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''Ficus'' ( or ) is a
genus Genus ( plural genera ) is a taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms as well as viruses. In the hierarchy of biological classification, genus comes above species and below family. In binomial nom ...
of about 850
species In biology, a species is the basic unit of classification and a taxonomic rank of an organism, as well as a unit of biodiversity. A species is often defined as the largest group of organisms in which any two individuals of the appropriate s ...
of woody
tree In botany, a tree is a perennial plant with an elongated stem, or trunk, usually supporting branches and leaves. In some usages, the definition of a tree may be narrower, including only woody plants with secondary growth, plants that are ...
s, shrubs,
vine A vine (Latin ''vīnea'' "grapevine", "vineyard", from ''vīnum'' "wine") is any plant with a growth habit of trailing or scandent (that is, climbing) stems, lianas or runners. The word ''vine'' can also refer to such stems or runners themsel ...
s, epiphytes and
hemiepiphyte A hemiepiphyte is a plant that spends part of its life cycle as an epiphyte. The seeds of primary hemiepiphytes germinate in the canopy and initially live epiphytically. They send roots downward, and these roots eventually make contact with th ...
s in the
family Family (from la, familia) is a group of people related either by consanguinity (by recognized birth) or affinity (by marriage or other relationship). The purpose of the family is to maintain the well-being of its members and of society. Idea ...
Moraceae The Moraceae — often called the mulberry family or fig family — are a family of flowering plants comprising about 38 genera and over 1100 species. Most are widespread in tropical and subtropical regions, less so in temperate climates; however ...
. Collectively known as fig trees or figs, they are native throughout the
tropics The tropics are the regions of Earth surrounding the Equator. They are defined in latitude by the Tropic of Cancer in the Northern Hemisphere at N and the Tropic of Capricorn in the Southern Hemisphere at S. The tropics are also referr ...
with a few species extending into the semi-warm
temperate In geography, the temperate climates of Earth occur in the middle latitudes (23.5° to 66.5° N/S of Equator), which span between the tropics and the polar regions of Earth. These zones generally have wider temperature ranges throughout ...
zone. The common fig (''F. carica'') is a temperate species native to southwest Asia and the
Mediterranean The Mediterranean Sea is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by the Mediterranean Basin and almost completely enclosed by land: on the north by Western Europe, Western and Southern Europe and Anatolia, on the south by North Africa ...
region (from Afghanistan to Portugal), which has been widely cultivated from ancient times for its
fruit In botany, a fruit is the seed-bearing structure in flowering plants that is formed from the ovary after flowering. Fruits are the means by which flowering plants (also known as angiosperms) disseminate their seeds. Edible fruits in particu ...
, also referred to as figs. The fruit of most other species are also edible though they are usually of only local economic importance or eaten as
bushfood Bush tucker, also called bush food, is any food native to Australia and used as sustenance by Indigenous Australians, the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples, but it can also describe any native flora or fauna used for culinary or ...
. However, they are extremely important food resources for wildlife. Figs are also of considerable cultural importance throughout the tropics, both as objects of worship and for their many practical uses.


Description

''Ficus'' is a
pantropical A pantropical ("all tropics") distribution is one which covers tropical regions of both hemispheres. Examples of species include caecilians, modern sirenians and the plant genera ''Acacia'' and ''Bacopa''. ''Neotropical'' is a zoogeographic term ...
genus of trees, shrubs, and vines occupying a wide variety of
ecological niche In ecology, a niche is the match of a species to a specific environmental condition. Three variants of ecological niche are described by It describes how an organism or population responds to the distribution of resources and competitors (for ...
s; most are
evergreen In botany, an evergreen is a plant which has foliage that remains green and functional through more than one growing season. This also pertains to plants that retain their foliage only in warm climates, and contrasts with deciduous plants, whic ...
, but some deciduous species are found in areas outside of the tropics and to higher elevations. Fig species are characterized by their unique
inflorescence An inflorescence is a group or cluster of flowers arranged on a Plant stem, stem that is composed of a main branch or a complicated arrangement of branches. Morphology (biology), Morphologically, it is the modified part of the shoot of sperma ...
and distinctive
pollination syndrome Pollination syndromes are suites of flower traits that have evolved in response to natural selection imposed by different pollen vectors, which can be abiotic (wind and water) or biotic, such as birds, bees, flies, and so forth through a process c ...
, which uses wasp species belonging to the family
Agaonidae The family Agaonidae is a group of pollinating and nonpollinating fig wasps. They spend their larval stage inside the fruits of figs. The pollinating wasps (Agaoninae, Kradibiinae, and Tetrapusiinae) are the mutualistic partners of the fig tree ...
for pollination. Specific identification of many of the species can be difficult, but members of the genus ''Ficus'' are relatively easy to recognize. Many have
aerial root Aerial roots are roots above the ground. They are almost always adventitious. They are found in diverse plant species, including epiphytes such as orchids (''Orchidaceae''), tropical coastal swamp trees such as mangroves, banyan figs (''Fic ...
s and a distinctive shape or habit, and their fruits distinguish them from other plants. The fruit of ''Ficus'' is an
inflorescence An inflorescence is a group or cluster of flowers arranged on a Plant stem, stem that is composed of a main branch or a complicated arrangement of branches. Morphology (biology), Morphologically, it is the modified part of the shoot of sperma ...
enclosed in an urn-like structure called a syconium, which is lined on the inside with the fig's tiny flowers that develop into multiple ovaries on the inside surface. In essence, the fig fruit is a fleshy stem with multiple tiny flowers that fruit and coalesce. The unique fig
pollination Pollination is the transfer of pollen from an anther of a plant to the stigma of a plant, later enabling fertilisation and the production of seeds, most often by an animal or by wind. Pollinating agents can be animals such as insects, birds, a ...
system, involving tiny, highly specific wasps, known as
fig wasp Fig wasps are wasps of the superfamily Chalcidoidea which spend their larval stage inside figs. Most are pollinators but others simply feed off the plant. The non-pollinators belong to several groups within the superfamily Chalcidoidea, while the ...
s that enter via ostiole these subclosed inflorescences to both pollinate and lay their own eggs, has been a constant source of inspiration and wonder to biologists. Notably, three vegetative traits together are unique to figs. All figs present a white to yellowish
latex Latex is an emulsion (stable dispersion) of polymer microparticles in water. Latexes are found in nature, but synthetic latexes are common as well. In nature, latex is found as a milky fluid found in 10% of all flowering plants (angiosperms ...
, some in copious quantities; the twig shows paired stipules —or circular scars if the stipules have fallen off; the lateral veins at the base of the leaf are steep, forming a tighter angle with the midrib than the other lateral veins, a feature referred to as "triveined". No unambiguous older
fossil A fossil (from Classical Latin , ) is any preserved remains, impression, or trace of any once-living thing from a past geological age. Examples include bones, shells, exoskeletons, stone imprints of animals or microbes, objects preserved ...
s of ''Ficus'' are known. However, current
molecular clock The molecular clock is a figurative term for a technique that uses the mutation rate of biomolecules to deduce the time in prehistory when two or more life forms diverged. The biomolecular data used for such calculations are usually nucleo ...
estimates indicate that ''Ficus'' is a relatively ancient genus being at least 60 million years old, and possibly as old as 80 million years. The main radiation of extant species, however, may have taken place more recently, between 20 and 40 million years ago. Some better-known species that represent the diversity of the genus include the common fig, a small, temperate deciduous tree whose fingered
fig leaf The expression "fig leaf" is widely used figuratively to convey the covering up of an act or an object that is embarrassing or distasteful with something of innocuous appearance, a metaphorical reference to the Biblical Book of Genesis in which ...
is well known in art and iconography; the
weeping fig ''Ficus benjamina'', commonly known as weeping fig, benjamin fig or ficus tree, and often sold in stores as just ficus, is a species of flowering plant in the family Moraceae, native to Asia and Australia. It is the official tree of Bangkok. The ...
(''F. benjamina''), a
hemiepiphyte A hemiepiphyte is a plant that spends part of its life cycle as an epiphyte. The seeds of primary hemiepiphytes germinate in the canopy and initially live epiphytically. They send roots downward, and these roots eventually make contact with th ...
with thin, tough leaves on pendulous stalks adapted to its
rain forest Rainforests are characterized by a closed and continuous tree canopy, moisture-dependent vegetation, the presence of epiphytes and lianas and the absence of wildfire. Rainforest can be classified as tropical rainforest or temperate rainforest ...
habitat; the rough-leaved sandpaper figs from Australia; and the
creeping fig ''Ficus pumila'', commonly known as the creeping fig or climbing fig, is a species of flowering plant in the mulberry family, native to East Asia (China, Japan, Vietnam) and naturalized in parts of the southeastern and south-central United Stat ...
(''F. pumila''), a vine whose small, hard leaves form a dense carpet of foliage over rocks or garden walls. Moreover, figs with different plant habits have undergone
adaptive radiation In evolutionary biology, adaptive radiation is a process in which organisms diversify rapidly from an ancestral species into a multitude of new forms, particularly when a change in the environment makes new resources available, alters biotic int ...
in different
biogeographic Biogeography is the study of the distribution of species and ecosystems in geographic space and through geological time. Organisms and biological communities often vary in a regular fashion along geographic gradients of latitude, elevation, ...
regions, leading to very high levels of alpha diversity. In the tropics, ''Ficus'' commonly is the most species-rich plant genus in a particular forest. In Asia, as many as 70 or more species can co-exist. ''Ficus''
species richness Species richness is the number of different species represented in an ecological community, landscape or region. Species richness is simply a count of species, and it does not take into account the abundances of the species or their relative ab ...
declines with an increase in latitude in both hemispheres. A description of fig tree cultivation is set out in
Ibn al-'Awwam Ibn al-'Awwam ( ar, ابن العوام), also called Abu Zakariya Ibn al-Awwam ( ar, أبو زكريا بن العوام), was a Muslim Arab agriculturist who flourished at Seville (modern-day southern Spain) in the later 12th century. He wrote a ...
's 12th-century agricultural work entitled, ''Book on Agriculture''.


Ecology

Figs are keystone species in many
tropical forest Tropical forests (a.k.a. jungle) are forested landscapes in tropical regions: ''i.e.'' land areas approximately bounded by the tropic of Cancer and Capricorn, but possibly affected by other factors such as prevailing winds. Some tropical fore ...
ecosystem An ecosystem (or ecological system) consists of all the organisms and the physical environment with which they interact. These biotic and abiotic components are linked together through nutrient cycles and energy flows. Energy enters the syste ...
s. Their fruit are a key resource for some
frugivores A frugivore is an animal that thrives mostly on raw fruits or succulent fruit-like produce of plants such as roots, shoots, nuts and seeds. Approximately 20% of mammalian herbivores eat fruit. Frugivores are highly dependent on the abundance and ...
including
fruit bats In botany, a fruit is the seed-bearing structure in flowering plants that is formed from the ovary after flowering. Fruits are the means by which flowering plants (also known as angiosperms) disseminate their seeds. Edible fruits in partic ...
, and primates including:
capuchin monkey The capuchin monkeys () are New World monkeys of the subfamily Cebinae. They are readily identified as the " organ grinder" monkey, and have been used in many movies and television shows. The range of capuchin monkeys includes some tropical fores ...
s,
langurs The Colobinae or leaf-eating monkeys are a subfamily of the Old World monkey family that includes 61 species in 11 genera, including the black-and-white colobus, the large-nosed proboscis monkey, and the gray langurs. Some classifications split ...
, gibbons and
mangabey Mangabeys are West-African Old World monkeys, with species in three of the six genera of tribe Papionini. The more typical representatives of ''Cercocebus'', also known as the white-eyelid mangabeys, are characterized by their bare, upper eye-l ...
s. They are even more important for
bird Birds are a group of warm-blooded vertebrates constituting the class Aves (), characterised by feathers, toothless beaked jaws, the laying of hard-shelled eggs, a high metabolic rate, a four-chambered heart, and a strong yet lightweig ...
s such as Asian barbets,
pigeons Columbidae () is a bird family consisting of doves and pigeons. It is the only family in the order Columbiformes. These are stout-bodied birds with short necks and short slender bills that in some species feature fleshy ceres. They primarily ...
, hornbills, fig-parrots and bulbuls, which may almost entirely subsist on figs when these are in plenty. Many Lepidoptera caterpillars feed on fig leaves, for example several ''
Euploea ''Euploea'' is a genus of milkweed butterflies. The species are generally dark in coloration, often quite blackish, for which reason they are commonly called crows. As usual for their subfamily, they are poisonous due to feeding on milkweeds and ...
'' species (crow butterflies), the
plain tiger ''Danaus chrysippus'', also known as the plain tiger, African queen, or African monarch, is a medium-sized butterfly widespread in Asia, Australia and Africa. It belongs to the Danainae subfamily of the brush-footed butterfly Family (biology), fa ...
(''Danaus chrysippus''), the
giant swallowtail The giant swallowtail (''Papilio cresphontes'') is the largest butterfly in North America. It is abundant through many parts of eastern North America; populations from western North America and down into Panama are now (as of 2014) considered t ...
(''Papilio cresphontes''), the brown awl (''Badamia exclamationis''), and '' Chrysodeixis eriosoma'', Choreutidae and Copromorphidae
moth Moths are a paraphyletic group of insects that includes all members of the order Lepidoptera that are not butterflies, with moths making up the vast majority of the order. There are thought to be approximately 160,000 species of moth, many of w ...
s. The citrus long-horned beetle (''Anoplophora chinensis''), for example, has larvae that feed on
wood Wood is a porous and fibrous structural tissue found in the stems and roots of trees and other woody plants. It is an organic materiala natural composite of cellulose fibers that are strong in tension and embedded in a matrix of lignin ...
, including that of fig trees; it can become a pest in fig plantations. Similarly, the
sweet potato whitefly The silverleaf whitefly (''Bemisia tabaci'', also informally referred to as the sweet potato whitefly) is one of several species of whitefly that are currently important agricultural pests. A review in 2011 concluded that the silverleaf whitefly ...
(''Bemisia tabaci'') is frequently found as a pest on figs grown as
potted plant Container gardening or pot gardening/farming is the practice of growing plants, including edible plants, exclusively in containers instead of planting them in the ground. A container in gardening is a small, enclosed and usually portable object ...
s and is spread through the export of these plants to other localities. For a list of other diseases common to fig trees, see List of foliage plant diseases (Moraceae).


Fig fruit and reproduction system

Many fig species are grown for their fruits, though only ''
Ficus carica The fig is the edible fruit of ''Ficus carica'', a species of small tree in the flowering plant family Moraceae. Native to the Mediterranean and western Asia, it has been cultivated since ancient times and is now widely grown throughout the world ...
'' is cultivated to any extent for this purpose. A fig "fruit" is a type of multiple fruit known as a syconium, derived from an arrangement of many small flowers on an inverted, nearly closed receptacle. The many small flowers are unseen unless the fig is cut open. The fruit typically has a bulbous shape with a small opening (the ostiole) at the outward end that allows access to pollinators. The flowers are pollinated by very small wasps that crawl through the opening in search of a suitable place to lay eggs. Without this pollinator service fig trees could not reproduce by seed. In turn, the flowers provide a safe haven and nourishment for the next generation of wasps. This accounts for the frequent presence of wasp larvae in the fruit, and has led to a coevolutionary relationship. Technically, a fig fruit proper would be only one of the many tiny matured, seed-bearing gynoecia found inside one fig – if you cut open a fresh fig, individual fruit will appear as fleshy "threads", each bearing a single seed inside. The genus ''
Dorstenia ''Dorstenia'' is a genus within the mulberry family, Moraceae. Depending on the author, there are said to be 100 to 170 species within this genus, second only in number to the genus ''Ficus'' within Moraceae. ''Dorstenia'' species are mainly kno ...
'', also in the fig family (Moraceae), exhibits similar tiny flowers arranged on a receptacle but in this case the receptacle is a more or less flat, open surface. Fig plants can be monoecious ( hermaphrodite) or
gynodioecious Gynodioecy is a rare breeding system that is found in certain flowering plant species in which female and hermaphroditic plants coexist within a population. Gynodioecy is the evolutionary intermediate between hermaphroditism (exhibiting both fema ...
(hermaphrodite and female). Nearly half of fig species are gynodioecious, and therefore have some plants with inflorescences (syconium) with long styled pistillate flowers, and other plants with staminate flowers mixed with short styled pistillate flowers. The long-styled flowers tend to prevent wasps from laying their eggs within the ovules, while the short-styled flowers are accessible for egg laying. All the native fig trees of the American continent are hermaphrodites, as well as species like
Indian banyan ''Ficus benghalensis'', commonly known as the banyan, banyan fig and Indian banyan, is a tree native to the Indian Subcontinent. Specimens in India are among the largest trees in the world by canopy coverage. It also known as the " strangler fig" ...
(''F. benghalensis''),
weeping fig ''Ficus benjamina'', commonly known as weeping fig, benjamin fig or ficus tree, and often sold in stores as just ficus, is a species of flowering plant in the family Moraceae, native to Asia and Australia. It is the official tree of Bangkok. The ...
(''F. benjamina''),
Indian rubber plant ''Ficus elastica'', the rubber fig, rubber bush, rubber tree, rubber plant, or Indian rubber bush, Indian rubber tree, is a species of flowering plant in the family Moraceae, native to eastern parts of South and Southeast Asia. It has become nat ...
(''F. elastica''), fiddle-leaved fig (''F. lyrata''),
Moreton Bay fig ''Ficus macrophylla'', commonly known as the Moreton Bay fig or Australian banyan, is a large evergreen banyan tree of the family Moraceae native to eastern Australia, from the Wide Bay–Burnett region in the north to the Illawarra in New So ...
(''F. macrophylla''),
Chinese banyan ''Ficus microcarpa'', also known as Chinese banyan, Malayan banyan, Indian laurel, curtain fig, or , is a tree in the fig family Moraceae. It is native in a range from China through tropical Asia and the Caroline Islands to Australia. It is wide ...
(''F. microcarpa''),
sacred fig ''Ficus religiosa'' or sacred fig is a species of fig native to the Indian subcontinent and Indochina that belongs to Moraceae, the fig or mulberry family. It is also known as the bodhi tree, pippala tree, peepul tree, peepal tree, pipal tree ...
(''F. religiosa'') and
sycamore fig ''Ficus sycomorus'', called the sycamore fig or the fig-mulberry (because the leaves resemble those of the mulberry), sycamore, or sycomore, is a fig species that has been cultivated since ancient times. The term '' sycamore'' spelled with an A ...
(''F. sycomorus''). The common fig (''Ficus carica'') is a gynodioecious plant, as well as lofty fig or clown fig ('' F. aspera''), Roxburgh fig ('' F. auriculata''),
mistletoe fig ''Ficus deltoidea'', commonly known as mistletoe fig (''mas cotek'' in Malaysian, ''tabat barito'' in Indonesia, or ''สาลิกาลิ้นทอง'' in Thai) is a species of flowering plant in the family Moraceae, native to Sout ...
('' F. deltoidea''), '' F. pseudopalma'',
creeping fig ''Ficus pumila'', commonly known as the creeping fig or climbing fig, is a species of flowering plant in the mulberry family, native to East Asia (China, Japan, Vietnam) and naturalized in parts of the southeastern and south-central United Stat ...
(''F. pumila'') and related species. The hermaphrodite common figs are called "inedible figs" or "caprifigs"; in traditional culture in the
Mediterranean region In biogeography, the Mediterranean Basin (; also known as the Mediterranean Region or sometimes Mediterranea) is the region of lands around the Mediterranean Sea that have mostly a Mediterranean climate, with mild to cool, rainy winters and wa ...
they were considered food for
goat The goat or domestic goat (''Capra hircus'') is a domesticated species of goat-antelope typically kept as livestock. It was domesticated from the wild goat (''C. aegagrus'') of Southwest Asia and Eastern Europe. The goat is a member of the a ...
s (''Capra aegagrus''). In the female fig trees, the male flower parts fail to develop; they produce the "'edible figs".
Fig wasp Fig wasps are wasps of the superfamily Chalcidoidea which spend their larval stage inside figs. Most are pollinators but others simply feed off the plant. The non-pollinators belong to several groups within the superfamily Chalcidoidea, while the ...
s grow in common fig caprifigs but not in the female syconiums because the female flower is too long for the wasp to successfully lay her eggs in them. Nonetheless, the wasp pollinates the flower with pollen from the caprifig it grew up in. When the wasp dies, it is broken down by enzymes (
Ficain Ficain also known as ficin, debricin, or higueroxyl delabarre () is a proteolytic enzyme extracted from the latex sap from the stems, leaves, and unripe fruit of the American wild fig tree ''Ficus insipida''. Ficain was originally called ficin, a ...
) inside the fig. Fig wasps are not known to transmit any diseases harmful to humans. When a caprifig ripens, another caprifig must be ready to be pollinated. In temperate climes, wasps hibernate in figs, and there are distinct crops. Caprifigs have three crops per year; common figs have two. The first crop (
breba A breba (or more commonly ''breva'' in Spanish Spanish might refer to: * Items from or related to Spain: **Spaniards are a nation and ethnic group indigenous to Spain **Spanish language, spoken in Spain and many Latin American countries **Spanish c ...
) is larger and juicier, and usually eaten fresh. In cold climates the breba crop is often destroyed by spring frosts. Some
parthenocarpic In botany and horticulture, parthenocarpy is the natural or artificially induced production of fruit without fertilisation of ovules, which makes the fruit seedless. Stenospermocarpy may also produce apparently seedless fruit, but the seeds are ac ...
cultivar A cultivar is a type of cultivated plant that people have selected for desired traits and when propagated retain those traits. Methods used to propagate cultivars include: division, root and stem cuttings, offsets, grafting, tissue culture ...
s of common figs do not require pollination at all, and will produce a crop of figs (albeit sterile) in the absence of caprifigs and fig wasps. Depending on the species, each fruit can contain hundreds or even thousand of seeds. Figs can be propagated by seeds, cuttings, air-layering or grafting. However, as with any plant, figs grown from seed are not necessarily genetically identical to the parent and are only propagated this way for breeding purposes.


Mutualism with the pollinating fig wasps

Each species of fig is pollinated by one or a few specialised wasp species, and therefore plantings of fig species outside of their native range results in effectively sterile individuals. For example, in
Hawaii Hawaii ( ; haw, Hawaii or ) is a state in the Western United States, located in the Pacific Ocean about from the U.S. mainland. It is the only U.S. state outside North America, the only state that is an archipelago, and the only state ...
, some 60 species of figs have been introduced, but only four of the wasps that fertilize them, so only those species of figs produce viable seeds there and can become invasive species. This is an example of mutualism, in which each organism (fig plant and
fig wasp Fig wasps are wasps of the superfamily Chalcidoidea which spend their larval stage inside figs. Most are pollinators but others simply feed off the plant. The non-pollinators belong to several groups within the superfamily Chalcidoidea, while the ...
) benefit each other, in this case reproductively. The intimate association between fig species and their wasp pollinators, along with the high incidence of a one-to-one plant-pollinator ratio have long led scientists to believe that figs and wasps are a clear example of coevolution. Morphological and reproductive behavior evidence, such as the correspondence between fig and wasp larvae maturation rates, have been cited as support for this hypothesis for many years. Additionally, recent genetic and molecular dating analyses have shown a very close correspondence in the character evolution and speciation phylogenies of these two clades. According to meta-analysis of molecular data for 119 fig species 35% (41) have multiple pollinator wasp species. The real proportion is higher because not all wasp species were detected. On the other hand, species of wasps pollinate multiple host fig species. Molecular techniques, like microsatellite markers and mitochondrial sequence analysis, allowed a discovery of multiple genetically distinct, cryptic wasp species. Not all these cryptic species are sister taxa and thus must have experienced a host fig shift at some point. These cryptic species lacked evidence of genetic introgression or backcrosses indicating limited fitness for
hybrid Hybrid may refer to: Science * Hybrid (biology), an offspring resulting from cross-breeding ** Hybrid grape, grape varieties produced by cross-breeding two ''Vitis'' species ** Hybridity, the property of a hybrid plant which is a union of two dif ...
s and effective reproductive isolation and speciation. The existence of cryptic species suggests that neither the number of symbionts nor their evolutionary relationships are necessarily fixed ecologically. While the morphological characteristics that facilitate the fig-wasp mutualisms are likely to be shared more fully in closer relatives, the absence of unique pairings would make it impossible to do a one-to-one tree comparison and difficult to determine cospeciation.


Systematics

With 800 species, ''Ficus'' is by far the largest genus in the Moraceae, and is one of the largest genera of flowering plants currently described. The species currently classified within ''Ficus'' were originally split into several genera in the mid-1800s, providing the basis for a subgeneric classification when reunited into one genus in 1867. This classification put functionally dioecious species into four subgenera based on floral characters. In 1965,
E. J. H. Corner Edred John Henry Corner FRS (12 January 1906 – 14 September 1996) was an English mycologist and botanist who occupied the posts of assistant director at the Singapore Botanic Gardens (1929–1946) and Professor of Tropical Botany at the Uni ...
reorganized the genus on the basis of breeding system, uniting these four dioecious subgenera into a single dioecious subgenus ''Ficus''. Monoecious figs were classified within the subgenera '' Urostigma'', '' Pharmacosycea'' and ''
Sycomorus ''Ficus'' ( or ) is a genus of about 850 species of woody trees, shrubs, vines, epiphytes and hemiepiphytes in the family Moraceae. Collectively known as fig trees or figs, they are native throughout the tropics with a few species extending in ...
''. This traditional classification has been called into question by recent
phylogenetic In biology, phylogenetics (; from Greek φυλή/ φῦλον [] "tribe, clan, race", and wikt:γενετικός, γενετικός [] "origin, source, birth") is the study of the evolutionary history and relationships among or within groups o ...
studies employing genetic methods to investigate the relationships between representative members of the various sections of each subgenus. Of Corner's original subgeneric divisions of the genus, only ''Sycomorus'' is supported as monophyletic in the majority of phylogenetic studies. Notably, there is no clear split between dioecious and monoecious lineages. One of the two sections of ''Pharmacosycea'', a monoecious group, form a monophyletic clade basal to the rest of the genus, which includes the other section of ''Pharmacosycea'', the rest of the monoecious species, and all of the dioecious species. These remaining species are divided into two main monophyletic lineages (though the statistical support for these lineages isn't as strong as for the monophyly of the more derived clades within them). One consists of all sections of ''Urostigma'' except for section ''Urostigma s. s.''. The other includes section ''Urostigma s. s.'', subgenus ''Sycomorus'', and the species of subgenus ''Ficus'', though the relationships of the sections of these groups to one another are not well resolved.


Selected species

There are 875 accepted ''Ficus'' species, as of March 2021, according to Plants of the World Online.


Subgenus ''Ficus''

*''
Ficus amplissima ''Ficus amplissima'', also known as the Indian Bat tree, Indian Bat fig, Pimpri, Pipri (Piparee), Pipali or Bilibasari mara (in the Kannada language) is a tree species of flowering plants that belongs to ''Moraceae'', the fig or mulberry family. ...
'' Sm. – bat fig *''
Ficus carica The fig is the edible fruit of ''Ficus carica'', a species of small tree in the flowering plant family Moraceae. Native to the Mediterranean and western Asia, it has been cultivated since ancient times and is now widely grown throughout the world ...
'' L. – common fig *'' Ficus daimingshanensis'' Chang *'' Ficus deltoidea'' Jack – mistletoe fig *'' Ficus erecta'' Thunb. – Japanese fig *''
Ficus fulva ''Ficus fulva'' is a fig species in the family Moraceae. No subspecies are recorded and the native range of this species is from Bangladesh to Indo-China and throughout Malesia. The species can be found in Vietnam: where it may be called ''ng ...
'' Reinw. ex Blume *''
Ficus grossularioides ''Ficus grossularioides'', the white-leaved fig, is a species of flowering plant that belongs to Moraceae, the fig or mulberry Family (biology), family, it is native to Southeast Asia. Description It is a small Dioecy, dioecious evergreen tree ...
'' Burman f. – white-leaved fig *''
Ficus neriifolia ''Ficus neriifolia'' is a species of fig (''Ficus''). It is native to Asia, including Bhutan, Burma, China, India, and Nepal.Ficus palmata ''Ficus palmata'', the Punjab fig, or "Bedu" is a plant in the family Moraceae. Description ''Ficus palmata'' grows as a shrub or tree, measuring up to tall. The fruits, which turn purplish on maturing, measure up to long. The flowers are gree ...
'' Forssk. *'' Ficus pandurata'' Hance *''
Ficus simplicissima ''Ficus simplicissima'' is an Asian species of fig tree in the family Moraceae The Moraceae — often called the mulberry family or fig family — are a family of flowering plants comprising about 38 genera and over 1100 species. Most are wide ...
'' Lour. (synonym ''
Ficus hirta ''Ficus simplicissima'' is an Asian species of fig tree in the family Moraceae. This species is similar to ''Ficus triloba ''Ficus triloba''Voigt JO (1845) In: ''Hort. Suburb. Calcutt.'': 284. is an Asian species of fig tree in the family M ...
'' Vahl) *''
Ficus triloba ''Ficus triloba''Voigt JO (1845) In: ''Hort. Suburb. Calcutt.'': 284. is an Asian species of fig tree in the family Moraceae. It is dioecious, with male and female flowers produced on separate individuals. Nomenclature This species is similar t ...
'' Buch.-Ham. ex Voigt


Subgenus ''Pharmacosycea''

*''
Ficus crassiuscula ''Ficus crassiuscula'' is a species of flowering plant in the family Moraceae, native to Central America (Guatemala, Honduras, Belize, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama) and north-western parts of South America (Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Venezuela) ...
'' Standl. *'' Ficus gigantosyce'' Dugand *''
Ficus insipida ''Ficus insipida'' is a common tropical tree in the fig genus of the family Moraceae growing in forest habitats along rivers. It ranges from Mexico to northern South America. Taxonomy The tree was described in 1806 under the scientific name ' ...
'' Willd. *'' Ficus lacunata'' Kvitvik *''
Ficus maxima ''Ficus maxima'' is a ficus, fig tree which is native to Mexico, Central America, the Caribbean and South America south to Paraguay. Figs belong to the family Moraceae. The specific epithet ''maxima'' was coined by Scottish botanist Philip Miller ...
'' Mill. *'' Ficus mutabilis'' Bureau *''
Ficus nervosa ''Ficus nervosa'' is a tree in the family Moraceae The Moraceae — often called the mulberry family or fig family — are a family of flowering plants comprising about 38 genera and over 1100 species. Most are widespread in tropical and subtr ...
'' Heyne ex Roth *''
Ficus pulchella ''Ficus pulchella'' is a species of tree in the family Moraceae. It is native to South America. Conservation It is considered a vulnerable species by the IUCN, as it is threatened by habitat loss Habitat destruction (also termed habitat lo ...
'' Schott *'' Ficus yoponensis'' Desv.


Subgenus ''Sycidium''

*'' Ficus andamanica'' Corner *''
Ficus aspera ''Ficus aspera'', the mosaic fig, a plant native to Vanuatu in the south Pacific region. The plant first appeared in scientific literature in 1786, published by the German botanist Georg Forster, from a specimen collected from Tanna Island. The ...
'' G.Forst. *'' Ficus assamica'' Miq. *''
Ficus bojeri ''Ficus bojeri'' is a species of plant in the family Moraceae. It is endemic to Seychelles. It is a fairly small ficus ''Ficus'' ( or ) is a genus of about 850 species of woody trees, shrubs, vines, epiphytes and hemiepiphytes in the f ...
'' Baker *'' Ficus capreifolia'' Delile *'' Ficus coronata'' Spin – creek sandpaper fig *''
Ficus fraseri ''Ficus fraseri'', the white sandpaper fig or shiny sandpaper fig, is one of several fig species commonly known as sandpaper figs. It is native to New South Wales, Queensland and the Northern Territory in Australia and to New Caledonia and V ...
'' Miq. – shiny sandpaper fig *''
Ficus heterophylla ''Ficus heterophylla'' is a fig plant species, in the family Moraceae, which can be found in India, southern China, Indo-China and western Malesia Malesia is a biogeographical region straddling the Equator and the boundaries of the Indoma ...
'' L.f. *'' Ficus lateriflora'' Vahl *''
Ficus montana ''Ficus montana'' (common name, oakleaf fig) is a species of subtropical climbing Ficus, fig plant. Leaves are 3 to 5 inches long. The leaves are shaped like oak leaves which gives its common name. It is grown as a houseplant, in offices and in ...
'' Burm.f. – oakleaf fig *'' Ficus opposita'' Miq. – sweet sandpaper fig *''
Ficus phaeosyce A tree in the Moraceae family, ''Ficus phaeosyce'' grows in eastern New Guinea, endemic to the nation of Papua Niugini. It is a shade tolerant understorey species, locally very abundant. A range of insect herbivores feed on the plant. Taxonomy ...
'' K.Schum. & Lauterb. *''
Ficus tinctoria ''Ficus tinctoria'', also known as dye fig, or humped fig is a hemiepiphytic tree of genus ''Ficus''. It is also one of the species known as '' strangler fig''. It is found in Asia, Malesia, northern Australia, and the South Pacific islands. ...
'' G.Forst. – dye fig *'' Ficus ulmifolia'' Lam. *''
Ficus wassa ''Ficus wassa'' is a species of fig in the family Moraceae found in Malesia. References wassa The Wasa are Akan people who live predominantly in Ghana Ghana (; tw, Gaana, ee, Gana), officially the Republic of Ghana, is a country ...
'' Roxb. *''
Ficus parietalis ''Ficus'' ( or ) is a genus of about 850 species of woody trees, shrubs, vines, epiphytes and hemiepiphytes in the family Moraceae. Collectively known as fig trees or figs, they are native throughout the tropics with a few species extending in ...
'' *''
Ficus sinuata ''Ficus'' ( or ) is a genus of about 850 species of woody trees, shrubs, vines, epiphytes and hemiepiphytes in the family Moraceae. Collectively known as fig trees or figs, they are native throughout the tropics with a few species extending in ...
'' *'' Ficus hampelas''


Subgenus ''Sycomorus''

*'' Ficus auriculata'' Lour. – Roxburgh fig *''
Ficus bernaysii A tree in the Moraceae family, ''Ficus bernaysii'' is found from New Guinea to the Solomon Islands, growing in lowland rainforest. It is dioecious, and grows cauliflorous fruit. It is fed on by a wide range of animals. Taxonomy This species is ...
'' King *''
Ficus dammaropsis ''Ficus dammaropsis'', called ''kapiak'' in Tok Pisin, is a tropical fig tree with huge pleated leaves across and up to 90 cm (3 feet) in length. It is native to the highlands and highlands fringe of New Guinea. It generally grows at altitudes ...
'' Diels – highland breadfruit, ''kapiak'' *'' Ficus fistulosa'' Blume *'' Ficus hispida'' L. *''
Ficus nota ''Ficus nota'' is a species of flowering plant in the family Moraceae. It is commonly known as tibig or sacking tree, is a species of fig tree found near water in low altitudes. Tibig is native to the Philippines. They are also found in parts of ...
'' Merr. – ''tibig'' *''
Ficus pseudopalma ''Ficus pseudopalma'' is a species of fig in the family Moraceae. It is known by the common names Philippine fig, dracaena fig, and palm-leaf fig. In nature it is endemic to the Philippines, especially the island of Luzon. It is known elsewhere a ...
'' Blanco *''
Ficus racemosa ''Ficus racemosa'', the cluster fig, red river fig or gular, is a species of plant in the family Moraceae. It is native to Australia and tropical Asia. It is a fast-growing plant with large, very rough leaves, usually attaining the size of a lar ...
'' L. – cluster fig *''
Ficus septica ''Ficus septica'' (called Hauili in the Philippines, 稜果榕 in Taiwan) is a shrub or tree of the family Moraceae living at low altitudes from northeast India to north Australia (Queensland), and throughout Malesia. It lives on the edge of t ...
'' Burm.f. – hauli tree *''
Ficus sycomorus ''Ficus sycomorus'', called the sycamore fig or the fig-mulberry (because the leaves resemble those of the mulberry), sycamore, or sycomore, is a fig species that has been cultivated since ancient times. The term '' sycamore'' spelled with an A ...
'' L., 1753 – sycamore fig (Africa) *'' Ficus variegata'' Blume


Subgenus ''Synoecia''

The following species are typically spreading or climbing lianas: *''
Ficus hederacea ''Ficus hederacea''Roxburgh W (1832) In: ''Fl. Ind. ed. 1832'', 3: 538. is a climbing fig species, in the family Moraceae, which can be found in the Himalayas, southern China and Indo-China. In Vietnam it may be called ''sung leo''. No subsp ...
'' Roxb. *'' Ficus pantoniana'' King – climbing fig *'' Ficus pumila'' L. – creeping fig ** ''Ficus pumila'' var. ''awkeotsang'' (Makino) Corner – jelly fig *'' Ficus punctata'' Thunb. *'' Ficus sagittata'' J. König ex
Vahl Vahl is a surname. Notable people with the surname include: * Christian-Friedrich Vahl (born 1955), German cardiac surgeon * Emanuel Vahl (born 1938), Ukrainian-Israeli composer *Herbert-Ernst Vahl, German SS general *Jens Vahl (1796–1854), Danis ...
*''
Ficus sarmentosa ''Ficus sarmentosa'' (Nepali language:Ban Timila) is a fig tree with edible fruit. ''F. sarmentosa'' is native to China, Eastern Asia, Indian Subcontinent and Indo-China Mainland Southeast Asia, also known as the Indochinese Peninsula or In ...
'' Buch.-Ham. ex Sm. *''
Ficus trichocarpa ''Ficus trichocarpa'' is a climbing fig species, in the family Moraceae, which can be found in Bangladesh, Indo-China and Malesia. In Vietnam it may be called ''sung tà''. No subspecies are listed in the Catalogue of Life. The form previous ...
'' Blume *'' Ficus villosa'' Blume


Subgenus '' Urostigma''

*'' Ficus abutilifolia'' Miq. *'' Ficus albert-smithii'' Standl. *''
Ficus altissima ''Ficus altissima'', commonly known as the council tree and lofty fig, is a species of flowering plant, a fig tree in the family Moraceae. It is a large, stately evergreen hemiepiphyte and is native to southeastern Asia. Description ''Ficus a ...
'' Blume *'' Ficus amazonica'' Miq. *''
Ficus americana ''Ficus americana'', commonly known as the West Indian laurel fig or Jamaican cherry fig, is a tree in the family Moraceae which is native to the Caribbean, Mexico in the north, through Central and South America south to southern Brazil. It is ...
'' Aubl. *'' Ficus aripuanensis'' Berg & Kooy *''
Ficus arpazusa ''Ficus pertusa'' is a species of tree in the family Moraceae The Moraceae — often called the mulberry family or fig family — are a family of flowering plants comprising about 38 genera and over 1100 species. Most are widespread in tropica ...
'' Carauta and Diaz – Brazil *'' Ficus aurea'' Nutt. – Florida strangler fig *'' Ficus beddomei'' King – ''thavital'' *''
Ficus benghalensis ''Ficus benghalensis'', commonly known as the banyan, banyan fig and Indian banyan, is a tree native to the Indian Subcontinent. Specimens in India are among the largest trees in the world by canopy coverage. It also known as the " strangler fig ...
'' L. – Indian banyan *''
Ficus benjamina ''Ficus benjamina'', commonly known as weeping fig, benjamin fig or ficus tree, and often sold in stores as just ficus, is a species of flowering plant in the family Moraceae, native to Asia and Australia. It is the official tree of Bangkok. The ...
'' L. – weeping fig *''
Ficus binnendijkii ''Ficus'' ( or ) is a genus of about 850 species of woody trees, shrubs, vines, epiphytes and hemiepiphytes in the family Moraceae. Collectively known as fig trees or figs, they are native throughout the tropics with a few species extending in ...
'' Miq. *''
Ficus bizanae The Pondoland fig (''Ficus bizanae'') is a species of fig that is endemic to forests of coastal South Africa, where it is threatened by habitat loss. Their figs are borne on old wood, in small clusters on stumpy branchlets. Their leaves have ent ...
'' Hutch. & Burtt-Davy *'' Ficus blepharophylla'' Vázquez Avila *'' Ficus broadwayi'' Urb. *'' Ficus burtt-davyi'' Hutch. *''
Ficus calyptroceras ''Ficus calyptroceras'' is a species of fig in the family Moraceae, in Brazil. Description The tree is endemic to Brazil, in the states of Bahia, Goiás, Minas Gerais, Mato Grosso do Sul, and Piauí. It is an IUCN Red List Vulnerable species ...
'' Miq. *'' Ficus castellviana'' Dugand *'' Ficus catappifolia'' Kunth & Bouché *''
Ficus citrifolia ''Ficus citrifolia'', also known as the shortleaf fig, giant bearded fig, Jagüey, wild banyantree and Wimba tree, is a species of banyan native to southern Florida, the Caribbean, Mexico, Central America, and northern South America south to Par ...
'' Mill. – short-leaved fig *'' Ficus consociata'' Bl. *''
Ficus cordata ''Ficus cordata'', the Namaqua rock fig, or Namaqua fig is a species of fig that occurs in two disjunct populations in Africa, one in the arid southwest of the continent, and a second in the northern subtropics. In the south it is often the larg ...
'' Thunb. *'' Ficus costata'' Ait. *'' Ficus crassipes'' F.M.Bailey – round-leaved banana fig *'' Ficus craterostoma'' Mildbr. & Burret *'' Ficus cyathistipula'' Warb. *''
Ficus cyclophylla ''Ficus cyclophylla'' is a species of fig tree in the family Moraceae, native to Brazil. It is endemic to the Atlantic Forest ecoregion of Southeast Brazil, in the states of Maranhão, Minas Gerais, Paraíba, Pernambuco Pernambuco () is ...
'' (Miq.) Miq. *''
Ficus dendrocida ''Ficus dendrocida'' is a species of plant in the family Moraceae. It is found in Brazil, Colombia, Panama, Venezuela, and eastern Bolivia. In Bolivia, it is one of a few closely related trees in the genus ''Ficus ''Ficus'' ( or ) is a genus ...
'' Kunth *'' Ficus depressa'' Bl. *'' Ficus destruens'' F.White *''
Ficus drupacea ''Ficus drupacea'', also known as the brown-woolly fig or Mysore fig, is a tropical tree native to Southeast Asia and Northeast Australia (it has been introduced into the New World tropics, including Puerto Rico). It is a strangler fig; it begin ...
'' Thunb. *'' Ficus elastica'' Hornem. – rubber plant *'' Ficus exasperata'' Vahl. *'' Ficus faulkneriana'' Berg *'' Ficus fergusonii'' (King) T.B.Worth. ex Corner *''
Ficus glaberrima ''Ficus glaberrima'' is an Asian species of fig tree in the family Moraceae The Moraceae — often called the mulberry family or fig family — are a family of flowering plants comprising about 38 genera and over 1100 species. Most are widespr ...
'' Blume *'' Ficus glumosa'' Delile *'' Ficus greiffiana'' Dugand *''
Ficus hirsuta ''Ficus hirsuta'' is a species of plant in the family Moraceae. It is endemic to Brazil. References Sources Flora of Brazil hirsuta Near threatened plants Taxonomy articles created by Polbot {{Moraceae-stub ...
'' Schott *''
Ficus ilicina The Laurel fig (''Ficus ilicina'') is a species of rock-splitting fig that is native to the semi-desert regions of southwestern Africa. It is only found on rocks, up to an altitude of . Description It is generally a scrambler on rocks, but also ...
'' Miq. *'' Ficus kerkhovenii'' Valeton – Johore fig *'' Ficus kurzii'' King *'' Ficus luschnathiana'' Miq. *'' Ficus ingens'' Miq. *'' Ficus krukovii'' Standl. *''
Ficus lacor ''Ficus lacor'' is a large evergreen tree of the family Moraceae The Moraceae — often called the mulberry family or fig family — are a family of flowering plants comprising about 38 genera and over 1100 species. Most are widespread in trop ...
'' Buch.-Ham. *'' Ficus lapathifolia'' Miq. *''
Ficus lauretana ''Ficus lauretana'' is a species of plant in the family Moraceae. It is found in Brazil, Colombia, and Peru , image_flag = Flag of Peru.svg , image_coat = Escudo nacional del Perú.svg , other_symbol = ...
'' Vázquez Avila *'' Ficus lutea'' Vahl *''
Ficus lyrata ''Ficus lyrata'', commonly known as the fiddle-leaf fig, is a species of flowering plant in the mulberry and fig family Moraceae. It is native to western Africa, from Cameroon west to Sierra Leone, where it grows in lowland tropical rainforest. ...
'' Warb. – fiddle-leaved fig *''
Ficus maclellandii ''Ficus maclellandii'' (common name Alii fig or banana-leaf fig) is a species of Ficus, fig plant native to India, Southeast Asia and China. It is an evergreen often grown as a houseplant in temperate climates. The leaves are 8–13 cm and u ...
'' King – Alii fig *''
Ficus macrophylla ''Ficus macrophylla'', commonly known as the Moreton Bay fig or Australian banyan, is a large evergreen banyan tree of the family Moraceae native to eastern Australia, from the Wide Bay–Burnett region in the north to the Illawarra in New So ...
'' Desf. ex Pers. – Moreton Bay fig *'' Ficus malacocarpa'' Standl. *'' Ficus mariae'' Berg, Emygdio & Carauta *'' Ficus mathewsii'' Miq. *'' Ficus matiziana'' Dugand *'' Ficus mexiae'' Standl. *''
Ficus microcarpa ''Ficus microcarpa'', also known as Chinese banyan, Malayan banyan, Indian laurel, curtain fig, or , is a tree in the fig family Moraceae. It is native in a range from China through tropical Asia and the Caroline Islands to Australia. It is wide ...
'' L. – Chinese banyan *''
Ficus muelleriana ''Ficus muelleriana'' is a species of plant in the family Moraceae. It is endemic to Mozambique. It is threatened by habitat loss Habitat destruction (also termed habitat loss and habitat reduction) is the process by which a natural habita ...
'' Berg *''
Ficus natalensis ''Ficus natalensis'' is a tree in the family Moraceae. It is commonly known as the natal fig in South Africa. In central and western Uganda, where it has an important cultural value, it is known as ''omutuba'' to the Baganda people and ''omutoma' ...
'' Hochst. – Natal fig *''
Ficus obliqua ''Ficus obliqua'', commonly known as the small-leaved fig, is a tree in the family Moraceae, native to eastern Australia, New Guinea, eastern Indonesia to Sulawesi and islands in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. Previously known for many years as ...
'' G.Forst. – small-leaved fig *'' Ficus obtusifolia'' Kunth *'' Ficus pakkensis'' Standl. *''
Ficus pallida ''Ficus pallida'' is a species of plant in the family Moraceae. It is found in Brazil, Colombia, and eastern Bolivia. In Bolivia, it is one of a few closely related trees in the genus ''Ficus'' popularly known as ''bibosi''. References * pa ...
'' Vahl *'' Ficus panurensis'' Standl. *''
Ficus pertusa ''Ficus pertusa'' is a species of tree in the family Moraceae The Moraceae — often called the mulberry family or fig family — are a family of flowering plants comprising about 38 genera and over 1100 species. Most are widespread in tropica ...
'' L.f. *'' Ficus petiolaris'' Kunth *'' Ficus pisocarpa'' Bl. *'' Ficus platypoda'' Cunn. – desert fig *'' Ficus pleurocarpa'' DC. – banana fig *''
Ficus polita ''Ficus polita'', the heart-leaved fig, is a species of fig that is native to forests of tropical Africa, Distribution The tree is found in Lowland rainforest and gallery forest (west and central Africa), coastal & dry forest (east and southern ...
'' Vahl *'' Ficus religiosa'' L. – sacred fig *'' Ficus roraimensis'' Berg *''
Ficus rubiginosa ''Ficus rubiginosa'', the rusty fig or Port Jackson fig (''damun'' in the Dharug language), is a species of flowering plant native to eastern Australia in the genus ''Ficus''. Beginning as a seedling that grows on other plants ( hemiepiphyte) ...
'' Desf. – Port Jackson fig *'' Ficus rumphii'' Blume *''
Ficus salicifolia __NOTOC__ The Wonderboom (''Ficus salicifolia'') is an evergreen fig species that ranges from the KwaZulu-Natal midlands northwards to tropical East Africa. It grows especially on outcrops, rocky hillsides and along cliffs fringing water courses ...
'' Vahl – willow-leaved fig *'' Ficus sansibarica'' Warb. *''
Ficus schippii ''Ficus schippii'' is a species of plant in the family Moraceae. It is found in Bolivia, Brazil, and Peru. References

Ficus, schippii Least concern plants Taxonomy articles created by Polbot Trees of Peru {{Moraceae-stub ...
'' Standl. *'' Ficus schultesii'' Dugand *''
Ficus schumacheri ''Ficus schumacheri'' is a species of tree in the family Moraceae. The species is monoecious. It is found in countries like Brazil, Guyana, Suriname, Trinidad-Tobago, Peru, and Venezuela. It is also found in French Guiana French Guiana ( ...
'' Griseb. *'' Ficus sphenophylla'' Standl. *'' Ficus stuhlmannii'' Warb. *'' Ficus subcordata'' Bl. *''
Ficus subpisocarpa ''Ficus subpisocarpa'' (called 笔管榕 in China and 雀榕 in Taiwan) is a species of small deciduous tree native to Japan, China, Taiwan and southeast Asia to the Moluccas (Ceram). Two subspecies are recognised. Terrestrial or hemiepiphytic, i ...
'' Gagnep. *'' Ficus subpuberula'' Corner *'' Ficus sumatrana'' Miq. *''
Ficus superba ''Ficus superba'', also known as sea fig or deciduous fig, is a hemiepiphytic tree of genus ''Ficus''. It is one of the species known as banyans or "strangler figs" because of its potential to grow as a hemi-epiphyte and eventually progress to ...
'' Miq. ** ''Ficus superba'' var. ''henneana'' (Miq.) Corner *'' Ficus thonningii'' Blume *''
Ficus trichopoda ''Ficus trichopoda'' (swamp fig, af, Moerasvy, zu, Umvubu) is a protected tree in South Africa. See also *List of Southern African indigenous trees References External links * trichopoda ''Trichopoda'' is a genus of tachinid flies, ...
'' Baker *'' Ficus trigona'' L.f. *'' Ficus trigonata'' L. *''
Ficus triradiata ''Ficus triradiata'', commonly known as the red stipule fig, is a hemiepiphytic fig that is endemic to the wet tropical rainforests of northeastern Queensland, Australia. Description ''Ficus triradiata'' is a monoecious tree which grows up ...
'' Corner – red-stipule fig *''
Ficus ursina ''Ficus ursina'' is a species of fig tree in the family Moraceae. It is endemic to Acre state in western Brazil Brazil ( pt, Brasil; ), officially the Federative Republic of Brazil (Portuguese: ), is the largest country in both South Ame ...
'' Standl. *'' Ficus velutina'' Willd. *''
Ficus verruculosa ''Ficus verruculosa'', the water fig, is a species of fig from sub-saharan Africa. It is found from north eastern South Africa, northern Botswana and Namibia to Uganda and west to Nigeria Nigeria ( ), , ig, Naìjíríyà, yo, Nàìjí ...
'' Warb. *''
Ficus virens ''Ficus virens'' is a plant of the genus ''Ficus'' found in Pakistan, India, southeast Asia, through Malaysia and into Northern Australia. Its common name is white fig; it is locally known as ''pilkhan'' and in the Kunwinjku language it is calle ...
'' Aiton – white fig ** ''Ficus virens'' var. ''sublanceolata'' (Miq.) Corner – sour fig *''
Ficus watkinsiana ''Ficus watkinsiana'', commonly known as strangler fig, Watkins' fig, nipple fig or the green-leaved Moreton Bay fig is a hemiepiphytic fig that is endemic to Australia. The species exists in three populations—one in northeast Queensland and ...
'' F.M.Bailey – Watkins's fig


Unknown subgenus

*'' Ficus bibracteata'' *''
Ficus callosa ''Ficus callosa'' is an Asian species of fig tree in the family Moraceae. No subspecies are listed in the Catalogue of Life The Catalogue of Life is an online database that provides an index of known species of animals, plants, fungi, and ...
'' Willd. *''
Ficus cristobalensis ''Ficus'' ( or ) is a genus of about 850 species of woody trees, shrubs, vines, epiphytes and hemiepiphytes in the family (biology), family Moraceae. Collectively known as fig trees or figs, they are native throughout the tropics with a few spe ...
'' *''
Ficus hebetifolia ''Ficus hebetifolia'' is a species of plant in the family Moraceae. It is found in Brazil, Colombia, and Guyana. References

Ficus, hebetifolia Least concern plants Taxonomy articles created by Polbot {{Moraceae-stub ...
'' *'' Ficus tsjahela'' Burm.f. * '' Ficus nymphaeifolia'' Mill.


Uses

The wood of fig trees is often soft and the
latex Latex is an emulsion (stable dispersion) of polymer microparticles in water. Latexes are found in nature, but synthetic latexes are common as well. In nature, latex is found as a milky fluid found in 10% of all flowering plants (angiosperms ...
precludes its use for many purposes. It was used to make
mummy A mummy is a dead human or an animal whose soft tissues and organs have been preserved by either intentional or accidental exposure to chemicals, extreme cold, very low humidity, or lack of air, so that the recovered body does not decay fu ...
casket A casket jewelry box is a container that is usually smaller than a chest, and in the past were typically decorated. Whereas cremation jewelry is a small container, usually in the shape of a pendant or bracelet, to hold a small amount of ashes. ...
s in Ancient Egypt. Certain fig species (mainly ''F. cotinifolia'', '' F. insipida'' and '' F. padifolia'') are traditionally used in
Mesoamerica Mesoamerica is a historical region and cultural area in southern North America and most of Central America. It extends from approximately central Mexico through Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and northern Costa Rica ...
to produce '' papel amate'' ( Nahuatl: ''āmatl''). ''Mutuba'' ('' F. natalensis'') is used to produce
barkcloth Barkcloth or bark cloth is a versatile material that was once common in Asia, Africa, and the Pacific. Barkcloth comes primarily from trees of the family Moraceae, including ''Broussonetia papyrifera'', ''Artocarpus altilis'', ''Artocarpus ta ...
in Uganda. ''Pou'' ('' F. religiosa'') leaves' shape inspired one of the standard '' kbach rachana'', decorative elements in Cambodian architecture.
Indian banyan ''Ficus benghalensis'', commonly known as the banyan, banyan fig and Indian banyan, is a tree native to the Indian Subcontinent. Specimens in India are among the largest trees in the world by canopy coverage. It also known as the " strangler fig" ...
(''F. benghalensis'') and the Indian rubber plant, as well as other species, have use in
herbalism Herbal medicine (also herbalism) is the study of pharmacognosy and the use of medicinal plants, which are a basis of traditional medicine. With worldwide research into pharmacology, some herbal medicines have been translated into modern reme ...
. The inner bark of an unknown type of wild fig, locally known as ''urú'', was once used by the of Bolivia to produce a fibrous cloth used for clothing. Figs have figured prominently in some human cultures. There is evidence that figs, specifically the common fig (''F. carica'') and sycamore fig (''
Ficus sycomorus ''Ficus sycomorus'', called the sycamore fig or the fig-mulberry (because the leaves resemble those of the mulberry), sycamore, or sycomore, is a fig species that has been cultivated since ancient times. The term '' sycamore'' spelled with an A ...
''), were among the first – if not the very first – plant species that were deliberately bred for agriculture in the Middle East, starting more than 11,000 years ago. Nine subfossil ''F. carica'' figs dated to about 9400–9200 BCE were found in the early
Neolithic The Neolithic period, or New Stone Age, is an Old World archaeological period and the final division of the Stone Age. It saw the Neolithic Revolution, a wide-ranging set of developments that appear to have arisen independently in several p ...
village
Gilgal I Gilgal I ( he, גלגל) is an archaeological site in the Jordan Valley, West Bank, dated to the early Neolithic period. The site is located north of ancient Jericho. The features and artifacts unearthed at Gilgal I shed important light on agr ...
(in the
Jordan Valley The Jordan Valley ( ar, غور الأردن, ''Ghor al-Urdun''; he, עֵמֶק הַיַרְדֵּן, ''Emek HaYarden'') forms part of the larger Jordan Rift Valley. Unlike most other river valleys, the term "Jordan Valley" often applies just to ...
, 13 km, or 8.1 mi, north of Jericho). These were a
parthenogenetic Parthenogenesis (; from the Greek grc, παρθένος, translit=parthénos, lit=virgin, label=none + grc, γένεσις, translit=génesis, lit=creation, label=none) is a natural form of asexual reproduction in which growth and developmen ...
type and thus apparently an early cultivar. This find predates the first known cultivation of grain in the Middle East by many hundreds of years. Fig is a popular species in the practice of bonsai. It is particularly popular with beginners, as it is widely available and survives well as an indoor plant.


Cultivation

Numerous species of fig are found in cultivation in domestic and office environments, including: *'' F. carica'', common fig – hardy to . Shrub or small tree which can be grown outdoors in mild temperate regions, producing substantial harvests of fruit. Many cultivars are available. *'' F. benjamina'', weeping fig, ficus – hardy to . Widely used as an indoor plant for the home or the office. It benefits from the dry, warm atmosphere of centrally-heated interiors, and can grow to substantial heights in a favoured position. Several variegated cultivars are available. *'' F. elastica'', rubber plant – hardy to : widely cultivated as a houseplant; several cultivars with variegated leaves *'' F. lyrata'', fiddle-leaf fig – hardy to *'' F. maclellandii'' – hardy to *'' F. microcarpa'', Indian laurel – hardy to *'' F. pumila'', creeping fig – hardy to *'' F. rubiginosa'', Port Jackson fig – hardy to


Cultural and spiritual significance

Fig trees have profoundly influenced culture through several religious traditions. Among the more famous species are the
sacred fig ''Ficus religiosa'' or sacred fig is a species of fig native to the Indian subcontinent and Indochina that belongs to Moraceae, the fig or mulberry family. It is also known as the bodhi tree, pippala tree, peepul tree, peepal tree, pipal tree ...
tree (Pipal, bodhi, bo, or po, ''Ficus religiosa'') and other
banyan A banyan, also spelled "banian", is a fig that develops accessory trunks from adventitious prop roots, allowing the tree to spread outwards indefinitely. This distinguishes banyans from other trees with a strangler habit that begin life as a ...
figs such as ''Ficus benghalensis''. The oldest living plant of known planting date is a ''Ficus religiosa'' tree known as the Sri Maha Bodhi planted in the temple at
Anuradhapura Anuradhapura ( si, අනුරාධපුරය, translit=Anurādhapuraya; ta, அனுராதபுரம், translit=Aṉurātapuram) is a major city located in north central plain of Sri Lanka. It is the capital city of North Central ...
, Sri Lanka by King Tissa in 288 BCE. The common fig is one of two significant trees in Islam, and there is a sura in Quran named "The Fig" or
At-Tin At-Tīn ( ar, التين, "The Fig, The Figtree") is the ninety-fifth surah of the Qur'an, with 8 ayat or verses. Summary :1-4 Oaths that God created man "a most excellent fabric" :5-6 God has made all men vile except true believers :7-8 ...
(سوره تین). In Asia, figs are important in
Buddhism Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religions, Indian religion or Indian philosophy#Buddhist philosophy, philosophical tradition based on Pre-sectarian Buddhism, teachings attributed to the Buddha. ...
and
Hinduism Hinduism () is an Indian religion or '' dharma'', a religious and universal order or way of life by which followers abide. As a religion, it is the world's third-largest, with over 1.2–1.35 billion followers, or 15–16% of the global p ...
. In
Jainism Jainism ( ), also known as Jain Dharma, is an Indian religion. Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four tirthankaras (supreme preachers of ''Dharma''), with the first in the current time cycle bein ...
, the consumption of any fruit belonging to this genus is prohibited. The
Buddha Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha, was a wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism. According to Buddhist tradition, he was born in L ...
is traditionally held to have found '' bodhi'' (enlightenment) while meditating for 49 days under a
sacred fig ''Ficus religiosa'' or sacred fig is a species of fig native to the Indian subcontinent and Indochina that belongs to Moraceae, the fig or mulberry family. It is also known as the bodhi tree, pippala tree, peepul tree, peepal tree, pipal tree ...
. The same species was ''
Ashvattha According to Hindu scriptures, Aśvattha, ( sa, अश्वत्थ) or ''Sacred fig'' (''Ficus religiosa''), is a sacred tree for the Hindus and has been extensively mentioned in texts pertaining to Hinduism, for example as ''peepul'' in Rig V ...
'', the " world tree" of Hinduism. The '' Plaksa Pra-sravana'' was said to be a fig tree between the roots of which the
Sarasvati River The Sarasvati River () is a deified river first mentioned in the Rigveda and later in Vedic and post-Vedic texts. It played an important role in the Vedic religion, appearing in all but the fourth book of the Rigveda. As a physical river, i ...
sprang forth; it is usually held to be a sacred fig but more probably is ''
Ficus virens ''Ficus virens'' is a plant of the genus ''Ficus'' found in Pakistan, India, southeast Asia, through Malaysia and into Northern Australia. Its common name is white fig; it is locally known as ''pilkhan'' and in the Kunwinjku language it is calle ...
''. According to the Kikuyu people, sacrifices to Ngai were performed under a sycomore tree (Mũkũyũ) and if one was not available, a fig tree (Mũgumo) would be used. The common fig tree is cited in the
Bible The Bible (from Koine Greek , , 'the books') is a collection of religious texts or scriptures that are held to be sacred in Christianity, Judaism, Samaritanism, and many other religions. The Bible is an anthologya compilation of texts ...
, where in Genesis 3:7,
Adam and Eve Adam and Eve, according to the creation myth of the Abrahamic religions, were the first man and woman. They are central to the belief that humanity is in essence a single family, with everyone descended from a single pair of original ancestors. ...
cover their nakedness with fig leaves. The fig fruit is also one of the traditional crops of Israel, and is included in the list of food found in the Promised Land, according to the Torah (
Deut. Deuteronomy ( grc, Δευτερονόμιον, Deuteronómion, second law) is the fifth and last book of the Torah (in Judaism), where it is called (Hebrew: hbo, , Dəḇārīm, hewords Moses.html"_;"title="f_Moses">f_Moseslabel=none)_and_th ...
8). Jesus cursed a fig tree for bearing no fruit (). The fig tree was sacred in ancient
Greece Greece,, or , romanized: ', officially the Hellenic Republic, is a country in Southeast Europe. It is situated on the southern tip of the Balkans, and is located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, and Africa. Greece shares land borders ...
and
Cyprus Cyprus ; tr, Kıbrıs (), officially the Republic of Cyprus,, , lit: Republic of Cyprus is an island country located south of the Anatolian Peninsula in the eastern Mediterranean Sea. Its continental position is disputed; while it is ge ...
, where it was a symbol of
fertility Fertility is the capability to produce offspring through reproduction following the onset of sexual maturity. The fertility rate is the average number of children born by a female during her lifetime and is quantified demographically. Fertili ...
. File:Ficus religiosa Bo.jpg, Leaves of the sacred fig ('' Ficus religiosa'') File:เศียรพระพุทธรูปในรากโพธิ์.jpg, Fig tree roots overgrowing a sandstone Buddha statue, near Wat Maha That in Ayutthaya province, Thailand Image:Sarkaradevi Temple Ficus Tree.jpg, Ficus tree in front of
Sarkaradevi Temple Sarkaradevi Temple is one of the most important temples in South India. It is situated Chirayinkeezhu town in Thiruvananthapuram district.Tradition accords a remote antiquity to this temple. Its main deity is Bhadrakali (Goddess Durga). The Sa ...
,
Kerala Kerala ( ; ) is a state on the Malabar Coast of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, following the passage of the States Reorganisation Act, by combining Malayalam-speaking regions of the erstwhile regions of Cochin, Malabar, South ...
, India


List of famous fig trees

* ''
Ashvattha According to Hindu scriptures, Aśvattha, ( sa, अश्वत्थ) or ''Sacred fig'' (''Ficus religiosa''), is a sacred tree for the Hindus and has been extensively mentioned in texts pertaining to Hinduism, for example as ''peepul'' in Rig V ...
'' – the world tree of
Hinduism Hinduism () is an Indian religion or '' dharma'', a religious and universal order or way of life by which followers abide. As a religion, it is the world's third-largest, with over 1.2–1.35 billion followers, or 15–16% of the global p ...
, held to be a supernatural ''F. religiosa'' * Bodhi tree – a ''F. religiosa'' * Charybdis Fig Tree of
Homer Homer (; grc, Ὅμηρος , ''Hómēros'') (born ) was a Greek poet who is credited as the author of the ''Iliad'' and the ''Odyssey'', two epic poems that are foundational works of ancient Greek literature. Homer is considered one of the ...
's ''
Odyssey The ''Odyssey'' (; grc, Ὀδύσσεια, Odýsseia, ) is one of two major ancient Greek epic poems attributed to Homer. It is one of the oldest extant works of literature still widely read by modern audiences. As with the ''Iliad'', th ...
'', presumably a ''F. carica'' * Curtain Fig Tree – a ''F. virens'' *
Ficus Ruminalis The ''Ficus Ruminalis'' was a wild fig tree that had religious and mythological significance in ancient Rome. It stood near the small cave known as the Lupercal at the foot of the Palatine Hill and was the spot where according to tradition the fl ...
– a ''F. carica'' * ''
Plaksa ''Ficus religiosa'' or sacred fig is a species of fig native to the Indian subcontinent and Indochina that belongs to Moraceae, the fig or mulberry family. It is also known as the bodhi tree, pippala tree, peepul tree, peepal tree, pipal tree, ...
'' – another supernatural fig in Hinduism; usually identified as ''F. religiosa'' but is probably ''F. virens'' * Santa Barbara's Moreton Bay Fig Tree – a ''F. macrophylla'' * Sri Maha Bodhi – another ''F. religiosa'', planted in 288 BCE, the oldest human-planted tree on record * '' The Barren Fig Tree'' – Matthew 21:19 of
The Holy Bible The Bible (from Koine Greek , , 'the books') is a collection of religious texts or scriptures that are held to be sacred in Christianity, Judaism, Samaritanism, and many other religions. The Bible is an anthologya compilation of texts of a v ...
, Jesus put a curse on the tree and used this as an example for believers of the promise of the power faith in the only true God. '' *
The Great Banyan The Great Banyan is a banyan tree ('' Ficus benghalensis'') located in Acharya Jagadish Chandra Bose Indian Botanic Garden, Shibpur, Howrah, near Kolkata, India. The great banyan tree draws more visitors to the garden than its collection of ...
– a ''F. benghalensis'', a clonal colony and once the largest organism known * Vidurashwatha – "
Vidura Vidura (Sanskrit: विदुर, lit. ''skilled'', ''intelligent'' or ''wise''), also known as Kshatri, plays a key role in the Hindu epic ''Mahabharata''. He is described as the prime minister of the Kuru kingdom and is the paternal uncle ...
's Sacred Fig Tree", a village in India named after a famous ''F. religiosa'' that until recently stood there * Wonderboom – the largest fig tree in Pretoria, South Africa


Citations


General references

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Supporting Online Material
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External links



Major reference site for the genus ''Ficus''
World checklist of Ficus species from the Catalogue of Life
845 species supplied by M. Hassler's World Plants.

Multi-award-winning documentary


BBC: Fig fossil clue to early farming
Video
How the fig tree strangles other plants for survival in the rainforest
{{Authority control Moraceae genera Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus