Esperanto etymology

Esperanto vocabulary and grammatical forms derive primarily from the Romance languages, with substantial contributions from Germanic languages. The language occupies a middle ground between "naturalistic" constructed languages such as Interlingua, which borrow words ''en masse'' from their source languages with little internal derivation, and ''a priori'' conlangs such as Solresol, in which the words have no historical connection to other languages. In Esperanto, root words are borrowed and retain much of the form of their source language, whether the phonetic form ''(eks-'' from international ''ex-,'' ''vualo'' from French ''voile)'' or orthographic form ''(teamo'' and ''boato'' from English ''team'' and ''boat,'' ''soifo'' from French ''soif).'' However, each root can then form dozens of derivations which may bear little resemblance to equivalent words in the source languages, such as ''registaro'' (government), which is derived from the Latinate root ''reg'' (to rule) but has a morphology closer to German or Russian.

Source languages

Zamenhof took most of his Esperanto root words from languages of the Italic and Germanic families, principally Italian, French, German, Yiddish, and English. A large number are what might be called common European international vocabulary, or generic Romance: Roots common to several languages, such as ''vir-'' "man", found in English words such as ''virile,'' and ''okul-'' "eye", found in ''oculist.'' Some appear to be compromises between the primary languages, such as ''tondri'' (to thunder), per French ''tonner,'' Italian ''tuonare,'' German ''donnern,'' and English ''thunder.''

Romance and Germanic

The main languages contributing to Zamenhof's original vocabulary were
French, English,
and German, the modern languages most widely learned in schools around the world at the time Esperanto was devised. The result was that about two-thirds of this original vocabulary is Romance, and about one-third Germanic, including a pair of roots from Swedish:
:Swedish: Comparative ''the'' (as in "''the'' more ''the'' merrier") ''ju ... des''.
A couple of words, ''strato'' (street) and ''gisto'' (yeast), are closer to Dutch ''(straat, gist)'' than German ''(Straße '' �trasə ''Gest),'' but this may be a compromise between German and English the way ''ŝtono'' (stone) is a compromise between German ''Stein'' �tajnand English. (There's also ''ronki'' (to snore), Dutch ''ronken''.) ''Fajro'' (fire) matches the pronunciation of English ''fire,'' but is also spelled and pronounced as Yiddish פֿײַר ''fajr''. Indeed, much of the supposedly German vocabulary actually appears to be Yiddish, specifically Zamenhof's native Bialystok (Northeastern) dialect, which had formed the basis of his abortive attempt to standardize that language. Words with the digraph ''ei'' in German may in Esperanto have either ''ej'' (corresponding to the spelling) or ''aj'' (corresponding to the pronunciation). This pattern is not random, but reflects ''ei'' and ''ī'' in Old High German, a distinction preserved in Yiddish: ''hejmo'' 'home' (German ''Heim'', Yiddish הײם ''hejm''), ''fajfi'' 'whistle' (German ''pfeifen'', Yiddish פֿײַפֿן ''fajfn''). Zamenhof never admitted to a Yiddish influence in Esperanto, presumably to avoid arousing antisemitic prejudice.

Many of the Latinate roots were given an Italianesque appearance, corresponding to the use of Italian as a model for Esperanto pronunciation, but in form are closer to French, such as ''ĉemizo'' 'shirt' (French ''chemise'' �əmiz Italian ''camicia'' amit͡ʃa and ''ĉevalo'' 'horse' (French ''cheval'' �əval, Italian ''cavallo'' avallo.
Since Zamenhof's day, a large amount of Latinate vocabulary has been added to the language. In 1987, Mattos calculated that 84% of basic vocabulary was Latinate, 14% Germanic, and 2% Slavic and Greek.

Latin and Greek

Only a few roots were taken directly from the classical languages:

:Latin: ''sed'' (but), ''tamen'' (however), ''post'' (after), ''kvankam'' (although), ''kvazaŭ'' (as though), ''dum'' (during), ''nek'' (nor), ''aŭ'' (or), ''hodiaŭ'' (today), ''abio'' (fir), ''ardeo'' (heron), ''iri'' (to go—though this form survives in the French future), ''prujno'' (frost), the adverbial suffix ''-e,'' and perhaps the inherent vowels of the past and present tenses, ''-i-'' and ''-a-''. Many lexical affixes are common to several languages and thus may not have clear sources, but some such as ''-inda'' (worthy of), ''-ulo'' (a person), ''-um-'' (undefined), and ''-op-'' (a number together) may be Latin.

:Classical Greek: ''kaj'' (and, from ''καί kai), pri'' (about, from ''περί perí),'' the plural suffix ''-j,'' the accusative case suffix ''-n,'' the inceptive prefix ''ek-'', the suffix ''-ido'' (offspring), and perhaps the jussive mood suffix ''-u'' (if not Hebrew).

As in the examples of ''ardeo'' 'heron' and ''abio'' 'fir', the names of most plants and animals are based on their binomial nomenclature, and so many are Latin or Greek as well.

Slavic and Lithuanian

Surprisingly few roots appear to have come from other modern European languages, even those Zamenhof was most familiar with. What follows is a fairly comprehensive list of such roots that do not also occur in principal languages:

:Russian: (to flounder, from ), ''gladi'' (to iron, from ''гладить gladit'), kartavi'' (to pronounce a guttural R, from ''кapтaвить kartavit'), deĵori'' (to be on duty, from ''дежурить dezhyrit'), kolbaso'' (a sausage, from ''колбаса kolbasa), krom'' (except, from ''кроме krome), kruta'' (steep, from ''крутой krutoj), nepre'' (without fail, from ''непременно nepremenno), vosto'' (a tail, from ''хвост hvost),'' the pet-name suffixes ''-ĉjo'' and ''-njo'' (from ''-чка -čka'' and ''-нька -n'ka)'', the augmentative suffix ''-eg-'' (from ''-яга -jaga)'', and perhaps the collective suffix ''-aro,'' if this is not from Latin.

:Polish: ''barĉo'' (borscht, from ), ''ĉu'' (whether, from ''czy,'' perhaps also Yiddish ), ''eĉ'' (even, from ''jeszcze), krado'' (a grating, from ''krata), luti'' (to solder, from ''lutować), iamoŝto'' (ourhighness, from ''mość), ol'' (than, possibly from ''od), pilko'' (a ball, from ''piłka), ŝelko'' (suspenders, from ''szelki)''.

:Russian or Polish: ''bulko'' (a bread roll, from ''bułka / булка bulka), celo'' (an aim, goal, from ''cel'' / , cognates of German ), ''kaĉo'' (porridge, from ''kasza / каша kaša), klopodi'' (to undertake, from ''kłopot / хлопотать khlopotat'), po'' (per, from ''po / по po), pra-'' (proto-, from ''pra- / пра- pra-), prava'' (right n opinion from ''prawy / правый pravyj), svati'' (to matchmake, from ''swat / сват svat)''

: Lithuanian: ''tuj'' (immediately, from ); possibly also the suffix ''-ope'' (a number together), ''du'' (two, from ''du,'' if not from Latin ''duo),'' and ''ĝi'' (it, from ''ji, jis)''

However, although few roots come directly from these languages, Russian exerted a considerable substratum influence on the semantics of Esperanto. An oft-cited example is ''plena'' "full, complete", which is Latinate in form (French ''plein(e),'' Latin ''plen-'' "full"), but has the semantic range of Russian ''полный polnyi'' "full, complete", as can be seen in the phrase ''plena vortaro'' "a complete dictionary", a usage not possible with the French or Latin words.

Other languages

Other languages were only represented in the original vocabulary in so far as they were cognate with, or as their words had become widespread in, Esperanto's source languages. However, since that time many languages have contributed words for specialized or regional concepts, such as ''haŝioj'' (chopsticks) from Japanese and ''boaco'' (reindeer) from Saami.

Obscure roots

A few roots are obscure:

:''ĝi'' (it, s/he), ''-ujo'' (suffix for containers), ''edzo'' (husband)

''Ĝi'' may possibly derive from the Lithuanian ''ji'' (she, it) and ''jis'' (he, it), and ''-ujo'' from the French ''étui'' (case).

Like another indirect German borrowing, ''fraŭlo'' (bachelor), which derives from ''fraŭlino'' (Miss, from "fräulein") less the feminine suffix ''-in-'', ''edzo'' appears to be a back-formation of ''edzino'' (wife). Zamenhof said the latter derives from ''kronprincedzino'' (crown princess), borrowed from the German ''Kronprinzessin,'' and then internally analyzed as ''kron-'' (crown) ''princ-'' (prince) ''edzino'' (wife

However, Vilborg's ''Etimologia Vortaro'' argues that ''edzino'' is more likely to have come from Yiddish רביצין ''rebbetzin'' (rabbi's wife, Mrs.), reanalysed as ''rebb-etzin,'' and that Zamenhof made up the German etymology after the fact to avoid anti-Semitic prejudice against Esperanto. That would mean that ''edz-'' ultimately derives from the Slavic feminine suffix ''-its(a).'' Regardless, few words have histories this convoluted.

The correlatives, although clearly cognate with European languages (for example, ''kiel, tiel'' with French ''quel'' (which), ''tel'' (such); ''ĉiu'' with Italian ''ciascun'' (each), and ''-es'' with the German genitive ''-es,'' etc.), have been analogically leveled to the point that they are often given as examples of Esperanto innovations. This is especially true for the indefinite forms like ''io'' (something), which were devised by iconically removing the consonant of the ''ki-'' and ''ti-'' forms. Likewise, the restriction of the Italian and Greek masculine noun and adjective ending ''-o'' to nouns, and the feminine noun and adjective ending ''-a'' to adjectives and the article ''la,'' is an Esperanto innovation using existing forms.

Some smaller words have been modified to the extent that they're difficult to recognize. For example, Italian ''a, ad'' (to) became ''al'' (to) under the influence of the contraction ''al'' (to the), to better fit the phonotactics of the language, and in a parallel change, Latin ''ex'' (out of) and Slavic ''od'' (by, than) may have become ''el'' (out of) and ''ol'' (than), though the latter also has the German parallel ''als''.

Inflections

The Greek origin of the nominal inflections can be seen in the Greek ''a''-declension nouns such as the word for "muse": ''musa,'' plural ''musai,'' accusative ''musan,'' which in Esperanto is ''muzo, muzoj, muzon.'' Greek ''o''-declension words such as ''logos, logoi, logon'' (word) are similar, as are adjectival declensions such as ''aksia, aksiai, aksian'' (worthy). Greek was perhaps also the model of stressed ''i'' in Esperanto words like ''familío'' (family), which follows the common Greek pattern of ''aksía'' (worthy) and ''oikíai'' (houses).

Esperanto has ''a/i/o'' ablaut for present/past/future tense, which has partial parallels in Latin present ''amat,'' perfect ''amavit,'' and the corresponding infinitives ''amare, amavisse.'' Otto Jespersen said of the ablaut,

:This play of vowels is not an original idea of Zamenhof's: ''-as, -is, -os'' are found for the three tenses of the infinitive in Faiguet's system of 1765; ''-a, -i, -o'' without a consonant are used like Z's ''-as, -is, -os'' by Rudelle (1858); Courtonne in 1885 had ''-am, -im, -om'' in the same values, and the similarity with Esperanto is here even more perfect than in the other projects, as ''-um'' corresponds to Z's ''-us.'' �
An International Language (1928)

There may have been a Volapük influence as well, or the two languages may have shared a common influence from earlier languages. In Volapük, the vowels are present ''a-'', future ''o-'', past perfect ''i-'', as well as imperfect ''ä-'' ; Esperanto retained a distinction between preterite ''-is'' and imperfect ''-es'' until 1887, the year the modern form of the language was published.

Jespersen didn't parse all of the morphology. The ablaut for the five languages is as follows:

:

The infinitive suffix ''-i'' may derive from Latin deponent verbs, such as ''loqui'' (to speak). With elements like these that are only one or two letters long, it is difficult to know whether resemblances are due to the forms being related, or just coincidence. For example, it is speculated that the jussive ''-u'' is from the Hebrew imperative ''-û,'' but it could also be from the Greek imperative of deponent verbs such as ''dekhou'' (receive!); or perhaps it was inspired by being found in both Hebrew and Greek. Similarly, adverbial ''-e'' is found in Latin and Italian ''(bene)'' as well as in Russian (after a palatalized consonant); the participle bases ''-t-'' and ''-nt-'' are found in Latin, Italian, Greek, and German; and the pronominal base ''-i'' is found in Italian (''-mi, -ti, -vi, -si, -gli'' for Esperanto ''mi, ci, vi, si, li'') and English (''me, we, he, she'').

There are other parallels with prior constructed languages, such as ''ili'' 'they', the numerals ''un du tri'' and the feminine suffix ''-in'', which are identical to Jean Pirro's '' Universalglot'' of 1868, but it's difficult to tell if there is a connection or if this is merely coincidence due to using similar source languages.

Technical vocabulary

Modern international vocabulary, much of it Latin or Greek in origin, is of course used as well, but frequently for a family of related words only the root will be borrowed directly, and the rest will be derived from it using Esperanto means of word formation. For example, the computer term 'bit' was borrowed directly as ''bito'', but 'byte' was then derived by compounding ''bito'' with the numeral ''ok'' (eight), for the uniquely Esperanto word ''bitoko'' ('an octet of bits'). Although not a familiar form to speakers of European languages, the transparency of its formation is helpful to those who do not have this advantage. Moreover, even ''bito'' has the synonym ''duumo'', based on ''du'' (two) and ''-um-'' (the affix with undefined meaning).

With the exception of perhaps a hundred common or generic plant and animal names, Esperanto adopts the international binomial nomenclature of living organisms, using suitable orthography, and changing the nominal and adjectival grammatical endings to ''-o'' and ''-a''. For example, the binomial for the guineafowl is ''Numida meleagris''. In Esperanto, therefore, a ''numido'' would be any bird of the genus ''Numida'', and a ''meleagra numido'' the helmeted guineafowl specifically. Likewise, a ''numidedo'' is any bird in the guineafowl family Numididæ.

Competing root forms

There is some question over which inflection to use when assimilating Latin and Greek words. Zamenhof generally preferred the oblique stem over the nominative singular form, as in ''reĝo'' (king), which follows the Latin oblique forms with ''reg–'' (compare English ''regicide''), or ''floro'' (flower) as in ''floral,'' rather than nominative singular ''rex'' and ''flos.'' However, European national standards differ in this regard, resulting in debate over the form of later "international" borrowings, such as whether the asteroid Pallas should be ''Palaso'' in Esperanto, parallel to French and English names ''Pallas,'' or ''Palado,'' as in Italian ''Pallade,'' Russian ''Паллада'' (''Palláda''), and the English adjective ''Palladian.'' In some cases there are three possibilities, as can be seen in the English noun ''helix'' (''x'' = s, its plural ''helices'' (''c'' = , and its adjective ''helical'' (''c'' = . Although the resulting potential for conflict is frequently criticized, it does present an opportunity to disambiguate what would otherwise be homonyms based on culturally specific and often fossilized metaphors. For example, ''Venuso'' (the planet Venus) may be distinguished from ''Venero'' (the goddess Venus), all three of the forms of Latin ''helix'' are found as Esperanto roots, one with the original meaning, and the other two representing old metaphors: ''helico'' (a spiral), ''heliko'' (a snail), ''helikso'' (the incurved rim of the ear).

Normally the Latin or Greek inflectional ending is replaced with the Esperanto inflectional ending ''−o.'' However, the original inflection will occasionally be retained, as if it were part of the root, in order to disambiguate from a more common word. For example, a virus (from Latin ''vir-us)'' is ''virus-o'' instead of the expected ''*vir-o'' in order to avoid confusion with ''vir-o'' (a man), and the Latin root ''corp-us'' is the source of both ''korp-o'' (a living body) and ''korpus-o'' (a military corps). Similarly, when the sound ''ĥ'' is replaced with ''k,'' as it commonly is (see Esperanto phonology), the word ''ĥoro'' (a chorus) is replaced with ''koruso'' to avoid creating a homonym with ''koro'' (a heart). The redundant inflection may have been inspired by Lithuanian, which otherwise contributed relatively little to Esperanto: compare ''fokuso'' (focus), ''kokoso'' (coconut), ''lotuso'' (lotus), ''patoso'' (pathos), ''radiuso'' (radius), ''sinuso'' (sine), and ''viruso'' (virus), with Lithuanian ''fokusas, kokosas, lotosas, patosas, radiusas, sinusas,'' and ''virusas'' (virus) vs. ''vyras'' (man).

Traces of Proto-Esperanto

Proto-Esperanto had voicing ablaut, traces of which remain in a few pairs of words such as ''pezi'' 'to weigh' (to have weight) and ''pesi'' 'to weigh' (to measure the weight). Because little of Proto-Esperanto has survived, it is not clear which other aspects of Esperanto etymology might date to this period.Kiselman (2010:64–65)

Notes

Bibliography

* Vilborg, Ebbe, ''Etimologia Vortaro de Esperanto.'' Five volumes, Stokholmo, 1987–2001.
* Cherpillod, André, ''Konciza Etimologia Vortaro.'' One volume, Roterdamo, 2003.

External links

*Note: This dictionary should be used with caution. For example, ''amelo'' (starch) is given as a rare example of a Greek word that does not occur in Latin. However, it is not only a Latin derivation (from ''amyl-um),'' but more directly derives from German ''amel-.''

Esperanto page
{Dead link, date=October 2022 with a list of languages sorted by similarity of basic vocabulary. EVOLAEMP Project, University of Tübingen.

Etymology
Etymology