first two men to be killed were offered to the gods as
sacrifices Sacrifice is the offering of material possessions or the lives of animals or humans to a deity as an act of propitiation or worship. Evidence of ritual animal sacrifice has been seen at least since ancient Hebrews and Greeks, and possibly exis ...
. Other Kapus included , meaning "caring of the land" and . Tradition says that originated from the first child of Wākea and Hoohokukalani being deformed so they buried him in the ground and what sprouted became the first , also known as taro. The Hawaiian islands are all children of Papa, Wākea and Hoohokukalani so basically meaning that they are older siblings of the Hawaiian chiefs. Second child of Wākea and Hoohokukalani became the first , or "Grand Chief". This came to be called , the chiefly incest to create the "godly child". Punishments for breaking the could include death, although if one could escape to a (for example Pu'uhonua o Honaunau National Historical Park), a city of refuge, one could be saved. mandated long periods when the entire village must have absolute silence. No baby could cry, dog
howl Howl most often refers to: *Howling, an animal vocalization in many canine species *Howl (poem), a 1956 poem by Allen Ginsberg Howl may also refer to: Film * ''The Howl'', a 1970 Italian film * ''Howl'' (2010 film), a 2010 American arthouse b ...
, or
rooster The chicken (''Gallus gallus domesticus'') is a domesticated junglefowl species, with attributes of wild species such as the grey and the Ceylon junglefowl that are originally from Southeastern Asia. Rooster or cock is a term for an adult m ...
crow, on pain of death. Human sacrifice was not unknown. The system remained in place until 1819 (see below).


Prayer and

Prayer was an essential part of Hawaiian life, employed when building a house, making a canoe, and giving
lomilomi massage Lomilomi massage is a Polynesian method of kneading massage, but with overtones of the indigenous religious beliefs. The word ''lomilomi'' comes from the Hawaiian and Samoan languages. Lomi means "to knead.” The smooth flow of the strokes mim ...
. Hawaiians addressed prayers to various gods depending on the situation. When healers picked herbs for medicine, they usually prayed to Kū and Hina, male and female, right and left, upright and supine. The people worshiped
Lono In Hawaiian religion, the god Lono is associated with fertility, agriculture, rainfall, music and peace. In one of the many Hawaiian stories of Lono, he is a fertility and music god who descended to Earth on a rainbow to marry Laka. In agricultu ...
during season and during times of war. Histories from the 19th century describe prayer throughout the day, with specific prayers associated with mundane activities such as sleeping, eating, drinking, and traveling. However, it has been suggested that the activity of prayer differed from the subservient styles of prayer often seen in the Western world: served as focal points for prayer in Hawaii. Offerings,
sacrifice Sacrifice is the offering of material possessions or the lives of animals or humans to a deity as an act of propitiation or worship. Evidence of ritual animal sacrifice has been seen at least since ancient Hebrews and Greeks, and possibly exi ...
s, and prayers were offered at these temples, the thousands of (
shrine A shrine ( la, scrinium "case or chest for books or papers"; Old French: ''escrin'' "box or case") is a sacred or holy sacred space, space dedicated to a specific deity, ancestor worship, ancestor, hero, martyr, saint, Daemon (mythology), daem ...
s), a multitude of (sacred places), and at small (altars) in individual homes.


History


Origins

Although it is unclear when settlers first came to the
Hawaiian Islands The Hawaiian Islands ( haw, Nā Mokupuni o Hawai‘i) are an archipelago of eight major islands, several atolls, and numerous smaller islets in the North Pacific Ocean, extending some from the island of Hawaii in the south to northernmost Kur ...
, there is significant evidence that the islands were settled no later than 800 AD and immigration continued to about 1300 AD. Settlers came from the
Marquesas The Marquesas Islands (; french: Îles Marquises or ' or '; Marquesan: ' (North Marquesan) and ' (South Marquesan), both meaning "the land of men") are a group of volcanic islands in French Polynesia, an overseas collectivity of France in t ...
and greater
Polynesia Polynesia () "many" and νῆσος () "island"), to, Polinisia; mi, Porinihia; haw, Polenekia; fj, Polinisia; sm, Polenisia; rar, Porinetia; ty, Pōrīnetia; tvl, Polenisia; tkl, Polenihia (, ) is a subregion of Oceania, made up of ...
. At some point, a significant influx of
Tahiti Tahiti (; Tahitian ; ; previously also known as Otaheite) is the largest island of the Windward group of the Society Islands in French Polynesia. It is located in the central part of the Pacific Ocean and the nearest major landmass is Austr ...
an settlers landed on the Hawaiian islands, bringing with them their religious beliefs. Early Hawaiian religion resembled other Polynesian religions in that it was largely focused on natural forces such as the
tide Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects of the gravity, gravitational forces exerted by the Moon (and to a much lesser extent, the Sun) and are also caused by the Earth and Moon orbiting one another. Tide t ...
s, the sky, and
volcanic activity Volcanism, vulcanism or volcanicity is the phenomenon of eruption of molten rock (magma) onto the surface of the Earth or a solid-surface planet or moon, where lava, pyroclastics, and volcanic gases erupt through a break in the surface called a ...
as well as man's dependence on nature for subsistence. The major early gods reflected these characteristics, as the early Hawaiians worshiped
Kāne In Hawaiian mythology, Kāne is considered the highest of the three major Hawaiian deities, along with Kū and Lono. He represented the god of procreation and was worshipped as ancestor of chiefs and commoners. Kāne is the creator and gives ...
(the god of the sky and creation), (the god of war and male pursuits),
Lono In Hawaiian religion, the god Lono is associated with fertility, agriculture, rainfall, music and peace. In one of the many Hawaiian stories of Lono, he is a fertility and music god who descended to Earth on a rainbow to marry Laka. In agricultu ...
(the god of peace, rain, and fertility) and
Kanaloa In the traditions of ancient Hawaii, Kanaloa is a god symbolized by the squid or by the octopus, and is typically associated with Kāne. It is also an alternative name for the island of Kahoolawe. In legends and chants, Kāne and Kanaloa are ...
(the god of the ocean).


Early Hawaiian religion

As an
Indigenous culture Indigenous peoples are culturally distinct ethnic groups whose members are directly descended from the earliest known inhabitants of a particular geographic region and, to some extent, maintain the language and culture of those original people ...
, spread among eight islands, with waves of immigration over hundreds of years from various parts of the South Pacific, religious practices evolved over time and from place to place in different ways. Hawaiian scholar
Mary Kawena Pukui Mary Abigail Kawenaulaokalaniahiiakaikapoliopele Naleilehuaapele Wiggin Pukui (20 April 1895 – 21 May 1986), known as Kawena, was a Hawaiian scholar, author, composer, hula expert, and educator. Life Pukui was born on April 20, 1895, in her ...
, who was raised in Kaʻū, Hawaii, maintained that the early Hawaiian gods were benign. One
Molokai Molokai , or Molokai (), is the fifth most populated of the eight major islands that make up the Hawaiian Islands, Hawaiian Islands archipelago in the middle of the Pacific Ocean. It is 38 by 10 miles (61 by 16 km) at its greatest length an ...
tradition follows this line of thought. Author and researcher Pali Jae Lee writes: "During these ancient times, the only 'religion' was one of family and oneness with all things. The people were in tune with nature, plants, trees, animals, the , and each other. They respected all things and took care of all things. All was ." "In the dominant current of Western thought there is a fundamental separation between humanity and divinity. ... In many other cultures, however, such differences between human and divine do not exist. Some peoples have no concept of a ‘Supreme Being’ or ‘Creator God’ who is by nature ‘other than’ his creation. They do, however, claim to experience a spirit world in which beings more powerful than they are concerned for them and can be called upon for help." "Along with ancestors and gods, spirits are part of the family of Hawaiians. "There are many kinds of spirits that help for good and many that aid in evil. Some lie and deceive, and some are truthful ... It is a wonderful thing how the spirits ( of the dead and the ‘angels’ () of the can possess living persons. Nothing is impossible to god-spirits, ."


Contemporary

King
Kamehameha the Great Kamehameha I (; Kalani Paiea Wohi o Kaleikini Kealiikui Kamehameha o Iolani i Kaiwikapu kaui Ka Liholiho Kūnuiākea;  – May 8 or 14, 1819), also known as Kamehameha the Great, was the conqueror and first ruler of the Kingdom of Hawaii. T ...
died in 1819. Subsequently, two of his wives,
Kaʻahumanu Kaahumanu (March 17, 1768 – June 5, 1832) (''"the feathered mantle"'') was queen consort and acted as regent of the Kingdom of Hawaii as Kuhina Nui. She was the favorite wife of King Kamehameha I and also the most politically powerfu ...
and
Keōpūolani Kalanikauikaalaneo Kai Keōpūolani-Ahu-i-Kekai-Makuahine-a-Kama-Kalani-Kau-i-Kealaneo (1778–1823) was a queen consort of Hawaii and the highest ranking wife of King Kamehameha I. Early life Keōpuolani was born around 1778 at an area known as ...
, then the two most powerful people in the kingdom, conferred with the ,
Hewahewa Hewahewa ( – February 16, 1837) was a Hawaiian religious leader who served as '' kahuna nui'' (high priest) of King Kamehameha I and his successor Kamehameha II. Hewahewa was a powerful figure in the royal court of Hawaii and played a major rol ...
. They convinced young Liholiho,
Kamehameha II Kamehameha II (November 1797 – July 14, 1824) was the second king of the Kingdom of Hawaii. His birth name was Liholiho and full name was Kalaninui kua Liholiho i ke kapu ʻIolani. It was lengthened to Kalani Kaleiʻaimoku o Kaiwikapu o Laʻ ...
, to overthrow the system. They ordered the people to burn the wooden statues and to tear down the rock temples. Without the hierarchical system of religion in place, some abandoned the old gods, and others continued with cultural traditions of worshipping them, especially their family . Protestant Christian missionaries arrived from the United States from 1820 onwards, and eventually gained great political, moral and economic influence in the Kingdom of Hawaii. Most of the converted to
Christianity Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. It is the world's largest and most widespread religion with roughly 2.38 billion followers representing one-third of the global pop ...
, including Kaahumanu and Keōpūolani, but it took 11 years for Kaahumanu to proclaim laws against ancient religious practices: Despite the outlawing of traditional Hawaiian religious practices, a number of traditions survived by integration, through practice in hiding, or through practice in rural communities in the islands. Surviving traditions include the worship of family ancestral gods or , veneration of or bones, and preservation of sacred places or .
Hula Hula () is a Hawaiian dance form accompanied by chant (oli) or song ( mele). It was developed in the Hawaiian Islands by the Native Hawaiians who originally settled there. The hula dramatizes or portrays the words of the oli or mele in a visua ...
, at one time outlawed as a religious practice, today is performed in both spiritual and secular contexts. Traditional beliefs have also played a role in the
politics Politics (from , ) is the set of activities that are associated with making decisions in groups, or other forms of power relations among individuals, such as the distribution of resources or status. The branch of social science that studies ...
of post-contact Hawaii. In the 1970s the Hawaiian religion experienced a resurgence during the
Hawaiian Renaissance The Hawaiian Renaissance (also called the Hawaiian Cultural Renaissance) was the Hawaiian resurgence of a distinct cultural identity that draws upon traditional kānaka maoli culture, with a significant divergence from the tourism-based culture ...
. In 1976 members of a group "Protect ''Kahoolawe Ohana''" filed suit in federal court over the use of Kahoolawe by the
United States Navy The United States Navy (USN) is the maritime service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the eight uniformed services of the United States. It is the largest and most powerful navy in the world, with the estimated tonnage ...
for
target practice In the military and in shooting, target practice are exercises in which weapons are shot at a target. The purpose of such exercises is to improve the aim or the weapons handling expertise of the person firing the weapon. Targets being shot at ...
. Charging that the practice disturbed important cultural and religious sites ''Aluli et al. v. Brown'' forced the Navy to survey and protect important sites, perform conservation activities, and allow limited access to the island for religious purposes. Similarly, outrage over the unearthing of 1,000 graves (dating back to 850 AD) during the construction of a
Ritz-Carlton The Ritz-Carlton Hotel Company, LLC is an American multinational company that operates the luxury hotel chain known as The Ritz-Carlton. The company has 108 luxury hotels and resorts in 30 countries and territories with 29,158 rooms, in addit ...
hotel on Maui in 1988 resulted in the redesign and relocation of the hotel inland, as well as the appointment of the site as a state historic place. Since 2014 an ongoing series of protests and demonstrations have taken place on the
Island of Hawaii Hawaii ( ; haw, Hawaii ) is the largest island in the United States, located in the state of Hawaii. It is the southeasternmost of the Hawaiian Islands, a chain of volcanic islands in the North Pacific Ocean. With an area of , it has 63% of th ...
regarding the choosing of
Mauna Kea Mauna Kea ( or ; ; abbreviation for ''Mauna a Wākea''); is a dormant volcano on the island of Hawaii. Its peak is above sea level, making it the highest point in the state of Hawaii and second-highest peak of an island on Earth. The peak is ...
for the site location of the
Thirty Meter Telescope The Thirty Meter Telescope (TMT) is a planned extremely large telescope (ELT) that has become controversial due to its location on Mauna Kea, on the island of Hawaiʻi. The TMT would become the largest visible-light telescope on Mauna Kea. S ...
. These protests have become known as the Thirty Meter Telescope Protests. Some Hawaiians regard Mauna Kea as the most sacred mountain of Native Hawaiian religion and culture. Native Hawaiian cultural practitioners have repeatedly failed in court to prove that these practices predate 1893 (the threshold for protection under Hawaii State law). Protests began locally within the state of Hawaii on October 7, 2014 but went global within weeks of the April 2, 2015 arrest of 31 people who had blockaded the roadway to keep construction crews off the summit. On July 14, 2019, an online petition titled "The Immediate Halt to the Construction of the TMT telescope on Mauna Kea" was posted on
Change.org Change.org is a worldwide nonprofit petition website, based in California, US, operated by the San Francisco-based company of the same name, which has over 400 million users and offers the public the ability to promote the petitions they care abo ...
. The petition has gathered over 100,000 signatures. Along with the surviving traditions, some Hawaiians practice Christianized versions of old traditions. Others practice the old faith as a co-religion. In the 1930s, non- Hawaiian author Max Freedom Long originated a philosophy and practice which he called "Huna". Long, Max Freedom (2009)
954 Year 954 ( CMLIV) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. Events By place Europe * Spring – A Hungarian army led by Bulcsú crosses the Rhine. He camps at Worms in th ...
''The Secret Science Behind Miracles''. Wildside Press. .
While Long and his successors represent this invention as a type of ancient Hawaiian
occult The occult, in the broadest sense, is a category of esoteric supernatural beliefs and practices which generally fall outside the scope of religion and science, encompassing phenomena involving otherworldly agency, such as magic and mysticism a ...
ism, non-Hawaiian scholars Rothstein and Chai consider it a
New Age New Age is a range of spiritual or religious practices and beliefs which rapidly grew in Western society during the early 1970s. Its highly eclectic and unsystematic structure makes a precise definition difficult. Although many scholars consi ...
mix of cultural appropriation and fantasy, and not representative of traditional Hawaiian religion.


References


Further reading and resources

* * * * {{DEFAULTSORT:Hawaiian Religion Animism Polytheism