Ottomans culture evolved over several centuries as the ruling administration of the
Turks
Turk or Turks may refer to:
Communities and ethnic groups
* Turkic peoples, a collection of ethnic groups who speak Turkic languages
* Turkish people, or the Turks, a Turkic ethnic group and nation
* Turkish citizen, a citizen of the Republic ...
absorbed, adapted and modified the various native cultures of conquered lands and their peoples. There was influence from the customs and languages of
Islamic societies, while
Persian
Persian may refer to:
* People and things from Iran, historically called ''Persia'' in the English language
** Persians, the majority ethnic group in Iran, not to be conflated with the Iranic peoples
** Persian language, an Iranian language of the ...
culture had a significant contribution through the
Seljuq Turks
The Seljuk dynasty, or Seljukids ( ; fa, سلجوقیان ''Saljuqian'', alternatively spelled as Seljuqs or Saljuqs), also known as Seljuk Turks, Seljuk Turkomans "The defeat in August 1071 of the Byzantine emperor Romanos Diogenes
by the Turk ...
, the Ottomans' predecessors. Despite newer added amalgamations, the Ottoman dynasty, like their predecessors in the
Sultanate of Rum and the
Seljuk Empire
The Great Seljuk Empire, or the Seljuk Empire was a high medieval, culturally Turko-Persian, Sunni Muslim empire, founded and ruled by the Qïnïq branch of Oghuz Turks. It spanned a total area of from Anatolia and the Levant in the west to ...
were influenced by Persian culture, language, habits and customs. Throughout its history, the Ottoman Empire had substantial subject populations of
Orthodox subjects,
Armenian
Armenian may refer to:
* Something of, from, or related to Armenia, a country in the South Caucasus region of Eurasia
* Armenians, the national people of Armenia, or people of Armenian descent
** Armenian Diaspora, Armenian communities across the ...
s,
Jews
Jews ( he, יְהוּדִים, , ) or Jewish people are an ethnoreligious group and nation originating from the Israelites Israelite origins and kingdom: "The first act in the long drama of Jewish history is the age of the Israelites""The ...
and
Assyrians, who were allowed a certain amount of autonomy under the ''
millet
Millets () are a highly varied group of small-seeded grasses, widely grown around the world as cereal crops or grains for fodder and human food. Most species generally referred to as millets belong to the tribe Paniceae, but some millets al ...
'' system of Ottoman government, and whose distinctive cultures were adopted and adapted by the Ottoman state.
As the Ottoman Empire expanded it assimilated the culture of numerous regions under its rule and beyond, being particularly influenced by Turkic, Greco-Roman, Islamic, and Persian culture.
Literature
Poetry
As with many Ottoman Turkish art forms, the poetry produced for the
Ottoman court
Ottoman court was the culture that evolved around the court of the Ottoman Empire.
Ottoman court was held at the Topkapı Palace in Constantinople where the sultan was served by an army of pages and scholars. Some served in the Treasury and the ...
circle had a strong influence from classical
Persian traditions; a large number of
Persian
Persian may refer to:
* People and things from Iran, historically called ''Persia'' in the English language
** Persians, the majority ethnic group in Iran, not to be conflated with the Iranic peoples
** Persian language, an Iranian language of the ...
loanwords entered the literary language, and Persian metres and forms (such as those of ''
Ghazal
The ''ghazal'' ( ar, غَزَل, bn, গজল, Hindi-Urdu: /, fa, غزل, az, qəzəl, tr, gazel, tm, gazal, uz, gʻazal, gu, ગઝલ) is a form of amatory poem or ode, originating in Arabic poetry. A ghazal may be understood as a ...
'') were used.
By the 19th century and the era of
Tanzimat reforms, the influence of
Turkish folk literature
Turkish folk literature is an oral tradition deeply rooted, in its form, in Central Asian nomadic traditions. However, in its themes, Turkish folk literature reflects the problems peculiar to a settling (or settled) people who have abandoned the ...
, until then largely oral, began to appear in Turkish poetry, and there was increasing influence from the literature of Europe; there was a corresponding decline in classical court poetry.
Tevfik Fikret
Tevfik Fikret ( ota, توفیق فكرت) was the pseudonym of Mehmed Tevfik (December 24, 1867 – August 19, 1915), an Ottoman-Turkish educator and poet, who is considered the founder of the modern school of Turkish poetry.
Biography
Fam ...
, born in 1867, is often considered the founder of modern Turkish poetry.
Recaizade Mahmud Ekrem, an Ottoman writer and intellectual had also started his early career by writing poems in the newspaper of
İbrahim Şinasi
İbrahim Şinasi (5 August 1826 – 13 September 1871) was a pioneering Ottoman intellectual, author, journalist, translator, playwright, and newspaper editor. He was the innovator of several fields: he wrote one of the earliest examples of an Ot ...
,
Tasvir-i Efkar. Later in his career he helped a literary movement in the Empire -
Servet-i Fünun
''Servet-i Fünun'' ("''Wealth of Knowledge''", french: Servetifunoun) was an avant-garde journal published in the Ottoman Empire and later in Turkey. Halit Ziya (Uşaklıgil) and the other writers of the "New Literature" ( ota, Edebiyat-ı Cedi ...
, to emerge.
Recaizade Mahmud Ekrem, had published poems like, Ah Nijad!, Şevki Yok and Güzelim.
Folk Literature
According to
Mehmet Fuat Köprülü
Mehmet Fuat Köprülü (December 5, 1890 – June 28, 1966), also known as Köprülüzade Mehmed Fuad, was a highly influential Turkish sociologist, turkologist, scholar, Minister of Foreign Affairs and Deputy Prime Minister of the Republ ...
, the Ottoman - Turkish folk literature has three spheres in terms of their topics. First, is the themes that comes from old
Turkic tradition. Second, the religious topics that has been originated from
Islamic tradition. Lastly, the topics that comes from the Persian tradition which are not religious but mostly artificial subjects.
Poet-musicians (''ozan''), were travelling around the
Central Asia
Central Asia, also known as Middle Asia, is a subregion, region of Asia that stretches from the Caspian Sea in the west to western China and Mongolia in the east, and from Afghanistan and Iran in the south to Russia in the north. It includes t ...
since the 9th century by telling epics, stories, and performing religious acts with their
kopuz
The komuz or qomuz ( ky, комуз , az, Qopuz, tr, Kopuz) is an ancient fretless string instrument used in Central Asian music, related to certain other Turkic string instruments, the Mongolian tovshuur, and the lute. The instrument can ...
. This tradition lived in Anatolia in the time of the
Seljuk Seljuk or Saljuq (سلجوق) may refer to:
* Seljuk Empire (1051–1153), a medieval empire in the Middle East and central Asia
* Seljuk dynasty (c. 950–1307), the ruling dynasty of the Seljuk Empire and subsequent polities
* Seljuk (warlord) (di ...
and the Ottoman Empire but with an Islamic intervention. Name ''aşık'' was adopted starting from the 14th and 15th centuries, it was an equivalent of the name ''ozan''. ''Aşıks'' were the poets with an instrument called
bağlama (saz), they were travelling around Anatolia and telling epics from old Turkic tradition with Islamic influence.
Prose
Prior to the 19th century, Ottoman prose was exclusively
non-fiction
Nonfiction, or non-fiction, is any document or media content that attempts, in good faith, to provide information (and sometimes opinions) grounded only in facts and real life, rather than in imagination. Nonfiction is often associated with b ...
al, and was much less highly developed than Ottoman poetry, in part because much of it followed the rules of the originally Arabic tradition of rhymed prose (
Saj'
Saj‘ ( ar, سجع) is a form of rhymed prose in Arabic literature. It is named so because of its evenness or monotony, or from a fancied resemblance between its rhythm and the cooing of a dove. It is a highly artificial style of prose, characte ...
). Nevertheless, a number of genres - the travelogue, the political treatise and biography - were current.
From the 19th century, the increasing influence of the European
novel
A novel is a relatively long work of narrative fiction, typically written in prose and published as a book. The present English word for a long work of prose fiction derives from the for "new", "news", or "short story of something new", itsel ...
, and particularly that of the French novel, began to be felt.
Şemsettin Sami's ''Taaşuk-u Tal'at ve Fitnat'', widely considered the first Turkish novel, was published in 1872; other notable Ottoman writers of prose were
Ahmet Mithat
Ahmet Mithat (1844 – 28 December 1912) was an Ottoman journalist, author, translator and publisher during the Tanzimat period. In his works, he was known as Ahmet Mithat Efendi, to distinguish him from the contemporary politician Midhat Pasha ...
and
Halit Ziya Uşaklıgil.
Architecture
![Istanbul_asv2020-02_img15_Topkapı_Palace](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/71/Istanbul_asv2020-02_img15_Topkap%C4%B1_Palace.jpg)
Ottoman architecture was a synthesis of
Seljuk Seljuk or Saljuq (سلجوق) may refer to:
* Seljuk Empire (1051–1153), a medieval empire in the Middle East and central Asia
* Seljuk dynasty (c. 950–1307), the ruling dynasty of the Seljuk Empire and subsequent polities
* Seljuk (warlord) (di ...
architectural traditions, as seen in the buildings of
Konya
Konya () is a major city in central Turkey, on the southwestern edge of the Central Anatolian Plateau, and is the capital of Konya Province. During antiquity and into Seljuk times it was known as Iconium (), although the Seljuks also called it ...
,
Mamluk architecture
Mamluk architecture was the architectural style under the Mamluk Sultanate (1250–1517), which ruled over Egypt, the Levant, and the Hijaz from their capital, Cairo. Despite their often tumultuous internal politics, the Mamluk sultans were proli ...
, and
Byzantine architecture; it reached its greatest development in the large public buildings, such as
mosques and
caravanserais, of the 16th century.
The most significant figure in the field, the 16th-century architect and engineer
Mimar Sinan
Mimar Sinan ( ota, معمار سينان, translit=Mi'mâr Sinân, , ) ( 1488–1490 – 17 July 1588) also known as Koca Mi'mâr Sinân Âğâ, ("Sinan Agha the Grand Architect" or "Grand Sinan") was the chief Ottoman architect ( tr, l ...
, was a Muslim convert, having a background in the
Janissaries. His most famous works were the
Selimiye Mosque in
Edirne
Edirne (, ), formerly known as Adrianople or Hadrianopolis ( Greek: Άδριανούπολις), is a city in Turkey, in the northwestern part of the province of Edirne in Eastern Thrace. Situated from the Greek and from the Bulgarian borders ...
and the
Suleiman Mosque
Suleiman (Arabic: سُلِيمَان ''sulaymān''; or dictionary.reference.comsuleiman/ref>) is the Arabic name of the Quranic king and Islamic prophet Solomon meaning "man of peace", derived from the Hebrew name Shlomo.
The name is also spe ...
in
Constantinople
la, Constantinopolis ota, قسطنطينيه
, alternate_name = Byzantion (earlier Greek name), Nova Roma ("New Rome"), Miklagard/Miklagarth (Old Norse), Tsargrad ( Slavic), Qustantiniya (Arabic), Basileuousa ("Queen of Cities"), Megalopolis (" ...
. One of his pupils,
Sedefkar Mehmed Agha
Sedefkar Mehmed Agha Biçakçiu or Sedefqar Mehmeti of Elbasan (Modern Turkish: ''Sedefkâr Mehmet Ağa'', about 1540–1617) is recorded as the Ottoman architect of the Sultan Ahmed Mosque (the "Blue Mosque") in Istanbul.
Biography
Mehmed Agh ...
, designed the early 17th century
Blue Mosque, considered the last great building of
classical Ottoman architecture
Classical Ottoman architecture is a period in Ottoman architecture generally including the 16th and 17th centuries. The period is most strongly associated with the works of Mimar Sinan, who was Chief Court Architect under three sultans between 15 ...
.
Decorative arts
Calligraphy
![Tugra Mahmuds II](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/96/Tugra_Mahmuds_II.gif)
Calligraphy had a prestigious status under the Ottomans, its traditions having been shaped by the work of
Abbasid
The Abbasid Caliphate ( or ; ar, الْخِلَافَةُ الْعَبَّاسِيَّة, ') was the third caliphate to succeed the Islamic prophet Muhammad. It was founded by a dynasty descended from Muhammad's uncle, Abbas ibn Abdul-Muttalib ...
calligrapher
Yaqut al-Musta'simi
Yaqut al-Musta'simi (Persian: یاقوت مستعصمی)(Arabic: ياقوت المستعصمي) (also Yakut-i Musta'simi) (died 1298) was a well-known calligrapher and secretary of the last Abbasid caliph.
Life and work
He was probably of Gre ...
of
Baghdad
Baghdad (; ar, بَغْدَاد , ) is the capital of Iraq and the second-largest city in the Arab world after Cairo. It is located on the Tigris near the ruins of the ancient city of Babylon and the Sassanid Persian capital of Ctesiphon ...
, whose influence had spread across the Islamic world, al-Musta'simi himself possibly being of
Anatolia
Anatolia, tr, Anadolu Yarımadası), and the Anatolian plateau, also known as Asia Minor, is a large peninsula in Western Asia and the westernmost protrusion of the Asian continent. It constitutes the major part of modern-day Turkey. The re ...
n origin.
The
Diwani
Diwani is a calligraphic variety of Arabic script, a cursive style developed during the reign of the early Ottoman Turks (16th century - early 17th century). It reached its height of popularity under Süleyman I the Magnificent (1520–1566) ...
script is a
cursive
Cursive (also known as script, among other names) is any style of penmanship in which characters are written joined in a flowing manner, generally for the purpose of making writing faster, in contrast to block letters. It varies in functionalit ...
and distinctively Ottoman style of
Arabic calligraphy
Arabic calligraphy is the artistic practice of handwriting and calligraphy based on the Arabic alphabet. It is known in Arabic as ''khatt'' ( ar, خط), derived from the word 'line', 'design', or 'construction'. Kufic is the oldest form of t ...
developed in the 16th and early 17th centuries. It was invented by Housam Roumi, reaching its greatest development under
Süleyman I the Magnificent (1520–66). The highly decorative script was distinguished by its complexity of line and by the close juxtaposition of the
letters
Letter, letters, or literature may refer to:
Characters typeface
* Letter (alphabet), a character representing one or more of the sounds used in speech; any of the symbols of an alphabet.
* Letterform, the graphic form of a letter of the alphabe ...
within words. Other forms included the flowing, rounded
Nashki script, invented by the tenth-century Abbasid calligrapher
Ali Muhammad ibn Muqlah, and
Ta'liq, based on the Persian Nastalīq style.
Noted Ottoman calligraphers include
Seyyid Kasim Gubari
Seyyid Kasim Gubari of Diyarbakır was a 17th-century Ottoman artist, noted for his poetic writing and calligraphy. He is celebrated as one of the most accomplished calligraphers of his time and decorated a number of important public buildings incl ...
,
Şeyh Hamdullah,
Ahmed Karahisari, and
Hâfiz Osman.
Miniatures
The Ottoman tradition of painting miniatures, to illustrate manuscripts or used in dedicated albums, was heavily influenced by the
Persian
Persian may refer to:
* People and things from Iran, historically called ''Persia'' in the English language
** Persians, the majority ethnic group in Iran, not to be conflated with the Iranic peoples
** Persian language, an Iranian language of the ...
art form, though it also included elements of the
Byzantine
The Byzantine Empire, also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire or Byzantium, was the continuation of the Roman Empire primarily in its eastern provinces during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, when its capital city was Constantinopl ...
tradition of
illumination and painting. A Greek academy of painters, the ''Nakkashane-i-Rum'' was established in the
Topkapi Palace in the 15th century, while early in the following century a similar Persian academy, the ''Nakkashane-i-Irani'', was added.
We can establish approximatively the reign of Mehmed II (1451–81) as a moment of `birth´ of the production of the Ottoman miniatures with the first pieces having been found coming from this era. During that era many manuscripts show a desire in the court to establish a painting studio in the recently annexed capital of the empire Istanbul. This project seems to have succeeded in the 1480s, while we have clear proof of its existence and of the opening of new studios in other cities around 1825.
Carpet-weaving and textile arts
The art of
carpet
A carpet is a textile floor covering typically consisting of an upper layer of pile attached to a backing. The pile was traditionally made from wool, but since the 20th century synthetic fibers such as polypropylene, nylon, or polyester hav ...
weaving
Weaving is a method of textile production in which two distinct sets of yarns or threads are interlaced at right angles to form a fabric or cloth. Other methods are knitting, crocheting, felting, and braiding or plaiting. The longitudinal ...
was particularly significant in the Ottoman Empire, carpets having an immense importance both as decorative furnishings, rich in religious and other symbolism, and as a practical consideration, as it was customary to remove one's shoes in living quarters.
[Foroqhi, S. ''Subjects of the Sultan: Culture and Daily Life in the Ottoman Empire'', I. B. Tauris, 2005, , p. 152] The weaving of such carpets originated in the
nomad
A nomad is a member of a community without fixed habitation who regularly moves to and from the same areas. Such groups include hunter-gatherers, pastoral nomads (owning livestock), tinkers and trader nomads. In the twentieth century, the popu ...
ic cultures of central Asia (carpets being an easily transportable form of furnishing), and was eventually spread to the settled societies of Anatolia. Turks used carpets, rugs and
patterned kilim
A kilim ( az, Kilim کیلیم; tr, Kilim; tm, Kilim; fa, گلیم ''Gilīm'') is a flat tapestry- woven carpet or rug traditionally produced in countries of the former Persian Empire, including Iran, the Balkans and the Turkic countries. Ki ...
s not just on the floors of a room, but also as a hanging on walls and doorways, where they provided additional insulation. They were also commonly donated to
mosques, which often amassed large collections of them.
[Foroqhi, p.153]
Hereke carpets
Hereke carpets are Turkish handmade carpets produced and sold in Hereke, a coastal town in Turkey. For a long time, they used to be produced only in Hereke, 60 km from Istanbul. The materials used are silk, a combination of wool and cotton, ...
were of particularly high status, being made of
silk
Silk is a natural protein fiber, some forms of which can be woven into textiles. The protein fiber of silk is composed mainly of fibroin and is produced by certain insect larvae to form cocoons. The best-known silk is obtained from the coc ...
or a combination of silk and
cotton
Cotton is a soft, fluffy staple fiber that grows in a boll, or protective case, around the seeds of the cotton plants of the genus ''Gossypium'' in the mallow family Malvaceae. The fiber is almost pure cellulose, and can contain minor perce ...
, and intricately knotted. Other significant designs included "Palace", "
Yörük",
Ushak, and
Milas
Milas ( grc, Μύλασα, Mylasa) is an ancient city and the seat of the district of the same name in Muğla Province in southwestern Turkey. The city commands a region with an active economy and very rich in history and ancient remains, the ter ...
or "Türkmen" carpets. "Yörük" and "Türkmen" represented more stylized designs, whereas naturalistic designs were prevalent in "Palace".
Jewelry
The Ottoman Empire was noted for the quality of its
gold- and
silversmith
A silversmith is a metalworker who crafts objects from silver. The terms ''silversmith'' and ''goldsmith'' are not exactly synonyms as the techniques, training, history, and guilds are or were largely the same but the end product may vary great ...
s, and particularly for the
jewelry
Jewellery ( UK) or jewelry ( U.S.) consists of decorative items worn for personal adornment, such as brooches, rings, necklaces, earrings, pendants, bracelets, and cufflinks. Jewellery may be attached to the body or the clothes. From a w ...
they produced. Jewelry had particular importance as it was commonly given at weddings, as a gift that could be used as a form of savings.
[Foroqhi, p.108] Silver was the most common material used, with gold reserved for more high-status pieces; designs often displayed complex filigree work and incorporated Persian and Byzantine motifs. Developments in design reflected the tastes of the
Ottoman court
Ottoman court was the culture that evolved around the court of the Ottoman Empire.
Ottoman court was held at the Topkapı Palace in Constantinople where the sultan was served by an army of pages and scholars. Some served in the Treasury and the ...
, with Persian
Safavid art, for example, becoming an influence after the Ottoman defeat of
Ismail I
Ismail I ( fa, اسماعیل, Esmāʿīl, ; July 17, 1487 – May 23, 1524), also known as Shah Ismail (), was the founder of the Safavid dynasty of Safavid Iran, Iran, ruling as its King of Kings (''Shahanshah'') from 1501 to 1524. His re ...
after the
Battle of Chaldiran
The Battle of Chaldiran ( fa, جنگ چالدران; tr, Çaldıran Savaşı) took place on 23 August 1514 and ended with a decisive victory for the Ottoman Empire over the Safavid Empire. As a result, the Ottomans annexed Eastern Anatolia and ...
in 1514.
[Newman, A. (ed) ''Society and Culture in the Early Modern Middle East'', BRILL, 2003, , p.177] In the rural areas of the Empire, jewelry was simpler and often incorporated gold coins (the Ottoman ''altin''), but the designs of Constantinople nevertheless spread throughout Ottoman territory and were reflected even in the metalwork of
Egypt
Egypt ( ar, مصر , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia via a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Mediter ...
and North Africa.
Most jewelers and goldsmiths were Christian Armenians and Jews, but the interest of the Ottomans in the related art of
watchmaking
A watchmaker is an artisan who makes and repairs watches. Since a majority of watches are now factory-made, most modern watchmakers only repair watches. However, originally they were master craftsmen who built watches, including all their part ...
resulted in many European goldsmiths, watchmakers and gem engravers moving to
Constantinople
la, Constantinopolis ota, قسطنطينيه
, alternate_name = Byzantion (earlier Greek name), Nova Roma ("New Rome"), Miklagard/Miklagarth (Old Norse), Tsargrad ( Slavic), Qustantiniya (Arabic), Basileuousa ("Queen of Cities"), Megalopolis (" ...
, where they worked in the foreigners' quarter,
Galata.
[Göçek, F. ''East encounters West: France and the Ottoman Empire in the Eighteenth Century'', OUP, 1987, , p.106]
Performance
Music
Apart from the music traditions of its constituent peoples, the Ottoman Empire evolved a distinct style of court music,
Ottoman classical music
Ottoman music ( tr, Osmanlı müziği) or Turkish classical music ( tr, Türk sanat müziği) is the tradition of classical music originating in the Ottoman Empire. Developed in the palace, major Ottoman cities, and Sufi lodges, it traditional ...
. This was a principally vocal form, with instrumental accompaniment, built on ''
makam
The Turkish makam ( Turkish: ''makam'' pl. ''makamlar''; from the Arabic word ) is a system of melody types used in Turkish classical music and Turkish folk music. It provides a complex set of rules for composing and performance. Each makam spec ...
lar'', a set of melodic systems, with a corresponding set of rhythmic patterns called ''
usul''.
Another distinctive feature of Ottoman music were the ''
mehterân'', the military bands used by the
Janissaries and in the retinues of high-ranking officials. These bands were the ancestors of modern military bands, as well as of the
brass ensembles popular in traditional
Balkan
The Balkans ( ), also known as the Balkan Peninsula, is a geographical area in southeastern Europe with various geographical and historical definitions. The region takes its name from the Balkan Mountains that stretch throughout the who ...
music.
Clothing
Clothing of the Ottoman Empire was not something out of taste, it stated religion, ethnicity, and class in the pre-nineteenth century Ottoman Empire. At the time it was easy to visually see the status of people in the Ottoman Empire. For instance the Fez was a garment that showed modernity in the 1820s of The Ottoman Empire, but a decade later was seen as a backward garment of the Turkish Republic.
Dance
Dancing was an important element of Ottoman culture, which incorporated the folkloric dancing traditions of many different countries and lands on three continents; from the
Balkan
The Balkans ( ), also known as the Balkan Peninsula, is a geographical area in southeastern Europe with various geographical and historical definitions. The region takes its name from the Balkan Mountains that stretch throughout the who ...
peninsula and the
Black Sea
The Black Sea is a marginal mediterranean sea of the Atlantic Ocean lying between Europe and Asia, east of the Balkans, south of the East European Plain, west of the Caucasus, and north of Anatolia. It is bounded by Bulgaria, Georgia, Roma ...
regions to the
Caucasus
The Caucasus () or Caucasia (), is a region between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, mainly comprising Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and parts of Southern Russia. The Caucasus Mountains, including the Greater Caucasus range, have historically ...
, the
Middle East
The Middle East ( ar, الشرق الأوسط, ISO 233: ) is a geopolitical region commonly encompassing Arabian Peninsula, Arabia (including the Arabian Peninsula and Bahrain), Anatolia, Asia Minor (Asian part of Turkey except Hatay Pro ...
and
North Africa
North Africa, or Northern Africa is a region encompassing the northern portion of the African continent. There is no singularly accepted scope for the region, and it is sometimes defined as stretching from the Atlantic shores of Mauritania in ...
.
Dancing was also one of the most popular pastimes in the
Harem
Harem (Persian: حرمسرا ''haramsarā'', ar, حَرِيمٌ ''ḥarīm'', "a sacred inviolable place; harem; female members of the family") refers to domestic spaces that are reserved for the women of the house in a Muslim family. A hare ...
of
Topkapı Palace
The Topkapı Palace ( tr, Topkapı Sarayı; ota, طوپقپو سرايى, ṭopḳapu sarāyı, lit=cannon gate palace), or the Seraglio
A seraglio, serail, seray or saray (from fa, سرای, sarāy, palace, via Turkish and Italian) i ...
.
The female belly dancers, named ''Çengi'', were mostly from the
Roma
Roma or ROMA may refer to:
Places Australia
* Roma, Queensland, a town
** Roma Airport
** Roma Courthouse
** Electoral district of Roma, defunct
** Town of Roma, defunct town, now part of the Maranoa Regional Council
*Roma Street, Brisbane, a ...
community. Today, living in Istanbul's Roma neighbourhoods like Sulukule, Kuştepe, Cennet and Kasımpaşa, they still dominate the traditional belly dancing and musical entertainment shows throughout the city's traditional taverns.
There were also male dancers, named ''
Köçek
The ''köçek'' (plural in Turkish) was typically a very handsome young male slave or a Romani dancer (''rakkas''), who usually cross-dressed in feminine attire, and was employed as an entertainer.
Roots
The Persian word ''kuchak'' der ...
'', who took part in the entertainment shows and celebrations, accompanied by
circus
A circus is a company of performers who put on diverse entertainment shows that may include clowns, acrobats, trained animals, trapeze acts, musicians, dancers, hoopers, tightrope walkers, jugglers, magicians, ventriloquists, and unicyclis ...
acrobats
Acrobatics () is the performance of human feats of balance, agility, and motor coordination. Acrobatic skills are used in performing arts, sporting events, and martial arts. Extensive use of acrobatic skills are most often performed in acr ...
, named ''Cambaz'', performing difficult tricks, and other shows which attracted curiosity.
Meddah (one person show)
![Meddah story teller](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/33/Meddah_story_teller.png)
The ''meddah'' or
story teller played in front of a small group of viewers, such as a
coffeehouse audience. The play was generally about a single topic, the ''meddah'' playing different characters, and was usually introduced by drawing attention to the
moral contained in the story. The ''meddah'' would use props such as an umbrella, a handkerchief, or different headwear, to signal a change of character, and was skilled at manipulating his voice and imitating different
dialects
The term dialect (from Latin , , from the Ancient Greek word , 'discourse', from , 'through' and , 'I speak') can refer to either of two distinctly different types of linguistic phenomena:
One usage refers to a variety of a language that is a ...
. There was no time limitation on the shows; a good ''meddah'' had the skill to adjust the story depending on interaction with the audience.
''Meddah''s were generally traveling artists whose route took them from one large city to another, such along the towns of the
spice road; the tradition supposedly goes back to
Homer
Homer (; grc, Ὅμηρος , ''Hómēros'') (born ) was a Greek poet who is credited as the author of the ''Iliad'' and the ''Odyssey'', two epic poems that are foundational works of ancient Greek literature. Homer is considered one of the ...
's time. The methods of ''meddah''s were the same as the methods of the itinerant storytellers who related Greek epics such as the
Iliad
The ''Iliad'' (; grc, Ἰλιάς, Iliás, ; "a poem about Ilium") is one of two major ancient Greek epic poems attributed to Homer. It is one of the oldest extant works of literature still widely read by modern audiences. As with the '' Odys ...
and
Odyssey
The ''Odyssey'' (; grc, Ὀδύσσεια, Odýsseia, ) is one of two major Ancient Greek literature, ancient Greek Epic poetry, epic poems attributed to Homer. It is one of the oldest extant works of literature still widely read by moder ...
, even though the main stories were now
Ferhat ile Şirin Ferhat is a Turkish given name and the Turkish spelling of the Persian name Ferhad ( fa, فرهاد, ''farhād''). It may refer to:
Given name Ferhad
* Ferhad Ayaz (born 1994), Turkish-Swedish footballer
* Ferhad Pasha Sokolović 16th-century Ott ...
or
Layla and Majnun
''Layla & Majnun'' ( ar, مجنون ليلى ; Layla's Mad Lover) is an old story of Arab origin, about the 7th-century Bedouin poet Qays ibn al-Mulawwah and his ladylove Layla bint Mahdi (later known as Layla al-Aamiriya).
"The Layla ...
. The repertoires of the ''meddah''s also included true stories, modified depending on the audience, artist and political situation.
The Istanbul ''meddah''s were known to integrate musical instruments into their stories: this was a main difference between them and the East Anatolian
Dengbejin.
In 2008 the art of the ''meddah''s was relisted in the
.
Karagöz (shadow play)
![Karagoez-davul-Hacivat-zurna](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/Karagoez-davul-Hacivat-zurna.jpg)
The Turkish shadow theatre, also known as Karagöz ("Black-Eyed") after one of its main characters, is descended from the Oriental
Shadow theatre
The Shadow Theatre is an Edmonton-based theatre company born of the Edmonton International Fringe Festival in 1990.
History
Shadow Theatre was incorporated in 1992, operating under the governance of a volunteer Board of Directors. Co founded by H ...
. Today, scholars generally consider the technique of a single puppeteer creating voices for a dialogue, narrating a story, and possibly even singing, all while manipulating puppets, to be an
Indonesian
Indonesian is anything of, from, or related to Indonesia, an archipelagic country in Southeast Asia. It may refer to:
* Indonesians, citizens of Indonesia
** Native Indonesians, diverse groups of local inhabitants of the archipelago
** Indonesian ...
invention. According to Georg Jacob the certain date of
Karagöz and Hacivat
Karagöz (literally ''Blackeye'' in Turkish) and Hacivat (shortened in time from "Hacı İvaz" meaning "İvaz the Pilgrim", and also sometimes written as Hacivad) are the lead characters of the traditional Turkish shadow play, popularized during ...
shadow play is unknown. However, the shadow play itself was invented in China and then transferred into Turkish tradition with the contribution of Mongols. The other theory is that the tradition of shadow play was introduced to Ottoman Empire from Egypt. And it is known that Egypt got this tradition from the
Island of Java with the interaction through Arab merchants starting from 7th to 10th centuries.
Parts and the Characters of Karagöz
Karagöz shadow play (
gölge oyunu) consists of four parts. 1. Giriş (Introduction), 2. Muhavere (Conversation), 3. Fasıl, 4. Bitiş (Ending).
In the Introduction part, Hacivat enters the stage with the sound of Nareke - a tool that sounds like a buzzing of a bee, and starts reading poems which is an invitation for Karagöz to come to the stage.
In terms of characters,
Karagöz and Hacivat
Karagöz (literally ''Blackeye'' in Turkish) and Hacivat (shortened in time from "Hacı İvaz" meaning "İvaz the Pilgrim", and also sometimes written as Hacivad) are the lead characters of the traditional Turkish shadow play, popularized during ...
was a reflection of Ottoman society. The cosmopolite structure of the Empire - especially of Istanbul, was shown to the audience. Here is the list of some characters of the shadow play:
Main Characters:
Karagöz and Hacivat
Karagöz (literally ''Blackeye'' in Turkish) and Hacivat (shortened in time from "Hacı İvaz" meaning "İvaz the Pilgrim", and also sometimes written as Hacivad) are the lead characters of the traditional Turkish shadow play, popularized during ...
Women: Zenne
Characters from Istanbul: Çelebi, Tiryaki, Beberuhi and Matiz
Provincial Characters: Laz, Kürd, Kayserili, Kastamonulu, Eğinli
Muslim Characters outside of Anatolia:
Muhacir
Muhacir or Muhajir (from ar, مهاجر, translit=muhājir, lit=migrant) are the estimated 10 million Ottoman Muslim citizens, and their descendants born after the onset of the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, mostly Turks but also Albanians ...
(Turkish Balkan immigrant), Arab, Fars, Arnavut (Albanian)
Non-Muslim Characters: Rum (Greek), Frank (European), Ermeni (Armenian), Yahudi (Jew)
Bullies and Drunks: Efe,
Zeybek, Matiz, Külhanbeyi, Sarhoş (Drunk)
Characters who has mental or physical setbacks: Hımhım, the Stutterer, the Madman, the Cannabis addict, Denyo
Entertainers: Male Köçek Dancer, Female Çengi Dancer, Singer, Magician, Acrobat, Musician, Illusionist, Reveller
Supernatural Characters: Wizard, Cadılar (Witches), Djins and Demons,
and with other understudies games were played.
Orta Oyunu or Medyan (Median) (open stage show)
The first mention of the name Orta Oyunu takes its place in 1834 in the wedding ceremony inscription (Surname) of Saliha Sultan in those lines of poetry:
“Cümle etraf-nişin-i meydan oldu / Oldu orta oyunundan handan.”
Medyan (Median) or Orta Oyunu (the name “Orta Oyunu” was first used in the end of the 18th century.), is an open stage theatric play that consists of two main characters “Kavuklu” and “Pişekar”. The play is based on discourse, two main characters of Orta Oyunu tell jokes from one to another to create an environment of humour. Just like in Karagöz and Hacivat play. However, Medyan's way of playing is more flexible compared to
Karagöz and Hacivat
Karagöz (literally ''Blackeye'' in Turkish) and Hacivat (shortened in time from "Hacı İvaz" meaning "İvaz the Pilgrim", and also sometimes written as Hacivad) are the lead characters of the traditional Turkish shadow play, popularized during ...
.
Medyan took its final form with the starting of the 19th century. It is known that in
Seljuk Turks
The Seljuk dynasty, or Seljukids ( ; fa, سلجوقیان ''Saljuqian'', alternatively spelled as Seljuqs or Saljuqs), also known as Seljuk Turks, Seljuk Turkomans "The defeat in August 1071 of the Byzantine emperor Romanos Diogenes
by the Turk ...
plays that are based on performing imitation and personification were common. However, with the combination of raks (dance), musiki (music), muhavere (discourse), and histrionics the play of Ortaoyunu took its final shape. Other influential plays such as
Karagöz and Hacivat
Karagöz (literally ''Blackeye'' in Turkish) and Hacivat (shortened in time from "Hacı İvaz" meaning "İvaz the Pilgrim", and also sometimes written as Hacivad) are the lead characters of the traditional Turkish shadow play, popularized during ...
, Kukla (puppet play), dans (dance), meddah (encomiastics) and prestidigitation were also significant in the shaping of Medyan, it is because those plays were also based on personification.
The forming elements of Orta Oyunu are the musics, different forms of dances, wizardries of the different countries that is in the Ottoman Empire. Alongside with these, their cultural way of mocking, mimicking and discourses are also have a great amount of place in the play of Orta Oyunu.
Stage and Characters
The play was played in an open area with people gathered around the field. Orta oyunu is also unique since it does not have any plot. So, improvisation is very important. Musiki (music) is also very important since folk songs or poems are two of the key elements of the play. There are also supporting characters beside Kavuklu and Pişekar. Such as, Curcunabazlar, Çengiler (Women dancers) and Köçekler (Young men dancers who mimics the women dancers). Other characters were alikes of the Ottoman society who mimics the stereotypes of different Ottoman millets like, Arab, Armenian, Albanian, Kurdish, Laz, Jew. The name of area that the play was played was called “Meydan” (Square). Also there is another space that is called “Yeni Dünya” (New World), and in this place men and women audience follow the play. The section of the men audience is called “mevki” (position); while the section of the women called “kafes” (cage).
The last representative of orta oyunu was İsmail Dümbüllü who passed away in the year of 1973.
Sports
Tanzimat and Development of Sports
Tanzimat Period was particularly important in terms of the development of sports and gymnastics in the Ottoman Empire. As other fields like education, the influence of France is the most visible one. It is known that in Mekteb-i Harbiye (Staff Officer Academy), activities of gymnastics were added on the curriculum in 1863 which makes it the first mandotary modern sports lesson of the Empire - Riyazat-ı Bedeniye.
![Le Lycée Galatasaray](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/Le_Lyc%C3%A9e_Galatasaray.png)
Other schools like
Mekteb-i Sultani (
Galatasaray Lisesi - Galatasaray High School) and
Robert College
The American Robert College of Istanbul ( tr, İstanbul Özel Amerikan Robert Lisesi or ), often shortened to Robert, or RC, is a Selective school, highly selective, Independent school, independent, mixed-sex education, co-educational Secondary ...
were the pioneers of the Ottoman Empire in gymnastics. Galatasaray High School was the school of Faik Üstünidman who will later be known as “Şeyhü’l-İdman” because of his leadership in educating gymnastics students.
Selim Sırrı Tarcan
Selim Sırrı Tarcan (25 March 1874 – 2 March 1957) was a Turkish educator, sports official and politician. He is best remembered for his contribution to the establishment of the National Olympic Committee of Turkey and the introduction of t ...
was also one of the pioneers of sports of the Ottoman Empire, he was the first person who put forward the ideal of competing in the olympic games.
Sultan Abdülaziz after his visits to Europe, ordered the translation of gymnastics books which will be used as school books in the Ottoman Empire. In 1869 Rüştiyeler (Junior High Schools), in 1870 Mekteb-i Tıbbiye (Ottoman Medical School), in 1887 İdadiler (High Schools) were now having gymnastics and fencing classes in their syllabuses.
Sports Clubs in the Ottoman Empire
The Jewish Gymnastics Club of Constantinople, founded in 1895, was the first of Istanbul's sports clubs, soon followed by Kurtuluş Sports Club founded in 1896 by Ottoman Greeks. The opening of these athletic clubs symbolized a general growth in sports and sports culture in Istanbul at the time. In the coming years, Beşiktaş Gymnastics Club, the Galatasaray Sports Club, and the Fenerbahçe Sports Club — Istanbul's “big three” — were founded.
[Ibid, 2.] Exercise, as well as football and gymnastics were commonplace among the primarily affluent members of these clubs. In contrast to the fairly exclusive “big three”, Vefa Sports Club, established after the progressive Young Turk revolution in 1908, served as an amateur sports and football club of the people.
![MedyaBJK](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c6/MedyaBJK.jpg)
The turn of the twentieth century saw clubs spring up throughout Istanbul to appeal to many niches of young men, whether Muslim, Christian, or Jewish.
[Ibid, 26.] Almost all athletic clubs were ethnically and religiously homogeneous, however they all shared a focus on physicality. Furthermore, the function of these institutions expanded beyond sports, as they taught young men proper hygiene, dress, and posture, in addition to serving as environments for male discourse and socializing.
The development of athletic clubs enabled the rise of team sports in Istanbul — principally football — serving as contrasts to the more traditional Ottoman sports of oil wrestling and archery. For instance, upon its opening in 1905, Galatasaray functioned exclusively as a football club. This shift toward team competition represented a general modernization of sports in Istanbul, a modernization that can also be seen, for example, in the Beşiktaş Gymnastics Club as traditional Turkish wrestling embraced new mat technology.
Athletic clubs revolutionized sports reporting in the Ottoman Empire, as publications began to cover club games. ''Futbol'', written in Ottoman Turkish and initially released in 1910, served as Istanbul's first sports magazine, principally following club football matches.
Growth in sports related readership coincided with a growing sports spectating culture in Istanbul. 1905 saw the creation of the Constantinople Association Football League, which organized soccer matches among athletic clubs, while also providing entertainment for thousands of spectators. Completed in 1909, with the blessing of Sultan Abdülhamid II, the Union Club provided the first reliable stadium in which thousands of Istanbul spectators could gather to watch sports. Contrary to the strict homosocial exclusivity of many clubs, the Union Club allowed women to spectate athletic competitions. With this rise in spectatorship, Galatasaray and Fenerbahçe in particular, became recognized as the city's preeminent clubs. While heavily connected to football, the Union Club hosted a plethora events organized by a variety of Istanbul athletic clubs, including races, gymnastics, and more. For example, in 1911, the Union Club was the site of the first Armenian Olympics.
In the past century, many of these clubs have only continued to gain popularity. Now under the Republic of Turkey, the Süper Lig represents the region's most popular football league, and Galatasaray and Fenerbahçe are the league's most popular teams.
Ottoman cuisine
![French School - Enjoying Coffee - Google Art Project](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/db/French_School_-_Enjoying_Coffee_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg)
The cuisine of Ottoman Turkey can be divided between that of the Ottoman court itself, which was a highly sophisticated and elaborate fusion of many of the culinary traditions found in the Empire, its predecessors (notably the Byzantine Empire), and the regional cuisines of the peasantry and of the Empire's minorities, which were influenced by the produce of their respective areas.
Rice
Rice is the seed of the grass species ''Oryza sativa'' (Asian rice) or less commonly ''Oryza glaberrima
''Oryza glaberrima'', commonly known as African rice, is one of the two domesticated rice species. It was first domesticated and grown i ...
, for example, was a staple of high-status cookery (Imperial cooks were hired according to the skill they displayed in cooking it) but would have been regarded as a luxury item through most of Anatolia, where bread was the staple grain food.
Drinks
*
Turkish coffee
Turkish coffee is a style of coffee prepared in a '' cezve'' using very finely ground coffee beans without filtering.
Preparation
Turkish coffee is very finely ground coffee brewed by boiling. Any coffee bean may be used; arabica varieties are ...
- probably introduced from Levantine
Arab
The Arabs (singular: Arab; singular ar, عَرَبِيٌّ, DIN 31635: , , plural ar, عَرَب, DIN 31635: , Arabic pronunciation: ), also known as the Arab people, are an ethnic group mainly inhabiting the Arab world in Western Asia, ...
ic culture, coffee became central to Ottoman society - often accompanied with a
Nargile
A hookah (Hindustani language, Hindustani: (Nastaleeq), (Devanagari), IPA: ; also see #Names and etymology, other names), shisha, or waterpipe is a single- or multi-stemmed instrument for heating or vaporizing and then smoking either tobacco ...
(
Narguile /
Hookkah).
*
Ayran
Ayran, doogh, dhallë, daw, xynogala or tan is a cold savory yogurt-based beverage popular across Western Asia, Central Asia, South Asia, Southeastern Europe, North Asia and Eastern Europe. The principal ingredients are yogurt, water and sa ...
- a traditional
yogurt
Yogurt (; , from tr, yoğurt, also spelled yoghurt, yogourt or yoghourt) is a food produced by bacterial Fermentation (food), fermentation of milk. The bacteria used to make yogurt are known as ''yogurt cultures''. Fermentation of sugars in t ...
drink still popular throughout many areas of the former Empire.
*
Sherbet - a spiced cold fruit drink.
*
Rakı - a traditional
Turkish alcoholic beverage.
Food
*
Lokum (
Turkish delight
Turkish delight or lokum ( ota, لوقوم) is a family of confections based on a gel of starch and sugar. Premium varieties consist largely of chopped dates, pistachios, hazelnuts or walnuts bound by the gel; traditional varieties are often f ...
)
* Şeker (Candies)
** Akide Şekeri
*
Macun
Macun (in Turkish also Macun şekeri) is a soft, sweet and colorful Turkish toffee paste. It is a street food that may be prepared with many herbs and spices. Macun originated from spicy preparations of Mesir macunu, a traditional Turkish herba ...
(
Majoon)
*
Pestil
Pestil, a Turkish word meaning dried fruit pulp, is best exemplified in the English term "fruit leather." Fruit leather is made from mechanically pulverizing fruit, then spreading it out to dry into a tough, yet flexible and edible material which ...
*
Sucuk
*
Shish Kebab
Shish kebab is a popular meal of skewered and grilled cubes of meat. It can be found in Mediterranean cuisine and is similar to or synonymous with dishes called shashlik and khorovats, found in the Caucasus region.
It is one of the many types o ...
*
Çörek
*
Baklava
*
Lahmacun
Lahmacun ( pronounced ''lahmajoun'') or Lahmajo ( hy, Լահմաջո) is a flatbread topped with minced meat (most commonly beef or lamb), minced vegetables, and herbs including onions, garlic, tomatoes, red peppers, and parsley, flavored with ...
*
Döner
Doner kebab (, ; tr, döner or , ), also spelled döner kebab, is a type of kebab, made of meat cooked on a vertical rotisserie. Seasoned meat stacked in the shape of an inverted cone is turned slowly on the rotisserie, next to a vertical cook ...
*
Kebab
Science and technology
The Ottoman era is often seen as an era of an alleged decline of science in the Muslim world, with an important persecution of `humanists´ scholars particularly starting in the XVIth century. This vision is often shared, even in academic circles.
["The Arabic-speaking world in the Ottoman period: a socio-political analysis: Ehud R. Toledano", ''The Ottoman World'', Routledge, pp. 466–479, 2011-12-15]
On the contrary, interest in science and technology has shown a great spike during the XIXth century: observing the important technological advancement happening at the same time in Europe, Ottoman society sees a great transformation of its relation to science and research. One of the domain where this evolution is particularly visible is the domain of theology, where many authors start reconsidering the relation between Islam, Islamic values and Science.
We also see at the same period the Ottoman Empire becoming the host of multiple intellectual network led by prominent scientists of the region in very diverse domains. Networks that managed to expand throughout the muslim world while also integrating and discussing Western theories and ideas.
Timeline
* October 22, 1784 -
Imperial Naval Engineering school.
*
Military Academy
A military academy or service academy is an educational institution which prepares candidates for service in the officer corps. It normally provides education in a military environment, the exact definition depending on the country concerned. ...
founded 1834
* Imperial School of Music founded 1836
* April 1, 1847 - Institution of the Ministry of Education founded
* July 18, 1851 - Inauguration of the Academy of Sciences
*
Civil Service School founded 1859
*
Imperial Ottoman Lycée of Galatasaray founded 1868
Gallery
File:Fausto Zonaro - Amusement at Göksu - Google Art Project.jpg, Boat tour at Göksu Creek
File:Franz Hermann, Hans Gemminger, Valentin Mueller - A Scene from the Turkish Harem - Google Art Project.jpg, Women and children dancing in the Harem
Harem (Persian: حرمسرا ''haramsarā'', ar, حَرِيمٌ ''ḥarīm'', "a sacred inviolable place; harem; female members of the family") refers to domestic spaces that are reserved for the women of the house in a Muslim family. A hare ...
of Topkapı Palace
The Topkapı Palace ( tr, Topkapı Sarayı; ota, طوپقپو سرايى, ṭopḳapu sarāyı, lit=cannon gate palace), or the Seraglio
A seraglio, serail, seray or saray (from fa, سرای, sarāy, palace, via Turkish and Italian) i ...
File:Pierre Désiré Guillemet - Portrait of a Lady of the Court Playing the Tambourine - Google Art Project.jpg, A lady from the Ottoman court playing the ''Def'' at the Harem
File:Tile with Floral and Cloud-band Design MET DP170362.jpg, Tile with floral and Cloud-band design, c.1578, Iznik Tile, Ottoman Empire, in the collection of the Metropolitan Museum of Art.
References
External links
Hatvesanat.comSource on Islamic Calligraphy Art (mainly )
Osmanlimedeniyeti.comMany articles about the Ottoman history and culture including art, culture, literature, economics, architecture
KalemGuzeli.netTraditional arts in Ottoman Empire (mainly )
{{Ottoman Empire topics