''Galerina'' is a

genus Genus ( plural genera ) is a taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of extant taxon, living and fossil organisms as well as Virus classification#ICTV classification, viruses. In the hierarchy of biological classification, genus com ...

of small brown-spore

saprobic Saprotrophic nutrition or lysotrophic nutrition is a process of chemoheterotrophic extracellular digestion involved in the processing of decayed (dead or waste) organic matter. It occurs in saprotrophs, and is most often associated with fungi ( ...

fungi A fungus ( : fungi or funguses) is any member of the group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified as a kingdom, separately from ...

(colloquially often ''

mushroom A mushroom or toadstool is the fleshy, spore-bearing fruiting body of a fungus, typically produced above ground, on soil, or on its food source. ''Toadstool'' generally denotes one poisonous to humans. The standard for the name "mushroom" is t ...

s''), with over 300 species found throughout the world from the far north to remote

Macquarie Island Macquarie Island is an island in the southwestern Pacific Ocean, about halfway between New Zealand and Antarctica. Regionally part of Oceania and politically a part of Tasmania, Australia, since 1900, it became a Tasmanian State Reserve in 197 ...

in the

Southern Ocean The Southern Ocean, also known as the Antarctic Ocean, comprises the southernmost waters of the World Ocean, generally taken to be south of 60° S latitude and encircling Antarctica. With a size of , it is regarded as the second-small ...

. The genus is most noted for some extremely poisonous species which are occasionally confused with hallucinogenic species of ''

Psilocybe ''Psilocybe'' ( ) is a genus of gilled mushrooms, growing worldwide, in the family Hymenogastraceae. Most or nearly all species contain the psychedelic compounds psilocybin and psilocin. Taxonomy Taxonomic history A 2002 study of the mole ...

''. Species are typically small and

hygrophanous The adjective hygrophanous refers to the color change of mushroom tissue (especially the pileus surface) as it loses or absorbs water, which causes the pileipellis to become more transparent when wet and opaque when dry. When identifying hygrop ...

, with a slender and brittle

stem Stem or STEM may refer to: Plant structures * Plant stem, a plant's aboveground axis, made of vascular tissue, off which leaves and flowers hang * Stipe (botany), a stalk to support some other structure * Stipe (mycology), the stem of a mushro ...

. They are often found growing on wood, and when on the ground have a preference for mossy habitats. ''Galerina'' means ''helmet-like''.

Taxonomic definition

The genus ''Galerina'' is defined as small mushrooms of mycenoid stature, that is, roughly similar in form to ''

Mycena ''Mycena'' is a large genus of small saprotrophic mushrooms that are rarely more than a few centimeters in width. They are characterized by a white spore print, a small conical or bell-shaped cap, and a thin fragile stem. Most are gray or br ...

'' species: a small conical to bell-shaped

cap A cap is a flat headgear, usually with a visor. Caps have crowns that fit very close to the head. They made their first appearance as early as 3200 BC. Caps typically have a visor, or no brim at all. They are popular in casual and informal se ...

, and

gills A gill () is a respiratory organ that many aquatic organisms use to extract dissolved oxygen from water and to excrete carbon dioxide. The gills of some species, such as hermit crabs, have adapted to allow respiration on land provided they are ...

attached to a long and slender cartilaginous

. Species have a

pileipellis The pileipellis is the uppermost layer of hyphae in the pileus of a fungal fruit body In botany, a fruit is the seed-bearing structure in flowering plants that is formed from the ovary after flowering. Fruits are the means by which flowe ...

that is a cutis, and ornamented spores that are brown in deposit, where the spore ornamentation comes from an extra spore covering.

Description

''Galerina''

fruiting bodies The sporocarp (also known as fruiting body, fruit body or fruitbody) of fungi is a multicellular structure on which spore-producing structures, such as basidia or asci, are borne. The fruitbody is part of the sexual phase of a fungal life cyc ...

are typically small, undistinguished mushrooms with a typical "

little brown mushroom Mushroom hunting, mushrooming, mushroom picking, mushroom foraging, and similar terms describe the activity of gathering mushrooms in the wild, typically for culinary use. This practice is popular throughout most of Europe, Australia, Japan, ...

" morphology and a yellow-brown, light brown to cinnamon-brown

spore print 300px, Making a spore print of the mushroom ''Volvariella volvacea'' shown in composite: (photo lower half) mushroom cap laid on white and dark paper; (photo upper half) cap removed after 24 hours showing pinkish-tan spore print. A 3.5-centimeter ...

. The pileus is typically

glabrous Glabrousness (from the Latin ''glaber'' meaning "bald", "hairless", "shaved", "smooth") is the technical term for a lack of hair, down, setae, trichomes or other such covering. A glabrous surface may be a natural characteristic of all or part of ...

and often

, and a cortina-type veil is present in young specimens of roughly half of recognized species, though it sometimes disappears as the mushroom ages in many of these species. Microscopically, they are highly variable as well, though most species have

spores In biology, a spore is a unit of sexual or asexual reproduction that may be adapted for dispersal and for survival, often for extended periods of time, in unfavourable conditions. Spores form part of the life cycles of many plants, algae, f ...

that are ornamented, lack a germ pore, and have a

plage Plage may refer to: *Plage (astronomy), a bright region in the chromosphere of the Sun *Plage (mycology), a clear, unornamented area on the basal area of an ornamented fungal spore * "Plage" (song), a 2011 song by English electronic band Crystal F ...

. Many species also have characteristic tibiiform

cystidia A cystidium (plural cystidia) is a relatively large cell found on the sporocarp of a basidiomycete (for example, on the surface of a mushroom gill), often between clusters of basidia. Since cystidia have highly varied and distinct shapes that ar ...

. However, there are many exceptions, and many species of ''Galerina'' lack one or more of these microscopic characteristics. Ecologically, all ''Galerina'' are

, growing in habitats like rotting wood or in moss. The spores of ''Galerina'' feature an ornamentation that comes from the outer layer of the spore breaking up on maturity to produce either warts, wrinkles or "ears", flaps of material loosened from where the spore was attached to the

basidia A basidium () is a microscopic sporangium (a spore-producing structure) found on the hymenophore of fruiting bodies of basidiomycete fungi which are also called tertiary mycelium, developed from secondary mycelium. Tertiary mycelium is highly-c ...

. This outer layer of the spore often is not complete, but has a clear patch in many species just above the attachment, this clear patch is called a

. This plage is not evident in all species, and the spore covering does not always breakup in all species, making it sometimes difficult to correctly determine a mushroom of this genus. The specific features that define the genus require a microscope to confirm. In the wild it can be difficult to determine a ''Galerina'' from a number of similar genera, such as ''

Pholiota ''Pholiota'' is a genus of small to medium-sized, fleshy mushrooms in the family Strophariaceae. They are saprobes that typically live on wood. The genus has a widespread distribution, especially in temperate regions, and contains about 150 spe ...

'', ''

Tubaria ''Tubaria'' is a genus of fungi in the family Tubariaceae. The genus is widely distributed, especially in temperate regions. ''Tubaria'' was originally named as a subgenus of ''Agaricus'' by Worthington George Smith in 1870. Claude Casimir Gill ...

'', ''

Conocybe ''Conocybe'' is a genus of mushrooms with ''Conocybe tenera'' as the type species and at least 243 other species. There are at least 50 different species in North America. Most have a long, thin fragile stipe and are delicate, growing in grassl ...

'', ''

Pholiotina ''Pholiotina'' is a genus of small agaric fungi. It was circumscribed by Swiss mycologist Victor Fayod in 1889 for ''Conocybe''-like species with partial veils. The genus has since been expanded to include species lacking partial veils. Taxonomi ...

'', ''

Agrocybe ''Agrocybe'' is a genus of mushrooms in the family Strophariaceae (previously placed in the Bolbitiaceae). The genus has a widespread distribution, and contains about 100 species. Distribution Mushroom cultivation began with the Romans and Gre ...

'', ''

Gymnopilus ''Gymnopilus'' is a genus of gilled mushrooms within the fungal family Strophariaceae containing about 200 rusty-orange spored mushroom species formerly divided among ''Pholiota'' and the defunct genus ''Flammula''. The fruit body is typically ...

'', ''

Phaeogalera ''Phaeogalera'' is a small genus of slender, fleshy bog and swamp-inhabiting mushrooms with large, brownish spores with a germ pore and a hymenium lacking chrysocystidia. ''Phaeogalera'' resemble ''Galerina'' in their habitat, macroscopic appeara ...

'' and ''

''. For the most part, Galerinas will be found associated with

moss Mosses are small, non-vascular flowerless plants in the taxonomic division Bryophyta (, ) '' sensu stricto''. Bryophyta (''sensu lato'', Schimp. 1879) may also refer to the parent group bryophytes, which comprise liverworts, mosses, and hor ...

, and this can separate out the genus in nature fairly well. But this identification is more difficult in the section Naucoriopsis, which does not associate with moss, and is a decomposer of wood. ''

'' is a genus that was segregated from ''Galerina'' by

Robert Kühner Robert Kühner (15 March 1903 in Paris – 27 February 1996 in Lyon) was a French mycologist most notable for reviewing many forms of agaric (mushroom fungus) genera. He studied at the Sorbonne, afterwards from 1921 until 1932, he was working ...

Phylogenetics

''Galerina'' has recently been found to be

polyphyletic A polyphyletic group is an assemblage of organisms or other evolving elements that is of mixed evolutionary origin. The term is often applied to groups that share similar features known as homoplasies, which are explained as a result of converg ...

, consisting of at least three unrelated

clades A clade (), also known as a monophyletic group or natural group, is a group of organisms that are monophyletic – that is, composed of a common ancestor and all its lineal descendants – on a phylogenetic tree. Rather than the English term, t ...

, although not all species were studied and for most currently recognized species is uncertain still in which they belong. Each of these clades corresponds to a subgenus of ''Galerina'', as outlined by Kühner. The great diversity of micromorphology found in ''Galerina'' is probably due to the polyphyly of the genus.

Toxicity of some species

Many (though not all) ''Galerina'' contain alpha-amanitin and other

amatoxins Amatoxin is the collective name of a subgroup of at least nine related toxic compounds found in three genera of poisonous mushrooms (''Amanita'', ''Galerina'' and ''Lepiota'') and one species ( Conocybe filaris) of the genus '' Conocybe''. Amatoxins ...

. ''

Galerina marginata ''Galerina marginata'', known colloquially as funeral bell, deadly skullcap, autumn skullcap or deadly galerina, is a species of extremely poisonous mushroom-forming fungus in the family Hymenogastraceae of the order Agaricales. It contains the ...

'' (also known as "autumn skullcap", "deadly galerina", etc.) is a poisonous species found throughout the temperate regions of the world, in habitats as diverse as forests and urban parklands, wherever rotting wood is found. DNA studies found that ''Galerina autumnalis'' and five other species of ''Galerina'' with similar morphologies were, in fact, synonyms of ''Galerina marginata''. '' Galerina sulciceps'', is a lethal species found in

Indonesia Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania between the Indian and Pacific oceans. It consists of over 17,000 islands, including Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi, and parts of Borneo and New Guine ...

and responsible for deaths there. One study found it more toxic than ''

Amanita phalloides ''Amanita phalloides'' (), commonly known as the death cap, is a deadly poisonous basidiomycete fungus, one of many in the genus ''Amanita''. Widely distributed across Europe, but now sprouting in other parts of the world, ''A. phalloides ...

''. '' Galerina steglichii'' is very rare, bruises blue and contains the hallucinogen

psilocybin Psilocybin ( , ) is a naturally occurring psychedelic prodrug compound produced by more than 200 species of fungi. The most potent are members of the genus ''Psilocybe'', such as '' P. azurescens'', '' P. semilanceata'', and '' P.&nbs ...

Identification

The extreme toxicity of some ''Galerina'' species means that recognition of ''Galerina'' is of great importance to

mushroom hunters Mushroom hunting, mushrooming, mushroom picking, mushroom foraging, and similar terms describe the activity of gathering mushrooms in the wild, typically for culinary use. This practice is popular throughout most of Europe, Australia, Japan, ...

who are seeking hallucinogenic ''Psilocybe'' mushrooms. Species like ''Galerina marginata'' may bear a superficial resemblance to ''

Psilocybe cyanescens ''Psilocybe cyanescens'' (sometimes referred to as wavy caps or as the potent Psilocybe) is a species of potent psychedelic mushroom. The main compounds responsible for its psychedelic effects are psilocybin and psilocin. It belongs to the fam ...

'' and other ''Psilocybe'' species, and has often been found growing amongst and around ''Psilocybe cyanescens'' and other ''Psilocybe'' species, making identification all the more confusing to the uninitiated. ''Galerina'' can be distinguished from psilocybin ''Psilocybe'' by the following characteristics: *

Spore print 300px, Making a spore print of the mushroom ''Volvariella volvacea'' shown in composite: (photo lower half) mushroom cap laid on white and dark paper; (photo upper half) cap removed after 24 hours showing pinkish-tan spore print. A 3.5-centimeter ...

color: blackish-brown to lilac-brown in ''Psilocybe'', light brown to rusty brown in ''Galerina''. Spore color can be seen by taking a spore print or by looking for evidence of spore drop on the stipe or on surrounding mushrooms. *Staining reaction: Psilocybin ''Psilocybe''

stain blue to varying degrees when bruised, while ''Galerina'' do not. The strength of this reaction varies with the amount of

psilocin Psilocin (also known as 4-HO-DMT, 4-hydroxy DMT, psilocine, psilocyn, or psilotsin) is a substituted tryptamine alkaloid and a serotonergic psychedelic substance. It is present in most psychedelic mushrooms together with its phosphorylated counte ...

present in the tissues of the mushroom. Fruiting bodies with little psilocin (such as ''

Psilocybe semilanceata ''Psilocybe semilanceata'', commonly known as the liberty cap, is a species of fungus which produces the psychoactive compounds psilocybin, psilocin and baeocystin. It is both one of the most widely distributed psilocybin mushrooms in nature, ...

'', with high psilocybin and low psilocin content) will stain weakly if at all, while sporocarps with a high psilocin content will stain strongly blue. Only one rare ''Galerina'' has blue-staining tissue, though in some cases the flesh will blacken when handled, and this may be misinterpreted as a bluing reaction. Although these rules are specific to the separation of ''Galerina'' from certain ''Psilocybe'', since mixed patches of ''Psilocybe'' and ''Galerina'' can occur, it is essential to be sure of the identity of each sporocarp collected. ''Galerina'' also present some risk of confusion with several species of small edible mushrooms, notably ''

Kuehneromyces mutabilis ''Kuehneromyces mutabilis'' (synonym: ''Pholiota mutabilis''), commonly known as the sheathed woodtuft, is an edible mushroom that grows in clumps on tree stumps or other dead wood. A few other species have been described in the genus ''Kuehnero ...

'' and

candy caps Candy cap or curry milkcap is the English-language common name for several closely related edible species of ''Lactarius (fungus), Lactarius''; ''L. camphoratus'', ''L. fragilis'', and ''L. rubidus''. These mushrooms are valued for their highly a ...

(''L. camphoratus'' and allies).

Other notable species

Galerina vittiformis ''Galerina vittiformis'' is a species of agaric fungus in the family Hymenogastraceae, and the type species of the genus ''Galerina''. It is widely distributed in temperate regions, where it typically grows in moist locations, often among mosses. ...

'' is the

type species In zoological nomenclature, a type species (''species typica'') is the species name with which the name of a genus or subgenus is considered to be permanently taxonomically associated, i.e., the species that contains the biological type specimen ...

of the genus ''Galerina''. This species is common in beds of damp moss (along with many other species of ''Galerina''). There are a number of variations of this species that have been named over the years: var. ''vittiformis f. vittiformis'' is a 2-spored species; var. ''vittiformis f. tetrasporis'' is a 4-spored form; var. ''pachyspora'' has been collected on

. '' Galerina patagonica'' has a

Gondwanan distribution Gondwana () was a large landmass, often referred to as a supercontinent, that formed during the late Neoproterozoic (about 550 million years ago) and began to break up during the Jurassic, Jurassic period (about 180 million years ago). The fi ...

. '' Galerina hypnorum'' is a widespread species. ''

Galerina graminea ''Galerina graminea'', known as the turf bell is a species of mushroom in the genus ''Galerina''. Unlike many ''Galerina'' mushrooms, it can survive in moss-free grass. It was known for many years as 'Galerina laevis', proposed by Christiaan Hen ...

'' can survive in

-free

grass Poaceae () or Gramineae () is a large and nearly ubiquitous family of monocotyledonous flowering plants commonly known as grasses. It includes the cereal grasses, bamboos and the grasses of natural grassland and species cultivated in lawns an ...

, unlike many ''Galerina'' mushrooms. It was known for many years as 'Galerina laevis', proposed by

Christiaan Hendrik Persoon Christiaan Hendrik Persoon (1 February 1761 – 16 November 1836) was a German mycologist who made additions to Linnaeus' mushroom taxonomy. Early life Persoon was born in South Africa at the Cape of Good Hope, the third child of an immig ...

. Several ''Galerina'' species are listed by the

US Forest Service The United States Forest Service (USFS) is an agency of the U.S. Department of Agriculture that administers the nation's 154 national forests and 20 national grasslands. The Forest Service manages of land. Major divisions of the agency inc ...

as "species of special concern" in the

Northwest Forest Plan The Northwest Forest Plan (NWFP) is a series of federal policies and guidelines governing land use on federal lands in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. It covers 10 million hectares within Western Oregon and Washington as well ...

. (Hereafter referred to as "Castellano, ''et al.'' 2003.") These species are considered

indicator species A bioindicator is any species (an indicator species) or group of species whose function, population, or status can reveal the qualitative status of the environment. The most common indicator species are animals. For example, copepods and other sma ...

for

old growth An old-growth forestalso termed primary forest, virgin forest, late seral forest, primeval forest, or first-growth forestis a forest that has attained great age without significant disturbance (ecology), disturbance, and thereby exhibits un ...

coniferous forest Conifers are a group of cone-bearing seed plants, a subset of gymnosperms. Scientifically, they make up the division Pinophyta (), also known as Coniferophyta () or Coniferae. The division contains a single extant class, Pinopsida. All exta ...

in the

Pacific Northwest The Pacific Northwest (sometimes Cascadia, or simply abbreviated as PNW) is a geographic region in western North America bounded by its coastal waters of the Pacific Ocean to the west and, loosely, by the Rocky Mountains to the east. Though ...

: ''Galerina atkinsonia'', ''Galerina cerina'',Castellano, ''et al.'' 2003
Part 5
''Galerina heterocystis'', ''Galerina sphagnicola'', and ''

''.Castellano, ''et al.'' 2003
Part 6

References

External links

by Tom Volk, ''TomVolkFungi.net''

(Archived at the

Internet Archive The Internet Archive is an American digital library with the stated mission of "universal access to all knowledge". It provides free public access to collections of digitized materials, including websites, software applications/games, music, ...

, 2006-05-14.)
''Galerina autumnalis''
MykoWeb.com

''MycoSite'', University of Oslo, Norway {{Taxonbar, from=Q948914 Poisonous fungi Deadly fungi Hymenogastraceae

Taxonomic definition

Description

Phylogenetics

Toxicity of some species

Identification

Other notable species

References

Further reading

External links