Giovanni Polli

The cultivation of cannabis in Italy has a long history dating back to Roman times, when it was primarily used to produce hemp ropes, although pollen records from core samples show that Cannabaceae plants were present in the Italian peninsula since at least the Late Pleistocene, while the earliest evidence of their use dates back to the Bronze Age. For a long time after the fall of Rome in the 5th century A.D., the cultivation of hemp, although present in several Italian regions, mostly consisted in small-scale productions aimed at satisfying the local needs for fabrics and ropes. Known as ''canapa'' in Italian, the historical ubiquity of hemp is reflected in the different variations of the name given to the plant in the various regions, including ''canape'', ''càneva'', ''canava'', and ''canva'' (or ''canavòn'' for female plants) in northern Italy; ''canapuccia'' and ''canapone'' in the Po Valley; ''cànnavo'' in Naples; ''cànnavu'' in Calabria; ''cannavusa'' and ''cànnavu'' in Sicily; ''cànnau'' and ''cagnu'' in Sardinia.

The mass cultivation of industrial cannabis for the production of hemp fiber in Italy really took off during the period of the Maritime Republics and the Age of Sail, due to its strategic importance for the naval industry. In particular, two main economic models were implemented between the 15th and 19th centuries for the cultivation of hemp, and their primary differences essentially derived from the diverse relationships between landowners and hemp producers. The '' Venetian model'' was based on a state monopoly system, by which the farmers had to sell the harvested hemp to the Arsenal at an imposed price, in order to ensure preferential, regular, and advantageous supplies of the raw material for the navy, as a matter of national security. Such system was particularly developed in the southern part of the province of Padua, which was under the direct control of the administrators of the Arsenal. Conversely, the '' Emilian model'', which was typical of the provinces of Bologna and Ferrara, was strongly export-oriented and it was based on the '' mezzadria'' farming system by which, for instance, Bolognese landowners could relegate most of the production costs and risks to the farmers, while also keeping for themselves the largest share of the profits.

From the 18th century onwards, hemp production in Italy established itself as one of the most important industries at an international level, with the most productive areas being located in Emilia-Romagna, Campania, and Piedmont. The well renowned and flourishing Italian hemp sector continued well after the unification of the country in 1861, only to experience a sudden decline during the second half of the 20th century, with the introduction of synthetic fibers and the start of the war on drugs, and only recently it is slowly experiencing a resurgence.

Prehistory

The family of Cannabaceae includes the two genera of cannabis and humulus, with the former believed to be native exclusively to Asia, while the latter also to Europe. In particular, while humulus naturally dispersed from Asia to Europe without human agency, cannabis is commonly thought to have been spread by humans once its multiple uses, most importantly those involving its fiber, had been discovered and developed by the various cultures. At present, cannabis sativa is classified as an archaeophyte alien species for Italy, with sporadic wild occurrences being attributed to escaped plants, which are non-naturalized and distinct from the wild oriental varieties.

According to Greek historian and geographer Herodotus, the Scythians brought hemp from Central Asia to Europe during their migrations around 1500 B.C., while the Teutons were a major factor in the spread of the cultivation of hemp throughout Europe. Another proposed theory is that hemp may have been introduced into the continent by the earliest incursions of the Aryans into Thrace and Western Europe, although no evidence of its presence was found in the lake dwellings of Switzerland and northern Italy. Still other sources attribute the introduction of hemp into Italy to the arrivals of both the Scythians and the Illyrians between the 10th and the 8th centuries B.C. while, by the 6th and 5th centuries B.C., hemp cultivation was present throughout Italy.

Earliest evidence

In any case, the oldest evidence of the presence of cannabis and humulus in central Italy dates back to the Late Glacial, long before the development of agriculture in western Eurasia, as inferred from sediment cores extracted from the Albano and Nemi lakes. The presence of cannabis pollen grains in sediments dated to the early Holocene suggests that the plant could have been introduced earlier, or that an indigenous hemp population may have already been present in the area before its domestication during the Bronze Age. Other prehistoric sites where sediment cores revealed the presence of hemp include the Great Lake of Monticchio, in Basilicata; and the coastal seabed of the Central Adriatic region, from a time when these sites would have been above sea level. Traces of hemp pollen have also been found in several Neolithic sites in ''anthropogenic contexts'', which would indicate the probable cultivation of the plant during that period. These include three Middle Neolithic (i.e. 4500–4000 B.C.) sites in the areas of Piacenza, Parma, and Forlì in Emilia-Romagna; as well as other sites near the Annone and Alserio lakes in Lombardy, from 5000 B.C. onwards. Furthermore, while the sites where hemp pollen has been found are currently scarce for the Bronze Age, they increase in number for the Iron Age, especially during the centuries of Roman domination.

In regard to the sediment cores from central Italy, humulus pollen values increase during the mid Holocene, while hemp pollen grains become more frequent at the transition between the Neolithic and the Copper Age, with concentrations increasing and becoming more common only from the Bronze Age onwards. In addition, the sediment records show an increase in the human influence on the local vegetation, with hemp pollen values starting to rise from about 3000 cal BP (i.e. 1050 B.C.) onwards, and reaching their earliest peak during the 1st century A.D., as a clear consequence of the cultivation of hemp by the Romans, although the pre-Roman trends can be attributed to natural sources, and possibly to anthropogenic sources as well. Later peaks in the pollen records from central Italy also show clear evidence of hemp cultivation during the Medieval period.

In terms of the earliest evidence of the processing of hemp for the production of strings and fabrics in Italy, three micro-fragments of what appear to be hemp fibers were detected through a scanning electron microscope in the dental calculi of three female individuals from the Early Bronze Age. Furthermore, the analysis of the teeth of 28 females and one male from the same period, revealed evidence of '' activity-induced dental modifications'' that are consistent with yarn production, or weaving preparation, of small-diameter threads, which were repeatedly pulled across the fronts and sides of the individuals' upper incisors and canines. All the examined individuals were buried in an ancient cemetery located in Gricignano di Aversa, in southern Italy, and traces of hemp were also found attached to a metal blade, possibly the remains of a fabric sheath, in the tomb of an adult male within the same site. These findings show the importance that hemp fabrics had in the region at the time, as well as clear gender-based role divisions in the manufacturing of fibers.

Magna Graecia

In 1954, a now-famous hypogaeum was excavated by Italian archaeologist Pellegrino Claudio Sestieri in the Ancient Greek colony of '' Poseidonia'', ''Magna Graecia'', in the area of modern-day Capaccio Paestum. Dated to the late 6th century B.C., the underground structure was identified as a heroon possibly dedicated to the unknown founder of the city, based on the retrieved artifacts, which included eight bronze vases (i.e. six hydriai and two amphoras). Other proposed interpretations of the structure included a Nymph sanctuary, the cenotaph of the founder of '' Sybaris'', or a Chthonian sanctuary; however, as very little written records are available from the considered period, the organic content of the vases constitutes the primary source of knowledge regarding the purpose of the '' sacellum''.

In 2023, a scientific research paper was published regarding the detection of a significant quantity of cannabis pollen inside some of the hydriai, as well as of oil traces that were compatible with hemp oil. As the analyzed organic content of the vases was not consistent with the ''main Mediterranean ritual organic matters'' (e.g. honey, olive oil, and wine), it could not be attributed to a possible local heroic cult; while the fact that the pollen mainly came from male cannabis plants ruled out the use of said plants for intoxicating purposes.

Instead, the presence of cannabis could be attributed to environmental contamination, whether during the processing of the content (if the oil traces are indeed from hemp), the deposition of the vases and the sealing of the room, or possibly more recently during the excavation, storage, and handling of the archaeological find. Although the oil processing hypothesis is unlikely due to the fact that hemp oil would have been produced from the seeds of female plants, airborne pollen contamination from a local cultivation area before the room was closed is possible, with male hemp plants usually flowering earlier than female ones. Other potential causes also include a contemporary symbolic use of hemp plants, and the possible use of hemp textiles to decorate the room, since male plants were the preferred source of fiber.

Ancient Carthage

In 1969, the remains of two Punic ships from the 3rd century B.C. were discovered off the shore of '' Isola Lunga'', not far from '' Lilybaion'', on the western coast of Carthaginian Sicily. The two ships are believed to have been sunk during the First Punic War of 264–241 B.C., specifically at the Battle of the Aegates of 10 March 241 B.C., which was fought between the Carthaginian and Roman fleets. In 1971, a team led by the Cypriot-English pioneer of underwater archaeology Honor Frost uncovered from the site a few baskets that contained ''distinctive yellowish stems'', no more than in length, which were later identified as ''similar to cannabis sativa''.

As the stems were ''always found in association with food'', in the presumed area of the ship's kitchen, it was postulated that cannabis could have been consumed by the Punic oarsmen possibly for its supposed mind-focusing abilities. Such postulation was based on a 1972 study on the use of the drug by Jamaican workmen, which states that ''almost without exception users maintain that ganja enhances their ability to perform manual labour, and they regularly consume ganja with this objective''; however, Dr. Frost recognized that whether the Carthaginians ''would make an infusion potent enough to give fighting men "Dutch courage" is less certain''.

Ancient Rome

One of the earliest authors from the Roman Republic to mention industrial hemp was satirist Gaius Lucilius, in the 2nd century B.C., who referenced ''thomices'', an ancient greek word used to indicate lightly twisted ropes obtained from rough hemp and broom, out of which cords were made. The plant was later mentioned by Marcus Terentius Varro in his ''De re rustica'', a work on agriculture written in 37 B.C., where hemp is listed together with other plants used for their fibers, namely flax, reeds, palm, and bulrushes. In the 1st century A.D., Roman naturalist Pliny the Elder described in his '' Naturalis Historia'' the cultivation and use of cannabis plants in the Roman Empire, both for industrial and medical purposes, while hemp is also mentioned in the satires of Persius and Juvenal. As the Roman territories expanded, the cultivation and use of cannabis plants spread to various parts of both Italy and the wider European continent. As an example, several pieces of rope ''tentatively identified as made of hemp'' were found within the well of a Roman fort in Dunbartonshire, ''Caledonia'', which was occupied during the period 140–180 A.D., and the find attests to the likelihood that the earliest introduction of hemp in Britain came by Roman agency.

The hemp fiber was mainly used by the Romans to produce ropes, sheets, wickers, and nets; in particular Pliny mentions three Alabandica varieties to be the best ones to be used for hunting nets, the variety cultivated in Mylasa to be the second best, and the hemp grown in the Sabine territory to be particularly tall. In regard to woven fabrics, archaeological excavations at Pompeii, in '' Campania felix'' (i.e. part of what is now Campania), unearthed samples of hemp textiles that had been preserved by the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius in 79 A.D., reportedly including cloth sandals made of hemp, although linen was generally preferred in Antiquity for the production of canvas, sails, and clothing. In 1992, further textile samples were recovered from a lead sarcophagus that belonged to an upper-class elderly woman, who lived between the 4th and 5th centuries A.D., and was buried in a Roman necropolis located in '' Albintimilium'', in the coastal area of '' Liguria'' that now constitutes the Region of the same name. Based on morphological and morphometrical analyses, the recovered fibers were later identified as most likely being fragments of cannabis sativa, although a slight chance was recognized that they could actually belong to low quality linen.

In terms of the extension of hemp cultivation in Italia, precise information is not available besides a few unverified archaeological data and the hemp variety mentioned by Pliny, which was grown in the area of ''Reate'', in ''Sabinum''. Nevertheless, two important epigraphic sources attest to the cultivation and trade of hemp by the Romans in the peninsula, namely a sepulchral inscription uncovered in Bovolenta and dated between the 2nd and 3rd centuries A.D., that mentions the ''cannabetum'' (i.e. an area reserved to hemp cultivation); and a lead tag uncovered in the area around '' Altinum'', in ''Venetia'', and dated between the 1st century B.C. and the 1st century A.D., that labelled a cargo of six balls of wool and a small quantity of hemp.

Cannabis cultivation and processing

According to Pliny, Roman farmers would sow hemp seeds during spring and harvest the ripe hemp seeds after the autumn equinox, after which they were dried in the sun, or the wind, or by the smoke of a fire, while the hemp plants were plucked after the vintage, to be then peeled and cleaned. Moreover, according to the ''De re rustica'' by contemporary agricultural writer Lucius Columella, hemp plants require either rich, manured, and well-watered soil, or alternatively soil that is level, moist, and deeply worked. Ancient Romans would plant six hemp seeds per '' pes quadratus'' (0.0876 m; 0.943 sq ft) toward the end of February however, if the weather was rainy, sowing could be done up to the spring equinox without harming the crop. One of the last Roman authors to mention hemp was Palladius in his ''Opus agriculturae'', a treatise written around the late 4th – early 5th century A.D., which essentially repeats what was reported by Columella on cannabis cultivation. In terms of articles of commerce, useful information on the price of both hemp and hemp-derived products can be found in the '' Edict on Maximum Prices'', issued in 301 A.D. by Emperor Diocletian, which established price caps equal to 80 '' denarii'' per ''modius'' (8.73 L; 1.92 imp gal) of hemp seeds, and 4 ''denarii'' per ''libra'' (372.5 g; 131.4 oz) of processed hemp, while it increased to 6 and 8 ''denarii'' for ropes and strings, respectively. These maximum prices were relatively modest when compared to more expensive products, such as flax seeds, linen, and wool, which attests to the lower demand for hemp products at the time.

In 2018, excavations on the eastern bank of the ancient '' Natiso cum Turro'' river of Aquileia, in the area of ''Venetia et Histria'' that is now Friuli-Venezia Giulia, revealed the first system of basins from the Roman world that is known to have been used for the maceration of hemp, as inferred from archaeobotanical and archaeo-palynological studies of the site. The long and shallow pools were dated between the late 2nd – 3rd A.D. and the late 3rd – early 4th century A.D.; they were delimited by parapets made of clay, sand, and tiny pebbles; and they were coated with thin layers of cocciopesto for waterproofing. Similarly to more recent water retting procedures, the harvested stalks of cannabis sativa were bundled into sheaves and then submerged into either stagnant or running water by tying them to dedicated poles, to extract the fiber. According to studies carried out in ''Venetia'', hemp cultivation in the Upper Adriatic region was not intensive, rather it was either the result of self-sufficiency policies or, if it occurred on a larger scale, a complementary sector to the local wool industry, which was well developed in Aquileia at the time. In addition, sulphurous waters from hot springs, such as those that can be found in the area around Aquileia, found usage in Antiquity in the maceration of both hemp and flax, which were then used in the production of cordage and fishing nets, in the manufacture of wool blend fabrics, as well as in the processing of both wool and wool products.

Cannabis consumption

In Italia, different parts of the hemp plants were used for various culinary purposes, in particular Pliny mentions hemp seeds being stored in pots for later use and lasting for as much as one year, while the stalks and branches were used as vegetables. Most notably, a recipe for cannabis-based food intended to be consumed at wedding receptions can be found in the '' De re culinaria'', a collection of Roman cookery recipes thought to have been compiled in the 5th century A.D., and whose authorship is unclear. In terms of the contemporary beliefs on cannabis plants and the effects of their personal use, according to Pliny, wild hemp first grew in woods and had darker and rougher leaves, while its seeds were said to cause impotence. The juice derived from it was used to drive out worms and other creatures that could enter the ears, although it would cause headache as a side effect, and it was said to be so potent that it was able to coagulate water when it was poured into it. Furthermore, when the hemp juice was mixed with water and then drunk by beasts of burden, it was said to be able to regulate their bowels.

In regard to medical properties, hemp roots boiled in water were thought to ease cramped joints, gout, and similar violent pains, while they could also be applied raw to burns, but they would be changed before getting dry. The ability of boiled cannabis roots to lessen inflammation was also attested by contemporary Greek physician and botanist Pedanius Dioscorides in his '' De Materia Medica'', a pharmacopoeia that mainly focuses on medicinal plants. In regard to the recreational use of cannabis in the Roman Empire, 2nd century Greek physician and philosopher Claudius Galenus wrote that it was customary in Italia to serve small cannabis-based cakes for dessert, whose seeds would reportedly create a feeling of warmth and increase thirst. Moreover, if consumed in large quantities, these small cakes would affect the head by emitting a warm and toxic vapor, which produced torpor or sluggishness; while it was also customary for the Romans to offer guests hemp seeds as a ''promoter of hilarity''. Similarly, it has been hypothesized that Pliny probably referenced cannabis when mentioning ''gelotophyllis'' (i.e. the leaves of laughter), which he said grew along the '' Borysthenes'' river, in Scythia, as well as in Bactria, an ancient country located in the northeastern part of modern-day Afghanistan, or at least in the general area of central Asia. According to Pliny, if these leaves were taken in myrrh and wine, ''all kinds of phantoms'' would beset the mind, causing a laughter that persisted until the kernels of pine nuts were taken with pepper and honey in palm wine.

In 2019, a scientific study was published which aimed at reconstructing the lifestyle of a Roman Imperial community, that lived between the 1st and 3rd centuries A.D. near the ancient town of Cures, in ''Sabinum''. As part of the ethnobotanical evidence, 11 micro-residues of Cannabaceae plant tissue were recovered from the dental calculi of 27 individuals buried in a Roman necropolis, which was discovered in 2015 near Passo Corese, in Lazio. The studied fragments, most likely hemp fibers, were identified through observations made under optical microscope, which were then cross-referenced with the available laboratory collections of fibers, literature data, as well as the particular cultural and chronological context. The proposed reasons for the presence of hemp fibers in the analyzed dental calculi include their possible inhalation during hemp processing activities; the ingestion of food and beverages whose ingredients had been preserved in hemp sacks; and the intake of hemp exudates and extracts for therapeutic purposes.

Middle Ages

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 A.D., and the concurrent migration period lasting between the 4th and 6th centuries A.D., detailed information on the cultivation of hemp in Italy before 1000 A.D. is scarce, even though its processing for industrial and commercial purposes is well attested during that period. Nevertheless, cannabis cultivation across the Italian peninsula must have been severely limited, particularly between the 4th and 8th centuries A.D., considering that as much as two-thirds of the countryside was reportedly left in a state of almost complete abandon.

The mass cultivation of industrial cannabis in Medieval Italy started during the High Middle Ages, with the demographic and agricultural recoveries, the emergence of the textile industry, the rise of Medieval communes and the Maritime Republics, and the increase of their trade in the Mediterranean Sea. For instance, while linen was the main material used in sail production throughout Antiquity, to be then replaced by fustians (i.e. a mixed fiber of cotton and wool) during the Early Middle Ages, the greater resistance of hemp made it better suited for the new sailing structures required for the ships of ever-increasing tonnage that were being built between the 13th and 14th centuries. In fact, since the Middle Ages, hemp became the only fiber used in rope manufacturing and later, since the 16th century, a fundamental material for the construction of sails; and the substantial increase in the demand from arsenals drove up the price of hemp and incentivized its cultivation. The large quantities of hemp needed for the shipbuilding industry also led to the emergence of dedicated supply chains, with groups of merchants providing investments and organizing the transport of the fiber; as well as of specialized productions, with the hemp produced for arsenals acquiring specific characteristics when compared to the hemp intended for the general population.

Between 1304 and 1309, Bolognese jurist and landowner Pietro de' Crescenzi compiled an agricultural treatise entitled ''De agricultura vulgare'', alternatively known as the ''Ruralia commoda'', which includes a section on the cultivation of industrial cannabis at the time. In the treatise, hemp is described as having the same nature as flax, namely requiring similar air and soil, although the latter does not need to be ploughed as much. Nevertheless, for the production of ropes, the seeds must be planted in rich soil, to increase the resulting yield, while the sparser the seeds are planted, the more ramified the grown plants will be. Conversely, for the production of textiles such as cloth sacks, sheets, or shirts, the soil does not need to be as rich, while the seeds must be more densely sowed, to obtain plants without branches, which are more suitable for such products. Moreover, hemp fiber is described as necessary for the production of fishing nets, since it is more water resistant than flax fiber.

Furthermore, hemp seeds have been used for food for several centuries, especially by the poorer