Circle (mathematics)

A circle is a shape consisting of all points in a plane that are at a given distance from a given point, the centre. Equivalently, it is the curve traced out by a point that moves in a plane so that its distance from a given point is constant. The distance between any point of the circle and the centre is called the radius. Usually, the radius is required to be a positive number. A circle with $r=0$ (a single point) is a degenerate case. This article is about circles in Euclidean geometry, and, in particular, the Euclidean plane, except where otherwise noted.

Specifically, a circle is a simple closed curve that divides the plane into two regions: an interior and an exterior. In everyday use, the term "circle" may be used interchangeably to refer to either the boundary of the figure, or to the whole figure including its interior; in strict technical usage, the circle is only the boundary and the whole figure is called a '' disc''.

A circle may also be defined as a special kind of ellipse in which the two foci are coincident, the eccentricity is 0, and the semi-major and semi-minor axes are equal; or the two-dimensional shape enclosing the most area per unit perimeter squared, using calculus of variations.

Euclid's definition

Topological definition

In the field of topology, a circle is not limited to the geometric concept, but to all of its homeomorphisms. Two topological circles are equivalent if one can be transformed into the other via a deformation of R³ upon itself (known as an ambient isotopy).

Terminology

* Annulus: a ring-shaped object, the region bounded by two concentric circles.
* Arc: any connected part of a circle. Specifying two end points of an arc and a center allows for two arcs that together make up a full circle.
* Centre: the point equidistant from all points on the circle.
* Chord: a line segment whose endpoints lie on the circle, thus dividing a circle into two segments.
* Circumference: the length of one circuit along the circle, or the distance around the circle.
* Diameter: a line segment whose endpoints lie on the circle and that passes through the centre; or the length of such a line segment. This is the largest distance between any two points on the circle. It is a special case of a chord, namely the longest chord for a given circle, and its length is twice the length of a radius.
* Disc: the region of the plane bounded by a circle.
* Lens: the region common to (the intersection of) two overlapping discs.
* Passant: a coplanar straight line that has no point in common with the circle.
* Radius: a line segment joining the centre of a circle with any single point on the circle itself; or the length of such a segment, which is half (the length of) a diameter.
* Sector: a region bounded by two radii of equal length with a common center and either of the two possible arcs, determined by this center and the endpoints of the radii.
* Segment: a region bounded by a chord and one of the arcs connecting the chord's endpoints. The length of the chord imposes a lower boundary on the diameter of possible arcs. Sometimes the term ''segment'' is used only for regions not containing the center of the circle to which their arc belongs to.
* Secant: an extended chord, a coplanar straight line, intersecting a circle in two points.
* Semicircle: one of the two possible arcs determined by the endpoints of a diameter, taking its midpoint as center. In non-technical common usage it may mean the interior of the two dimensional region bounded by a diameter and one of its arcs, that is technically called a half-disc. A half-disc is a special case of a segment, namely the largest one.
* Tangent: a coplanar straight line that has one single point in common with a circle ("touches the circle at this point").
All of the specified regions may be considered as ''open'', that is, not containing their boundaries, or as ''closed'', including their respective boundaries.

History

The word ''circle'' derives from the Greek κίρκος/κύκλος (''kirkos/kuklos''), itself a metathesis of the Homeric Greek κρίκος (''krikos''), meaning "hoop" or "ring". The origins of the words ''circus'' and '' circuit'' are closely related.

The circle has been known since before the beginning of recorded history. Natural circles would have been observed, such as the Moon, Sun, and a short plant stalk blowing in the wind on sand, which forms a circle shape in the sand. The circle is the basis for the wheel, which, with related inventions such as gears, makes much of modern machinery possible. In mathematics, the study of the circle has helped inspire the development of geometry, astronomy and calculus.

Early science, particularly geometry and astrology and astronomy, was connected to the divine for most medieval scholars, and many believed that there was something intrinsically "divine" or "perfect" that could be found in circles.

Some highlights in the history of the circle are:
* 1700 BCE – The Rhind papyrus gives a method to find the area of a circular field. The result corresponds to (3.16049...) as an approximate value of .

* 300 BCE – Book 3 of Euclid's ''Elements'' deals with the properties of circles.
* In Plato's Seventh Letter there is a detailed definition and explanation of the circle. Plato explains the perfect circle, and how it is different from any drawing, words, definition or explanation.
* 1880 CE – Lindemann proves that is transcendental, effectively settling the millennia-old problem of squaring the circle.

Analytic results

Circumference

The ratio of a circle's circumference to its diameter is (pi), an irrational constant approximately equal to 3.141592654. Thus the circumference ''C'' is related to the radius ''r'' and diameter ''d'' by:
:$C = 2\pi r = \pi d.\,$

Area enclosed

As proved by Archimedes, in his Measurement of a Circle, the area enclosed by a circle is equal to that of a triangle whose base has the length of the circle's circumference and whose height equals the circle's radius, which comes to multiplied by the radius squared:
:$\mathrm = \pi r^2.\,$

Equivalently, denoting diameter by ''d'',
:$\mathrm = \frac \approx 07854d^2,$

that is, approximately 79% of the circumscribing square (whose side is of length ''d'').

The circle is the plane curve enclosing the maximum area for a given arc length. This relates the circle to a problem in the calculus of variations, namely the isoperimetric inequality.

Equations

Cartesian coordinates

;Equation of a circle
In an ''x''–''y'' Cartesian coordinate system, the circle with centre coordinates (''a'', ''b'') and radius ''r'' is the set of all points (''x'', ''y'') such that
: $(x - a)^2 + (y - b)^2 = r^2.$

This equation, known as the ''equation of the circle'', follows from the Pythagorean theorem applied to any point on the circle: as shown in the adjacent diagram, the radius is the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle whose other sides are of length , ''x'' − ''a'', and , ''y'' − ''b'', . If the circle is centred at the origin (0, 0), then the equation simplifies to
: $x^2 + y^2 = r^2.$

;Parametric form
The equation can be written in parametric form using the trigonometric functions sine and cosine as
: $x = a + r\,\cos t,$
: $y = b + r\,\sin t,$
where ''t'' is a parametric variable in the range 0 to 2, interpreted geometrically as the angle that the ray from (''a'', ''b'') to (''x'', ''y'') makes with the positive ''x'' axis.

An alternative parametrisation of the circle is
: $x = a + r \frac,$
: $y = b + r \frac.$

In this parameterisation, the ratio of ''t'' to ''r'' can be interpreted geometrically as the stereographic projection of the line passing through the centre parallel to the ''x'' axis (see Tangent half-angle substitution). However, this parameterisation works only if ''t'' is made to range not only through all reals but also to a point at infinity; otherwise, the leftmost point of the circle would be omitted.

;3-point form
The equation of the circle determined by three points $(x_1, y_1), (x_2, y_2), (x_3, y_3)$ not on a line is obtained by a conversion of the ''3-point form of a circle equation'':
: $\frac = \frac .$

;Homogeneous form
In homogeneous coordinates, each conic section with the equation of a circle has the form
: $x^2 + y^2 - 2axz - 2byz + cz^2 = 0.$

It can be proven that a conic section is a circle exactly when it contains (when extended to the complex projective plane) the points ''I''(1: ''i'': 0) and ''J''(1: −''i'': 0). These points are called the circular points at infinity.

Polar coordinates

In polar coordinates, the equation of a circle is
: $r^2 - 2 r r_0 \cos(\theta - \phi) + r_0^2 = a^2,$

where ''a'' is the radius of the circle, $(r, \theta)$ are the polar coordinates of a generic point on the circle, and $(r_0, \phi)$ are the polar coordinates of the centre of the circle (i.e., ''r''₀ is the distance from the origin to the centre of the circle, and ''φ'' is the anticlockwise angle from the positive ''x'' axis to the line connecting the origin to the centre of the circle). For a circle centred on the origin, i.e. , this reduces to . When , or when the origin lies on the circle, the equation becomes
: $r = 2 a\cos(\theta - \phi).$

In the general case, the equation can be solved for ''r'', giving
: $r = r_0 \cos(\theta - \phi) \pm \sqrt.$
Note that without the ± sign, the equation would in some cases describe only half a circle.

Complex plane

In the complex plane, a circle with a centre at ''c'' and radius ''r'' has the equation

: $, z - c, = r.$

In parametric form, this can be written as

: $z = re^ + c.$

The slightly generalised equation
: $pz\overline + gz + \overline = q$

for real ''p'', ''q'' and complex ''g'' is sometimes called a generalised circle. This becomes the above equation for a circle with $p = 1,\ g = -\overline,\ q = r^2 - , c, ^2$, since $, z - c, ^2 = z\overline - \overlinez - c\overline + c\overline$. Not all generalised circles are actually circles: a generalised circle is either a (true) circle or a line.

Tangent lines

The tangent line through a point ''P'' on the circle is perpendicular to the diameter passing through ''P''. If and the circle has centre (''a'', ''b'') and radius ''r'', then the tangent line is perpendicular to the line from (''a'', ''b'') to (''x''₁, ''y''₁), so it has the form . Evaluating at (''x''₁, ''y''₁) determines the value of ''c'', and the result is that the equation of the tangent is
: $(x_1 - a)x + (y_1 - b)y = (x_1 - a)x_1 + (y_1 - b)y_1,$
or
: $(x_1 - a)(x - a) + (y_1 - b)(y - b) = r^2.$

If , then the slope of this line is
: $\frac = -\frac.$

This can also be found using implicit differentiation.

When the centre of the circle is at the origin, then the equation of the tangent line becomes
: $x_1 x + y_1 y = r^2,$
and its slope is
: $\frac = -\frac.$

Properties

* The circle is the shape with the largest area for a given length of perimeter (see Isoperimetric inequality).
* The circle is a highly symmetric shape: every line through the centre forms a line of reflection symmetry, and it has rotational symmetry around the centre for every angle. Its symmetry group is the orthogonal group O(2,''R''). The group of rotations alone is the circle group T.
* All circles are similar.
** A circle circumference and radius are proportional.
** The area enclosed and the square of its radius are proportional.
** The constants of proportionality are 2 and respectively.
* The circle that is centred at the origin with radius 1 is called the unit circle.
** Thought of as a great circle of the unit sphere, it becomes the Riemannian circle.
* Through any three points, not all on the same line, there lies a unique circle. In Cartesian coordinates, it is possible to give explicit formulae for the coordinates of the centre of the circle and the radius in terms of the coordinates of the three given points. See circumcircle.

Chord

* Chords are equidistant from the centre of a circle if and only if they are equal in length.
* The perpendicular bisector of a chord passes through the centre of a circle; equivalent statements stemming from the uniqueness of the perpendicular bisector are:
** A perpendicular line from the centre of a circle bisects the chord.
** The line segment through the centre bisecting a chord is perpendicular to the chord.
* If a central angle and an inscribed angle of a circle are subtended by the same chord and on the same side of the chord, then the central angle is twice the inscribed angle.
* If two angles are inscribed on the same chord and on the same side of the chord, then they are equal.
* If two angles are inscribed on the same chord and on opposite sides of the chord, then they are supplementary.
** For a cyclic quadrilateral, the exterior angle is equal to the interior opposite angle.
* An inscribed angle subtended by a diameter is a right angle (see Thales' theorem).
* The diameter is the longest chord of the circle.
** Among all the circles with a chord AB in common, the circle with minimal radius is the one with diameter AB.
* If the intersection of any two chords divides one chord into lengths ''a'' and ''b'' and divides the other chord into lengths ''c'' and ''d'', then .
* If the intersection of any two perpendicular chords divides one chord into lengths ''a'' and ''b'' and divides the other chord into lengths ''c'' and ''d'', then equals the square of the diameter.
* The sum of the squared lengths of any two chords intersecting at right angles at a given point is the same as that of any other two perpendicular chords intersecting at the same point and is given by 8''r''² − 4''p''², where ''r'' is the circle radius, and ''p'' is the distance from the centre point to the point of intersection.
* The distance from a point on the circle to a given chord times the diameter of the circle equals the product of the distances from the point to the ends of the chord.

Tangent

* A line drawn perpendicular to a radius through the end point of the radius lying on the circle is a tangent to the circle.
* A line drawn perpendicular to a tangent through the point of contact with a circle passes through the centre of the circle.
* Two tangents can always be drawn to a circle from any point outside the circle, and these tangents are equal in length.
* If a tangent at ''A'' and a tangent at ''B'' intersect at the exterior point ''P'', then denoting the centre as ''O'', the angles ∠''BOA'' and ∠''BPA'' are supplementary.
* If ''AD'' is tangent to the circle at ''A'' and if ''AQ'' is a chord of the circle, then .

Theorems

* The chord theorem states that if two chords, ''CD'' and ''EB'', intersect at ''A'', then .
* If two secants, ''AE'' and ''AD'', also cut the circle at ''B'' and ''C'' respectively, then (corollary of the chord theorem).
* A tangent can be considered a limiting case of a secant whose ends are coincident. If a tangent from an external point ''A'' meets the circle at ''F'' and a secant from the external point ''A'' meets the circle at ''C'' and ''D'' respectively, then (tangent–secant theorem).
* The angle between a chord and the tangent at one of its endpoints is equal to one half the angle subtended at the centre of the circle, on the opposite side of the chord (tangent chord angle).
* If the angle subtended by the chord at the centre is 90 °, then , where ''ℓ'' is the length of the chord, and ''r'' is the radius of the circle.
* If two secants are inscribed in the circle as shown at right, then the measurement of angle ''A'' is equal to one half the difference of the measurements of the enclosed arcs ($\overset$ and $\overset$). That is, $2\angle = \angle - \angle$, where ''O'' is the centre of the circle (secant–secant theorem).

Inscribed angles

An inscribed angle (examples are the blue and green angles in the figure) is exactly half the corresponding central angle (red). Hence, all inscribed angles that subtend the same arc (pink) are equal. Angles inscribed on the arc (brown) are supplementary. In particular, every inscribed angle that subtends a diameter is a right angle (since the central angle is 180°).

Sagitta

The sagitta (also known as the versine

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