''Amanita muscaria'', commonly known as the fly agaric or fly amanita,
is a
basidiomycete
Basidiomycota () is one of two large divisions that, together with the Ascomycota, constitute the subkingdom Dikarya (often referred to as the "higher fungi") within the kingdom Fungi. Members are known as basidiomycetes. More specifically, Basi ...
of the genus ''
Amanita
The genus ''Amanita'' contains about 600 species of agarics, including some of the most toxic known mushrooms found worldwide, as well as some well-regarded edible species. This genus is responsible for approximately 95% of the fatalities result ...
''. It is also a
muscimol mushroom
The genus ''Amanita'' contains about 600 species of agarics, including some of the most toxic known mushrooms found worldwide, as well as some well-regarded edible species. This genus is responsible for approximately 95% of the fatalities result ...
. Native throughout the
temperate
In geography, the temperate climates of Earth occur in the middle latitudes (23.5° to 66.5° N/S of Equator), which span between the tropics and the polar regions of Earth. These zones generally have wider temperature ranges throughout t ...
and
boreal regions of the Northern Hemisphere, ''Amanita muscaria'' has been unintentionally
introduced to many countries in the Southern Hemisphere, generally as a
symbiont
Symbiosis (from Greek , , "living together", from , , "together", and , bíōsis, "living") is any type of a close and long-term biological interaction between two different biological organisms, be it mutualistic, commensalistic, or parasi ...
with pine and birch plantations, and is now a true
cosmopolitan
Cosmopolitan may refer to:
Food and drink
* Cosmopolitan (cocktail), also known as a "Cosmo"
History
* Rootless cosmopolitan, a Soviet derogatory epithet during Joseph Stalin's anti-Semitic campaign of 1949–1953
Hotels and resorts
* Cosmopoli ...
species. It
associates with various
deciduous
In the fields of horticulture and Botany, the term ''deciduous'' () means "falling off at maturity" and "tending to fall off", in reference to trees and shrubs that seasonally shed leaves, usually in the autumn; to the shedding of petals, aft ...
and
conifer
Conifers are a group of conifer cone, cone-bearing Spermatophyte, seed plants, a subset of gymnosperms. Scientifically, they make up the phylum, division Pinophyta (), also known as Coniferophyta () or Coniferae. The division contains a single ...
ous trees.
Arguably the most iconic
toadstool
A mushroom or toadstool is the fleshy, spore-bearing fruiting body of a fungus, typically produced above ground, on soil, or on its food source. ''Toadstool'' generally denotes one poisonous to humans.
The standard for the name "mushroom" is th ...
species, the fly agaric is a large white-
gilled, white-spotted, usually red mushroom, and is one of the most recognizable and widely encountered in popular culture, including in video games—e.g., the extensive use of a recognizable ''Amanita muscaria'' in the
Mario
is a character created by Japanese video game designer Shigeru Miyamoto. He is the title character of the ''Mario'' franchise and the mascot of Japanese video game company Nintendo. Mario has appeared in over 200 video games since his creat ...
franchise and its
Super Mushroom
(also known as and ) is a platform game series created by Nintendo starring their mascot, Mario. It is the central series of the greater ''Mario'' franchise. At least one ''Super Mario'' game has been released for every major Nintendo vid ...
power-up—and television—e.g., the houses in
The Smurfs
''The Smurfs'' (french: Les Schtroumpfs; nl, De Smurfen) is a Belgian comic franchise centered on a fictional colony of small, blue, humanoid creatures who live in mushroom-shaped houses in the forest. ''The Smurfs'' was first created and in ...
franchise.
Despite its easily distinguishable features, ''Amanita muscaria'' is a fungus with several known variations, or subspecies. These subspecies are slightly different, some having yellow or white caps, but they are all usually called fly agarics, and they are most of the time recognizable by their notable white spots. Recent DNA fungi research, however, has shown that some of these variations are not the same species at all, such as the
peach-colored fly agaric (''Amanita persicina'') for example, but the common name 'fly agaric' clings on.
Although poisonous, death due to poisoning from ''A. muscaria'' ingestion is quite rare.
Parboiling
Parboiling (or leaching) is the partial or semi boiling of food as the first step in cooking. The word is from the Old French 'parboillir' (to boil thoroughly) but by mistaken association with 'part' it has acquired its current meaning.
The wo ...
twice with water draining weakens its toxicity and breaks down the mushroom's psychoactive substances; it is eaten in parts of Europe, Asia, and North America. All ''Amanita muscaria'' varieties, but in particular ''A. muscaria'' var. ''muscaria'', are noted for their
hallucinogenic
Hallucinogens are a large, diverse class of psychoactive drugs that can produce altered states of consciousness characterized by major alterations in thought, mood, and perception as well as other changes. Most hallucinogens can be categorized ...
properties, with the main psychoactive constituents being
muscimol
Muscimol (also known as agarin or pantherine) is one of the principal psychoactive constituents of '' Amanita muscaria'' and related species of mushroom. Muscimol is a potent and selective orthosteric agonist for the GABAA receptors and displa ...
and its neurotoxic precursor
ibotenic acid
Ibotenic acid or (''S'')-2-amino-2-(3-hydroxyisoxazol-5-yl)acetic acid, also referred to as ibotenate, is a chemical compound and psychoactive drug which occurs naturally in ''Amanita muscaria'' and related species of mushrooms typically found i ...
. A local variety of the mushroom was used as an intoxicant and
entheogen
Entheogens are psychoactive substances that induce alterations in perception, mood, consciousness, cognition, or behavior for the purposes of engendering spiritual development or otherwiseRätsch, Christian, ''The Encyclopedia of Psychoac ...
by the
indigenous peoples of Siberia and by the
Sámi
The Sámi ( ; also spelled Sami or Saami) are a Finno-Ugric-speaking people inhabiting the region of Sápmi (formerly known as Lapland), which today encompasses large northern parts of Norway, Sweden, Finland, and of the Murmansk Oblast, Ru ...
, and has a religious significance in these cultures. There has been much speculation on possible traditional use of this mushroom as an intoxicant in other places such as the Middle East, Eurasia, North America, and Scandinavia.
Taxonomy and naming
The name of the
mushroom
A mushroom or toadstool is the fleshy, spore-bearing fruiting body of a fungus, typically produced above ground, on soil, or on its food source. ''Toadstool'' generally denotes one poisonous to humans.
The standard for the name "mushroom" is t ...
in many European languages is thought to derive from its use as an
insecticide
Insecticides are substances used to kill insects. They include ovicides and larvicides used against insect eggs and larvae, respectively. Insecticides are used in agriculture, medicine, industry and by consumers. Insecticides are claimed to b ...
when sprinkled in milk. This practice has been recorded from
Germanic- and
Slavic-speaking parts of Europe, as well as the
Vosges
The Vosges ( , ; german: Vogesen ; Franconian and gsw, Vogese) are a range of low mountains in Eastern France, near its border with Germany. Together with the Palatine Forest to the north on the German side of the border, they form a single ...
region and pockets elsewhere in France, and Romania.
Albertus Magnus
Albertus Magnus (c. 1200 – 15 November 1280), also known as Saint Albert the Great or Albert of Cologne, was a German Dominican friar, philosopher, scientist, and bishop. Later canonised as a Catholic saint, he was known during his li ...
was the first to record it in his work ''De vegetabilibus'' some time before 1256, commenting ''vocatur fungus muscarum, eo quod in lacte pulverizatus interficit muscas'', "it is called the fly mushroom because it is powdered in milk to kill flies."
[Ramsbottom, p. 44.]
![Fly Agaric mushroom 05](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/22/Fly_Agaric_mushroom_05.jpg)
The 16th-century Flemish botanist
Carolus Clusius
Charles de l'Écluse, L'Escluse, or Carolus Clusius (19 February 1526 – 4 April 1609), seigneur de Watènes, was an Artois doctor and pioneering botanist, perhaps the most influential of all 16th-century scientific horticulturists.
Life
Clu ...
traced the practice of sprinkling it into milk to
Frankfurt
Frankfurt, officially Frankfurt am Main (; Hessian: , "Frank ford on the Main"), is the most populous city in the German state of Hesse. Its 791,000 inhabitants as of 2022 make it the fifth-most populous city in Germany. Located on its na ...
in Germany, while
Carl Linnaeus
Carl Linnaeus (; 23 May 1707 – 10 January 1778), also known after his ennoblement in 1761 as Carl von Linné Blunt (2004), p. 171. (), was a Swedish botanist, zoologist, taxonomist, and physician who formalised binomial nomenclature, the ...
, the "father of taxonomy", reported it from
Småland
Småland () is a historical province () in southern Sweden.
Småland borders Blekinge, Scania, Halland, Västergötland, Östergötland and the island Öland in the Baltic Sea. The name Småland literally means ''Small Lands''. The Latinized fo ...
in southern Sweden, where he had lived as a child. He described it in volume two of his ''
Species Plantarum
' (Latin for "The Species of Plants") is a book by Carl Linnaeus, originally published in 1753, which lists every species of plant known at the time, classified into genera. It is the first work to consistently apply binomial names and was the ...
'' in 1753, giving it the name ''Agaricus muscarius'', the
specific epithet
In taxonomy, binomial nomenclature ("two-term naming system"), also called nomenclature ("two-name naming system") or binary nomenclature, is a formal system of naming species of living things by giving each a name composed of two parts, bot ...
deriving from
Latin
Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power of the ...
''musca'' meaning "fly". It gained its current name in 1783, when placed in the genus ''
Amanita
The genus ''Amanita'' contains about 600 species of agarics, including some of the most toxic known mushrooms found worldwide, as well as some well-regarded edible species. This genus is responsible for approximately 95% of the fatalities result ...
'' by
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
Jean-Baptiste Pierre Antoine de Monet, chevalier de Lamarck (1 August 1744 – 18 December 1829), often known simply as Lamarck (; ), was a French naturalist, biologist, academic, and soldier. He was an early proponent of the idea that biologi ...
, a
name sanctioned in 1821 by the "father of mycology", Swedish naturalist
Elias Magnus Fries
Elias Magnus Fries (15 August 1794 – 8 February 1878) was a Swedish mycologist and botanist.
Career
Fries was born at Femsjö (Hylte Municipality), Småland, the son of the pastor there. He attended school in Växjö.
He acquired ...
. The starting date for all the
mycota had been set by general agreement as January 1, 1821, the date of Fries's work, and so the full name was then ''Amanita muscaria'' (L.:Fr.)
Hook
A hook is a tool consisting of a length of material, typically metal, that contains a portion that is curved or indented, such that it can be used to grab onto, connect, or otherwise attach itself onto another object. In a number of uses, one e ...
. The 1987 edition of the
International Code of Botanical Nomenclature
The ''International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants'' (ICN) is the set of rules and recommendations dealing with the formal botanical names that are given to plants, fungi and a few other groups of organisms, all those "trad ...
changed the rules on the starting date and primary work for names of fungi, and names can now be considered valid as far back as May 1, 1753, the date of publication of Linnaeus's work. Hence, Linnaeus and Lamarck are now taken as the namers of ''Amanita muscaria'' (L.) Lam..
The English mycologist
John Ramsbottom reported that ''Amanita muscaria'' was used for getting rid of bugs in England and Sweden, and ''bug agaric'' was an old alternative name for the species.
French mycologist
Pierre Bulliard reported having tried without success to replicate its fly-killing properties in his work ' (1784), and proposed a new binomial name ''Agaricus pseudo-aurantiacus'' because of this. One compound isolated from the fungus is 1,3-diolein (1,3-di(cis-9-octadecenoyl)glycerol), which attracts insects.
It has been hypothesised that the flies intentionally seek out the fly agaric for its intoxicating properties.
An alternative derivation proposes that the term ''fly-'' refers not to insects as such but rather the
delirium
Delirium (also known as acute confusional state) is an organically caused decline from a previous baseline of mental function that develops over a short period of time, typically hours to days. Delirium is a syndrome encompassing disturbances in ...
resulting from consumption of the fungus. This is based on the medieval belief that flies could enter a person's head and cause mental illness.
Several regional names appear to be linked with this connotation, meaning the "mad" or "fool's" version of the highly regarded edible mushroom ''
Amanita caesarea''. Hence there is ' "mad oriol" in
Catalan
Catalan may refer to:
Catalonia
From, or related to Catalonia:
* Catalan language, a Romance language
* Catalans, an ethnic group formed by the people from, or with origins in, Northern or southern Catalonia
Places
* 13178 Catalan, asteroid #1 ...
, ''mujolo folo'' from
Toulouse
Toulouse ( , ; oc, Tolosa ) is the prefecture of the French department of Haute-Garonne and of the larger region of Occitania. The city is on the banks of the River Garonne, from the Mediterranean Sea, from the Atlantic Ocean and from Par ...
, ' from the
Aveyron
Aveyron (; oc, Avairon; ) is a department in the region of Occitania, Southern France. It was named after the river Aveyron. Its inhabitants are known as ''Aveyronnais'' (masculine) or ''Aveyronnaises'' (feminine) in French. The inhabitants ...
department in Southern France, ' from
Trentino
Trentino ( lld, Trentin), officially the Autonomous Province of Trento, is an autonomous province of Italy, in the country's far north. The Trentino and South Tyrol constitute the region of Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol, an autonomous region ...
in Italy. A local dialect name in
Fribourg
, neighboring_municipalities= Düdingen, Givisiez, Granges-Paccot, Marly, Pierrafortscha, Sankt Ursen, Tafers, Villars-sur-Glâne
, twintowns = Rueil-Malmaison (France)
, website = www.ville-fribourg.ch
, Location of , Location of ()
() o ...
in Switzerland is ''tsapi de diablhou'', which translates as "Devil's hat".
Classification
''Amanita muscaria'' is the
type species
In zoological nomenclature, a type species (''species typica'') is the species name with which the name of a genus or subgenus is considered to be permanently taxonomically associated, i.e., the species that contains the biological type specimen ...
of the genus. By extension, it is also the type species of ''Amanita''
subgenus
In biology, a subgenus (plural: subgenera) is a taxonomic rank directly below genus.
In the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, a subgeneric name can be used independently or included in a species name, in parentheses, placed between t ...
''Amanita'', as well as section ''Amanita'' within this subgenus. ''Amanita'' subgenus ''Amanita'' includes all ''Amanita'' with
inamyloid
In mycology a tissue or feature is said to be amyloid if it has a positive amyloid reaction when subjected to a crude chemical test using iodine as an ingredient of either Melzer's reagent or Lugol's solution, producing a blue to blue-black stain ...
spores. ''Amanita''
section
Section, Sectioning or Sectioned may refer to:
Arts, entertainment and media
* Section (music), a complete, but not independent, musical idea
* Section (typography), a subdivision, especially of a chapter, in books and documents
** Section sig ...
''Amanita'' includes the species with patchy
universal veil
In mycology, a universal veil is a temporary membranous tissue that fully envelops immature fruiting bodies of certain gilled mushrooms. The developing Caesar's mushroom (''Amanita caesarea''), for example, which may resemble a small white sphe ...
remnants, including a
volva that is reduced to a series of concentric rings, and the veil remnants on the
cap
A cap is a flat headgear, usually with a visor. Caps have crowns that fit very close to the head. They made their first appearance as early as 3200 BC. Caps typically have a visor, or no brim at all. They are popular in casual and informal se ...
to a series of patches or warts. Most species in this group also have a bulbous base.
''Amanita'' section ''Amanita'' consists of ''A. muscaria'' and its close relatives, including ''
A. pantherina'' (the panther cap), ''
A. gemmata'', ''
A. farinosa'', and ''
A. xanthocephala''. Modern fungal taxonomists have classified ''Amanita muscaria'' and its allies this way based on gross
morphology
Morphology, from the Greek and meaning "study of shape", may refer to:
Disciplines
* Morphology (archaeology), study of the shapes or forms of artifacts
* Morphology (astronomy), study of the shape of astronomical objects such as nebulae, galaxies ...
and spore inamyloidy. Two recent
molecular phylogenetic
Molecular phylogenetics () is the branch of phylogeny that analyzes genetic, hereditary molecular differences, predominantly in DNA sequences, to gain information on an organism's evolutionary relationships. From these analyses, it is possible to ...
studies have confirmed this classification as natural.
Controversy
![Amanita muscaria var](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b6/Amanita_muscaria_var._formosa_sensu_Thiers.jpg)
''Amanita muscaria'' varies considerably in its morphology, and many authorities recognize several subspecies or varieties within the species. In ''The Agaricales in Modern Taxonomy'', German mycologist
Rolf Singer listed three subspecies, though without description: ''A. muscaria'' ssp. ''muscaria'', ''A. muscaria'' ssp. ''americana'', and ''A. muscaria'' ssp. ''flavivolvata''.
[
However, a 2006 molecular phylogenetic study of different regional populations of ''A. muscaria'' by mycologist József Geml and colleagues found three distinct ]clade
A clade (), also known as a monophyletic group or natural group, is a group of organisms that are monophyletic – that is, composed of a common ancestor and all its lineal descendants – on a phylogenetic tree. Rather than the English term, ...
s within this species representing, roughly, Eurasian, Eurasian "subalpine", and North American populations. Specimens belonging to all three clades have been found in Alaska; this has led to the hypothesis that this was the centre of diversification for this species. The study also looked at four named varieties of the species: var. ''alba'', var. ''flavivolvata'', var. ''formosa'' (including var. ''guessowii''), and var. ''regalis'' from both areas. All four varieties were found within both the Eurasian and North American clades, evidence that these morphological forms are polymorphisms rather than distinct subspecies or varieties. Further molecular study by Geml and colleagues published in 2008 show that these three genetic groups, plus a fourth associated with oak–hickory–pine forest in the southeastern United States and two more on Santa Cruz Island
Santa Cruz Island ( Spanish: ''Isla Santa Cruz'', Chumash: ''Limuw'') is located off the southwestern coast of Ventura, California, United States. It is the largest island in California and largest of the eight islands in the Channel Islands ...
in California, are delineated from each other enough genetically to be considered separate species. Thus ''A. muscaria'' as it stands currently is, evidently, a species complex
In biology, a species complex is a group of closely related organisms that are so similar in appearance and other features that the boundaries between them are often unclear. The taxa in the complex may be able to hybridize readily with each oth ...
. The complex also includes at least three other closely related taxa that are currently regarded as species: '' A. breckonii'' is a buff-capped mushroom associated with conifers from the Pacific Northwest, and the brown-capped '' A. gioiosa'' and '' A. heterochroma'' from the Mediterranean Basin
In biogeography, the Mediterranean Basin (; also known as the Mediterranean Region or sometimes Mediterranea) is the region of lands around the Mediterranean Sea that have mostly a Mediterranean climate, with mild to cool, rainy winters and w ...
and from Sardinia
Sardinia ( ; it, Sardegna, label=Italian, Corsican and Tabarchino ; sc, Sardigna , sdc, Sardhigna; french: Sardaigne; sdn, Saldigna; ca, Sardenya, label=Algherese and Catalan) is the second-largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, after ...
respectively. Both of these last two are found with ''Eucalyptus
''Eucalyptus'' () is a genus of over seven hundred species of flowering trees, shrubs or mallees in the myrtle family, Myrtaceae. Along with several other genera in the tribe Eucalypteae, including '' Corymbia'', they are commonly known as euca ...
'' and ''Cistus
''Cistus'' (from the Greek ''kistos'') is a genus of flowering plants in the rockrose family Cistaceae, containing about 20 species (Ellul ''et al.'' 2002). They are perennial shrubs found on dry or rocky soils throughout the Mediterranean region ...
'' trees, and it is unclear whether they are native or introduced from Australia.
''Amanitaceae.org'' lists four varieties , but says that they will be segregated into their own taxa "in the near future". They are:
Description
A large, conspicuous mushroom
A mushroom or toadstool is the fleshy, spore-bearing fruiting body of a fungus, typically produced above ground, on soil, or on its food source. ''Toadstool'' generally denotes one poisonous to humans.
The standard for the name "mushroom" is t ...
, ''Amanita muscaria'' is generally common and numerous where it grows, and is often found in groups with basidiocarp
In fungi, a basidiocarp, basidiome, or basidioma () is the sporocarp of a basidiomycete, the multicellular structure on which the spore-producing hymenium is borne. Basidiocarps are characteristic of the hymenomycetes; rusts and smuts do ...
s in all stages of development.
Fly agaric fruiting bodies emerge from the soil looking like white eggs. After emerging from the ground, the cap is covered with numerous small white to yellow pyramid-shaped warts. These are remnants of the universal veil, a membrane that encloses the entire mushroom when it is still very young. Dissecting the mushroom at this stage reveals a characteristic yellowish layer of skin under the veil, which helps identification. As the fungus grows, the red colour appears through the broken veil and the warts become less prominent; they do not change in size, but are reduced relative to the expanding skin area. The cap changes from globose
A sphere () is a geometrical object that is a three-dimensional analogue to a two-dimensional circle. A sphere is the set of points that are all at the same distance from a given point in three-dimensional space.. That given point is the ...
to hemispherical, and finally to plate-like and flat in mature specimens. Fully grown, the bright red cap
A cap is a flat headgear, usually with a visor. Caps have crowns that fit very close to the head. They made their first appearance as early as 3200 BC. Caps typically have a visor, or no brim at all. They are popular in casual and informal se ...
is usually around in diameter, although larger specimens have been found. The red colour may fade after rain and in older mushrooms.
The free gills
A gill () is a respiratory organ that many aquatic organisms use to extract dissolved oxygen from water and to excrete carbon dioxide. The gills of some species, such as hermit crabs, have adapted to allow respiration on land provided they are ...
are white, as is the spore print
300px, Making a spore print of the mushroom ''Volvariella volvacea'' shown in composite: (photo lower half) mushroom cap laid on white and dark paper; (photo upper half) cap removed after 24 hours showing pinkish-tan spore print. A 3.5-centimeter ...
. The oval spores measure 9–13 by 6.5–9 μm; they do not turn blue with the application of iodine
Iodine is a chemical element with the symbol I and atomic number 53. The heaviest of the stable halogens, it exists as a semi-lustrous, non-metallic solid at standard conditions that melts to form a deep violet liquid at , and boils to a vi ...
. The stipe is white, high by wide, and has the slightly brittle, fibrous texture typical of many large mushrooms. At the base is a bulb
In botany, a bulb is structurally a short stem with fleshy leaves or leaf basesBell, A.D. 1997. ''Plant form: an illustrated guide to flowering plant morphology''. Oxford University Press, Oxford, U.K. that function as food storage organs duri ...
that bears universal veil remnants in the form of two to four distinct rings or ruffs. Between the basal universal veil remnants and gills are remnants of the partial veil
In mycology, a partial veil (also called an inner veil, to differentiate it from the "outer", or universal veil) is a temporary structure of tissue found on the fruiting bodies of some basidiomycete fungi, typically agarics. Its role is to isola ...
(which covers the gills during development) in the form of a white ring
Ring may refer to:
* Ring (jewellery), a round band, usually made of metal, worn as ornamental jewelry
* To make a sound with a bell, and the sound made by a bell
:(hence) to initiate a telephone connection
Arts, entertainment and media Film and ...
. It can be quite wide and flaccid with age. There is generally no associated smell other than a mild earthiness.
Although very distinctive in appearance, the fly agaric has been mistaken for other yellow to red mushroom species in the Americas, such as ''Armillaria
''Armillaria'' is a genus of fungi that includes the ''Armillaria mellea, A. mellea'' species known as honey fungi that live on trees and woody shrubs. It includes about 10 species formerly categorized summarily as ''A. mellea''. ''Armill ...
'' cf. ''mellea'' and the edible ''Amanita basii''—a Mexican species similar to '' A. caesarea'' of Europe. Poison control centres in the U.S. and Canada have become aware that (Spanish for 'yellow') is a common name
In biology, a common name of a taxon or organism (also known as a vernacular name, English name, colloquial name, country name, popular name, or farmer's name) is a name that is based on the normal language of everyday life; and is often contrast ...
for the ''A. caesarea''-like species in Mexico.[ ''Amanita caesarea'' is distinguished by its entirely orange to red cap, which lacks the numerous white warty spots of the fly agaric. Furthermore, the stem, gills and ring of ''A. caesarea'' are bright yellow, not white. The volva is a distinct white bag, not broken into scales. In Australia, the introduced fly agaric may be confused with the native vermilion grisette ('' Amanita xanthocephala''), which grows in association with ]eucalypts
Eucalypt is a descriptive name for woody plants with capsule fruiting bodies belonging to seven closely related genera (of the tribe Eucalypteae) found across Australasia:
''Eucalyptus'', ''Corymbia'', ''Angophora'', '' Stockwellia'', ''Allosyn ...
. The latter species generally lacks the white warts of ''A. muscaria'' and bears no ring.
Distribution and habitat
''Amanita muscaria'' is a cosmopolitan
Cosmopolitan may refer to:
Food and drink
* Cosmopolitan (cocktail), also known as a "Cosmo"
History
* Rootless cosmopolitan, a Soviet derogatory epithet during Joseph Stalin's anti-Semitic campaign of 1949–1953
Hotels and resorts
* Cosmopoli ...
mushroom, native to conifer and deciduous woodlands throughout the temperate
In geography, the temperate climates of Earth occur in the middle latitudes (23.5° to 66.5° N/S of Equator), which span between the tropics and the polar regions of Earth. These zones generally have wider temperature ranges throughout t ...
and boreal regions of the Northern Hemisphere, including higher elevations of warmer latitudes in regions such as Hindu Kush
The Hindu Kush is an mountain range in Central and South Asia to the west of the Himalayas. It stretches from central and western Afghanistan, Quote: "The Hindu Kush mountains run along the Afghan border with the North-West Frontier Provinc ...
, the Mediterranean and also Central America. A recent molecular study proposes that it had an ancestral origin in the Siberia
Siberia ( ; rus, Сибирь, r=Sibir', p=sʲɪˈbʲirʲ, a=Ru-Сибирь.ogg) is an extensive geographical region, constituting all of North Asia, from the Ural Mountains in the west to the Pacific Ocean in the east. It has been a part of ...
n–Beringia
Beringia is defined today as the land and maritime area bounded on the west by the Lena River in Russia; on the east by the Mackenzie River in Canada; on the north by 72 degrees north latitude in the Chukchi Sea; and on the south by the tip ...
n region in the Tertiary
Tertiary ( ) is a widely used but obsolete term for the geologic period from 66 million to 2.6 million years ago.
The period began with the demise of the non-avian dinosaurs in the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, at the start ...
period, before radiating outwards across Asia, Europe and North America. The season for fruiting varies in different climates: fruiting occurs in summer and autumn across most of North America, but later in autumn and early winter on the Pacific coast
Pacific coast may be used to reference any coastline that borders the Pacific Ocean.
Geography Americas
Countries on the western side of the Americas have a Pacific coast as their western or southwestern border, except for Panama, where the Pac ...
. This species is often found in similar locations to ''Boletus edulis
''Boletus edulis'' (English: cep, penny bun, porcino or porcini) is a basidiomycete fungus, and the type species of the genus ''Boletus''. Widely distributed in the Northern Hemisphere across Europe, Asia, and North America, it does not occu ...
'', and may appear in fairy ring
A fairy ring, also known as fairy circle, elf circle, elf ring or pixie ring, is a naturally occurring ring or arc of mushrooms. They are found mainly in forested areas, but also appear in grasslands or rangelands. Fairy rings are detectable by ...
s.[Benjamin, ''Mushrooms: poisons and panaceas'', p. 305.] Conveyed with pine seedlings, it has been widely transported into the southern hemisphere, including Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and South America, where it can be found in the southern Brazilian states of Paraná and Rio Grande do Sul
Rio Grande do Sul (, , ; "Great River of the South") is a Federative units of Brazil, state in the South Region, Brazil, southern region of Brazil. It is the Federative_units_of_Brazil#List, fifth-most-populous state and the List of Brazilian st ...
.[ ]
Ectomycorrhizal, ''Amanita muscaria'' forms symbiotic relationships with many trees, including pine
A pine is any conifer tree or shrub in the genus ''Pinus'' () of the family Pinaceae. ''Pinus'' is the sole genus in the subfamily Pinoideae. The World Flora Online created by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew and Missouri Botanical Garden accep ...
, oak
An oak is a tree or shrub in the genus ''Quercus'' (; Latin "oak tree") of the beech family, Fagaceae. There are approximately 500 extant species of oaks. The common name "oak" also appears in the names of species in related genera, notably ''L ...
, spruce
A spruce is a tree of the genus ''Picea'' (), a genus of about 35 species of coniferous evergreen trees in the family Pinaceae, found in the northern temperate and boreal (taiga) regions of the Earth. ''Picea'' is the sole genus in the subfami ...
, fir, birch
A birch is a thin-leaved deciduous hardwood tree of the genus ''Betula'' (), in the family Betulaceae, which also includes alders, hazels, and hornbeams. It is closely related to the beech-oak family Fagaceae. The genus ''Betula'' contains 30 ...
, and cedar
Cedar may refer to:
Trees and plants
*''Cedrus'', common English name cedar, an Old-World genus of coniferous trees in the plant family Pinaceae
*Cedar (plant), a list of trees and plants known as cedar
Places United States
* Cedar, Arizona
* ...
. Commonly seen under introduced trees,[ ''A. muscaria'' is the fungal equivalent of a weed in New Zealand, Tasmania and Victoria (Australia), Victoria, forming new associations with southern beech (''Nothofagus''). The species is also invading a rainforest in Australia, where it may be displacing the native species.] It appears to be spreading northwards, with recent reports placing it near Port Macquarie, New South Wales, Port Macquarie on the New South Wales north coast. It was recorded under silver birch (''Betula pendula'') in Manjimup, Western Australia in 2010. Although it has apparently not spread to eucalypts in Australia, it has been recorded associating with them in Portugal. Commonly found throughout the great Southern region of western Australia, it is regularly found growing on Pinus radiata.
Toxicity
''Amanita muscaria'' poisoning has occurred in young children and in people who ingested the mushrooms for a hallucinogenic experience. Occasionally it has been ingested in error, because immature button forms resemble puffballs.[Benjamin, ''Mushrooms: poisons and panaceas'', pp. 303–04.] The white spots sometimes wash away during heavy rain and the mushrooms then may appear to be the edible '' A. caesarea''.
''Amanita muscaria'' contains several biologically active agents, at least one of which, muscimol
Muscimol (also known as agarin or pantherine) is one of the principal psychoactive constituents of '' Amanita muscaria'' and related species of mushroom. Muscimol is a potent and selective orthosteric agonist for the GABAA receptors and displa ...
, is known to be psychoactive. Ibotenic acid, a neurotoxin, serves as a prodrug to muscimol, with a small amount likely converting to muscimol after ingestion. An active dose in adults is approximately 6 mg muscimol or 30 to 60 mg ibotenic acid; this is typically about the amount found in one cap of ''Amanita muscaria''. The amount and ratio of chemical compounds per mushroom varies widely from region to region and season to season, which can further confuse the issue. Spring and summer mushrooms have been reported to contain up to 10 times more ibotenic acid and muscimol than autumn fruitings.
Deaths from this fungus ''A. muscaria'' have been reported in historical journal articles and newspaper reports, but with modern medical treatment, fatal poisoning from ingesting this mushroom is extremely rare. Many books list ''Amanita muscaria'' as deadly, but according to David Arora, this is an error that implies the mushroom is far more toxic than it is.[Arora, ''Mushrooms demystified'', p. 894.] Furthermore, The North American Mycological Association has stated that there were "no reliably documented cases of death from toxins in these mushrooms in the past 100 years".
The active constituents of this species are water-soluble, and boiling and then discarding the cooking water at least partly detoxifies ''A. muscaria''. Drying may increase potency, as the process facilitates the conversion of ibotenic acid to the more potent muscimol.[Benjamin, ''Mushrooms: poisons and panaceas'', p. 310.] According to some sources, once detoxified, the mushroom becomes edible. Dr Patrick Harding describes the Sami custom of processing the fly agaric through reindeer.
Pharmacology
Muscarine, discovered in 1869, was long thought to be the active hallucinogenic agent in ''A. muscaria''. Muscarine binds with muscarinic acetylcholine receptors leading to the excitation of neurons bearing these receptors. The levels of muscarine in ''Amanita muscaria'' are minute when compared with other poisonous fungi such as ''Inosperma erubescens'', the small white ''Clitocybe'' species ''Clitocybe dealbata, C. dealbata'' and ''Clitocybe rivulosa, C. rivulosa''. The level of muscarine in ''A. muscaria'' is too low to play a role in the symptoms of poisoning.[Benjamin, ''Mushrooms: poisons and panaceas'', p. 306.]
The major toxins involved in ''A. muscaria'' poisoning are muscimol
Muscimol (also known as agarin or pantherine) is one of the principal psychoactive constituents of '' Amanita muscaria'' and related species of mushroom. Muscimol is a potent and selective orthosteric agonist for the GABAA receptors and displa ...
(3-hydroxy-5-aminomethyl-1-isoxazole, an Unsaturated compound, unsaturated cyclic hydroxamic acid) and the related amino acid ibotenic acid
Ibotenic acid or (''S'')-2-amino-2-(3-hydroxyisoxazol-5-yl)acetic acid, also referred to as ibotenate, is a chemical compound and psychoactive drug which occurs naturally in ''Amanita muscaria'' and related species of mushrooms typically found i ...
. Muscimol is the product of the decarboxylation (usually by drying) of ibotenic acid. Muscimol and ibotenic acid were discovered in the mid-20th century. Researchers in England, Japan, and Switzerland showed that the effects produced were due mainly to ibotenic acid and muscimol, not muscarine.[Benjamin, ''Mushrooms: poisons and panaceas'', pp. 306–07.] These toxins are not distributed uniformly in the mushroom. Most are detected in the cap of the fruit, a moderate amount in the base, with the smallest amount in the stalk. Quite rapidly, between 20 and 90 minutes after ingestion, a substantial fraction of ibotenic acid is excreted unmetabolised in the urine of the consumer. Almost no muscimol is excreted when pure ibotenic acid is eaten, but muscimol is detectable in the urine after eating ''A. muscaria'', which contains both ibotenic acid and muscimol.[
Ibotenic acid and muscimol are structurally related to each other and to two major neurotransmitters of the central nervous system: glutamic acid and GABA respectively. Ibotenic acid and muscimol act like these neurotransmitters, muscimol being a potent GABA A receptor, GABAA agonist, while ibotenic acid is an agonist of NMDA receptor, NMDA glutamate receptors and certain metabotropic glutamate receptors which are involved in the control of neuronal activity. It is these interactions which are thought to cause the psychoactive effects found in intoxication.]
Muscazone is another compound that has more recently been isolated from European specimens of the fly agaric. It is a product of the breakdown of ibotenic acid by ultra-violet radiation. Muscazone is of minor Biological activity, pharmacological activity compared with the other agents. ''Amanita muscaria'' and related species are known as effective bioaccumulation, bioaccumulators of vanadium; some species concentrate vanadium to levels of up to 400 times those typically found in plants. Vanadium is present in fruit-bodies as an Organometallic chemistry#Organometallic compounds, organometallic compound called amavadine. The biological importance of the accumulation process is unknown.
Symptoms
Fly agarics are best known for the unpredictability of their effects. Depending on habitat and the amount ingested per body weight, effects can range from mild nausea and twitching to drowsiness, cholinergic crisis-like effects (low blood pressure, sweating and salivation), auditory and visual distortions, mood changes, Euphoria (emotion), euphoria, relaxation, ataxia, and Vertigo (medical), loss of equilibrium (like with tetanus.)
In cases of serious poisoning the mushroom causes delirium
Delirium (also known as acute confusional state) is an organically caused decline from a previous baseline of mental function that develops over a short period of time, typically hours to days. Delirium is a syndrome encompassing disturbances in ...
, somewhat similar in effect to anticholinergic poisoning (such as that caused by ''Datura stramonium''), characterised by bouts of marked Psychomotor agitation, agitation with confusion, hallucinations, and irritability followed by periods of central nervous system depression. Seizures and coma may also occur in severe poisonings. Symptoms typically appear after around 30 to 90 minutes and peak within three hours, but certain effects can last for several days.[ In the majority of cases recovery is complete within 12 to 24 hours.] The effect is highly variable between individuals, with similar doses potentially causing quite different reactions. Some people suffering intoxication have exhibited headaches up to ten hours afterwards.[ Retrograde amnesia and somnolence can result following recovery.]
Treatment
Medical attention should be sought in cases of suspected poisoning. If the delay between ingestion and treatment is less than four hours, activated charcoal is given. Gastric lavage can be considered if the patient presents within one hour of ingestion. Inducing vomiting with syrup of ipecac is no longer recommended in any poisoning situation.
There is no antidote, and supportive care is the mainstay of further treatment for intoxication. Though sometimes referred to as a deliriant and while muscarine was first isolated from ''A. muscaria'' and as such is its namesake, muscimol
Muscimol (also known as agarin or pantherine) is one of the principal psychoactive constituents of '' Amanita muscaria'' and related species of mushroom. Muscimol is a potent and selective orthosteric agonist for the GABAA receptors and displa ...
does not have action, either as an agonist or Receptor antagonist, antagonist, at the muscarinic acetylcholine receptor site, and therefore atropine or physostigmine as an antidote is not recommended. If a patient is Delirium, delirious or agitated, this can usually be treated by reassurance and, if necessary, physical restraints. A benzodiazepine such as diazepam or lorazepam can be used to control combativeness, agitation, muscular overactivity, and seizures. Only small doses should be used, as they may worsen the Respiratory depression, respiratory depressant effects of muscimol. Recurrent vomiting is rare, but if present may lead to fluid and electrolyte imbalances; intravenous rehydration or electrolyte replacement may be required.[Benjamin, ''Mushrooms: poisons and panaceas'', p. 313.] Serious cases may develop loss of consciousness or coma, and may need intubation and artificial ventilation. Hemodialysis can remove the toxins, although this intervention is generally considered unnecessary. With modern medical treatment the prognosis is typically good following supportive treatment.
Psychoactive use
The wide range of Psychoactive drug, psychoactive effects have been variously described as depressant, sedative-hypnotic, Psychedelic drug, psychedelic, dissociative, or deliriant; Paradoxical reaction, paradoxical effects such as Stimulant, stimulation may occur however. Perceptual phenomena such as synesthesia, macropsia, and micropsia may occur; the latter two effects may occur either simultaneously or alternatingly, as part of Alice in Wonderland syndrome, collectively known as dysmetropsia, along with related distortions pelopsia and teleopsia. Some users report lucid dreaming under the influence of its hypnotic effects. Unlike ''Psilocybe cubensis'', ''A. muscaria'' cannot be commercially Fungiculture, cultivated, due to its mycorrhizal relationship with the roots of pine
A pine is any conifer tree or shrub in the genus ''Pinus'' () of the family Pinaceae. ''Pinus'' is the sole genus in the subfamily Pinoideae. The World Flora Online created by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew and Missouri Botanical Garden accep ...
trees. However, following the outlawing of psilocybin mushrooms in the United Kingdom in 2006, the sale of the still legal ''A. muscaria'' began increasing.
Professor Marija Gimbutienė, a renowned Lithuanian historian, reported to R. Gordon Wasson on the use of this mushroom in Lithuania. In remote areas of Lithuania, ''Amanita muscaria'' has been consumed at wedding feasts, in which mushrooms were mixed with vodka. The professor also reported that the Lithuanians used to export ''A. muscaria'' to the Sami people, Sami in the Far North for use in shamanic rituals. The Lithuanian festivities are the only report that Wasson received of ingestion of fly agaric for religious use in Eastern Europe.
Siberia
''Amanita muscaria'' was widely used as an entheogen
Entheogens are psychoactive substances that induce alterations in perception, mood, consciousness, cognition, or behavior for the purposes of engendering spiritual development or otherwiseRätsch, Christian, ''The Encyclopedia of Psychoac ...
by many of the indigenous peoples of Siberia. Its use was known among almost all of the Uralic languages, Uralic-speaking peoples of western Siberia and the Paleosiberian-speaking peoples of the Russian Far East. There are only isolated reports of ''A. muscaria'' use among the Tungusic peoples, Tungusic and Turkic peoples of central Siberia and it is believed that on the whole entheogenic use of ''A. muscaria'' was not practised by these peoples. In western Siberia, the use of ''A. muscaria'' was restricted to shamans, who used it as an alternative method of achieving a trance state. (Normally, Siberian shamans achieve trance by prolonged drumming and dancing.) In eastern Siberia, ''A. muscaria'' was used by both shamans and laypeople alike, and was used recreationally as well as religiously. In eastern Siberia, the shamanism, shaman would take the mushrooms, and others would drink his urine. This urine, still containing psychoactive elements, may be more potent than the ''A. muscaria'' mushrooms with fewer negative effects such as sweating and twitching, suggesting that the initial user may act as a screening filter for other components in the mushroom.
The Koryaks, Koryak of eastern Siberia have a story about the fly agaric (''wapaq'') which enabled Big Raven to carry a whale to its home. In the story, the deity ''Vahiyinin'' ("Existence") spat onto earth, and his spittle became the ''wapaq'', and his saliva becomes the warts. After experiencing the power of the ''wapaq'', Raven was so exhilarated that he told it to grow forever on earth so his children, the people, could learn from it.[Ramsbottom, p. 45.] Among the Koryaks, one report said that the poor would consume the urine of the wealthy, who could afford to buy the mushrooms. It was reported that the local reindeer would often follow an individual intoxicated by the muscimol mushroom, and if said individual were to urinate in snow the reindeer would become similarly intoxicated and the Koryaks, Koryak people's would use the drunken state of the reindeer to more easily rope and hunt them.
Other reports of use
The Finnish historian T. I. Itkonen mentions that ''A. muscaria'' was once used among the Sami people: sorcerers in Inari, Finland, Inari would consume fly agarics with seven spots. In 1979, Said Gholam Mochtar and Hartmut Geerken published an article in which they claimed to have discovered a tradition of medicinal and recreational use of this mushroom among a Parachi-speaking group in Afghanistan. There are also unconfirmed reports of religious use of ''A. muscaria'' among two Subarctic Indigenous peoples of the Americas, Native American tribes. Ojibwa ethnobotanist Keewaydinoquay Peschel reported its use among her people, where it was known as (an abbreviation of the name ''oshtimisk wajashkwedo'' (= "red-top mushroom")). This information was enthusiastically received by Wasson, although evidence from other sources was lacking. There is also one account of a Euro-American who claims to have been initiated into traditional Tlicho use of ''Amanita muscaria''. The flying reindeer of Santa Claus, who is called Joulupukki in Finland, could symbolize the use of ''A. muscaria'' by Sámi shamans.
Vikings
The notion that Vikings used ''A. muscaria'' to produce their berserker rages was first suggested by the Swedish professor Samuel Ödmann in 1784. Ödmann based his theories on reports about the use of fly agaric among Shamanism in Siberia, Siberian shamans. The notion has become widespread since the 19th century, but no contemporary sources mention this use or anything similar in their description of berserkers. Muscimol is generally a mild relaxant, but it can create a range of different reactions within a group of people. It is possible that it could make a person angry, or cause them to be "very jolly or sad, jump about, dance, sing or give way to great fright".[ Comparative analysis of symptoms have, however, since shown ''Hyoscyamus niger'' to be a better fit to the state that characterises the berserker rage.
]
Fly trap
''Amanita muscaria'' is traditionally used for catching flies possibly due to its content of ibotenic acid
Ibotenic acid or (''S'')-2-amino-2-(3-hydroxyisoxazol-5-yl)acetic acid, also referred to as ibotenate, is a chemical compound and psychoactive drug which occurs naturally in ''Amanita muscaria'' and related species of mushrooms typically found i ...
and muscimol
Muscimol (also known as agarin or pantherine) is one of the principal psychoactive constituents of '' Amanita muscaria'' and related species of mushroom. Muscimol is a potent and selective orthosteric agonist for the GABAA receptors and displa ...
.
Recently, an analysis of nine different methods for preparing ''A. muscaria'' for catching flies in Slovenia have shown that the release of ibotenic acid and muscimol did not depend on the solvent (milk or water) and that thermal and mechanical processing led to faster extraction of ibotenic acid and muscimol.
In religion
Soma
In 1968, R. Gordon Wasson proposed that ''A. muscaria'' was the ''Soma (drink), soma'' talked about in the Rigveda of India, a claim which received widespread publicity and popular support at the time.[Letcher, p. 145.] He noted that descriptions of ''Soma'' omitted any description of roots, stems or seeds, which suggested a mushroom, and used the adjective ''hári'' "dazzling" or "flaming" which the author interprets as meaning red. One line described men urinating ''Soma''; this recalled the practice of recycling urine in Siberia. Soma is mentioned as coming "from the mountains", which Wasson interpreted as the mushroom having been brought in with the Aryan migrants from the north. Indian scholars Santosh Kumar Dash and Sachinanda Padhy pointed out that both eating of mushrooms and drinking of urine were proscribed, using as a source the ''Manusmṛti''.[Letcher, p. 146.]
In 1971, Vedic scholar John Brough from Cambridge University rejected Wasson's theory and noted that the language was too vague to determine a description of Soma. In his 1976 survey, ''Hallucinogens and Culture'', anthropologist Peter T. Furst evaluated the evidence for and against the identification of the fly agaric mushroom as the Vedic Soma, concluding cautiously in its favour. Kevin Feeney and Trent Austin compared the references in the Vedas with the filtering mechanisms in the preparation of Amanita muscaria and published findings supporting the proposal that fly-agaric mushrooms could be a likely candidate for the sacrament. Other proposed candidates include ''Psilocybe cubensis'', ''Peganum harmala,'' and ''Ephedra (genus), Ephedra.''
Speculated role in Christianity
While far from widely accepted, philologist, archaeologist, and Dead Sea Scrolls scholar John Marco Allegro postulated that early Christian theology was derived from a fertility cult revolving around the entheogen
Entheogens are psychoactive substances that induce alterations in perception, mood, consciousness, cognition, or behavior for the purposes of engendering spiritual development or otherwiseRätsch, Christian, ''The Encyclopedia of Psychoac ...
ic consumption of ''A. muscaria'' in his 1970 book ''The Sacred Mushroom and the Cross.'' This theory has found little support by scholars outside the field of ethnomycology. The book was widely criticized by academics and theologians, including Godfrey Rolles Driver, Sir Godfrey Driver, Emeritus Professor of Semitic Philology at Oxford University and Henry Chadwick (theologian), Henry Chadwick, the Dean of Christ Church, Oxford.[Letcher, p. 160.] Christian author John C. King wrote a detailed rebuttal of Allegro's theory in the 1970 book ''A Christian View of the Mushroom Myth''; he notes that neither fly agarics nor their host trees are found in the Middle East, even though cedars and pines are found there, and highlights the tenuous nature of the links between biblical and Sumerian names coined by Allegro. He concludes that if the theory were true, the use of the mushroom must have been "the best kept secret in the world" as it was so well concealed for two thousand years.
Culinary use
The toxins in ''A. muscaria'' are water-soluble: parboiling ''A. muscaria'' fruit bodies can detoxify them and render them edible, although consumption of the mushroom as a food has never been widespread. The consumption of detoxified ''A. muscaria'' has been practiced in some parts of Europe (notably by Russian settlers in Siberia) since at least the 19th century, and likely earlier. The German physician and naturalist Georg Heinrich von Langsdorff wrote the earliest published account on how to detoxify this mushroom in 1823. In the late 19th century, the French physician Félix Archimède Pouchet was a populariser and advocate of ''A. muscaria'' consumption, comparing it to manioc, an important food source in tropical South America that must also be detoxified before consumption.
Use of this mushroom as a food source also seems to have existed in North America. A classic description of this use of ''A. muscaria'' by an African-American mushroom seller in Washington, D.C., in the late 19th century is described by American botanist Frederick Vernon Coville. In this case, the mushroom, after parboiling, and soaking in vinegar, is made into a mushroom sauce for steak. It is also consumed as a food in parts of Japan. The most well-known current use as an edible mushroom is in Nagano Prefecture, Japan. There, it is primarily salted and pickled.
A 2008 paper by food historian William Rubel and mycologist David Arora gives a history of consumption of ''A. muscaria'' as a food and describes detoxification methods. They advocate that ''Amanita muscaria'' be described in field guides as an edible mushroom, though accompanied by a description on how to detoxify it. The authors state that the widespread descriptions in field guides of this mushroom as poisonous is a reflection of cultural bias, as several other popular edible species, notably morels, are also toxic unless properly cooked.
Cultural depictions
The red-and-white spotted toadstool is a common image in many aspects of popular culture. Garden ornaments and children's picture books depicting gnomes and fairy, fairies, such as the Smurfs, often show fly agarics used as seats, or homes.[Benjamin, ''Mushrooms: poisons and panaceas'', p. 295.] Fly agarics have been featured in paintings since the Renaissance, albeit in a subtle manner. For instance, in Hieronymus Bosch's painting, The Garden of Earthly Delights, the mushroom can be seen on the left-hand panel of the work. In the Victorian era they became more visible, becoming the main topic of some fairy paintings. Two of the most famous uses of the mushroom are in the ''Mario
is a character created by Japanese video game designer Shigeru Miyamoto. He is the title character of the ''Mario'' franchise and the mascot of Japanese video game company Nintendo. Mario has appeared in over 200 video games since his creat ...
'' franchise (specifically two of the Super Mario#Mushrooms, Super Mushroom power-up items and the platforms in several stages which are based on a fly agaric), and the dancing mushroom sequence in the 1940 Disney film ''Fantasia (1940 film), Fantasia''.[Ramsbottom, p. 43.]
An account of the journeys of Philip Johan von Strahlenberg, Philip von Strahlenberg to Siberia and his descriptions of the use of the ''mukhomor'' there was published in English in 1736. The drinking of urine of those who had consumed the mushroom was commented on by Anglo-Irish writer Oliver Goldsmith in his widely read 1762 novel, ''Citizen of the World''. The mushroom had been identified as the fly agaric by this time. Other authors recorded the distortions of the size of perceived objects while intoxicated by the fungus, including naturalist Mordecai Cubitt Cooke in his books ''The Seven Sisters of Sleep'' and ''A Plain and Easy Account of British Fungi''. This observation is thought to have formed the basis of the effects of eating the mushroom in the 1865 popular story ''Alice's Adventures in Wonderland''.[Letcher, p. 126.] A hallucinogenic "scarlet toadstool" from Lappland is featured as a plot element in Charles Kingsley's 1866 novel ''Hereward the Wake (novel), Hereward the Wake'' based on the Hereward the Wake, medieval figure of the same name. Thomas Pynchon's 1973 novel ''Gravity's Rainbow'' describes the fungus as a "relative of the poisonous Destroying angel" and presents a detailed description of a character preparing a cookie bake mixture from harvested ''Amanita muscaria''. Fly agaric shamanism is also explored in the 2003 novel ''Thursbitch'' by Alan Garner.[Letcher, p. 129.]
See also
* List of Amanita species, List of ''Amanita'' species
* Legal status of psychoactive Amanita mushrooms, Legal status of psychoactive ''Amanita'' mushrooms
References
Works cited
*
*
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External links
Webpages on ''Amanita species''
by Tulloss and Yang Zhuliang
Amanita on erowid.org
by IPCS INCHEM
{{Authority control
Amanita, muscaria
Entheogens
Fungi of Asia
Fungi of Europe
Fungi of North America
Oneirogens
Poisonous fungi
Psychoactive fungi
Fungi described in 1753
Soma (drink)
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus
Fungi of the United Kingdom