Bo (parsha) on:
[Wikipedia]
[Google]
[Amazon]
Bo ( — in
Bo ( — in Hebrew
Hebrew (; ; ) is a Northwest Semitic language of the Afroasiatic language family. Historically, it is one of the spoken languages of the Israelites and their longest-surviving descendants, the Jews and Samaritans. It was largely preserved ...
, the command form of "go," or "come," and the first significant word in the parashah, in ) is the fifteenth weekly Torah portion
It is a custom among religious Jewish communities for a weekly Torah portion to be read during Jewish prayer services on Monday, Thursday, and Saturday. The full name, ''Parashat HaShavua'' ( he, פָּרָשַׁת הַשָּׁבוּעַ), is p ...
(, ''parashah'') in the annual Jewish
Jews ( he, יְהוּדִים, , ) or Jewish people are an ethnoreligious group and nation originating from the Israelites Israelite origins and kingdom: "The first act in the long drama of Jewish history is the age of the Israelites""The ...
cycle of Torah reading
Torah reading (; ') is a Jewish religious tradition that involves the public reading of a set of passages from a Torah scroll. The term often refers to the entire ceremony of removing the scroll (or scrolls) from the Torah ark, chanting th ...
and the third in the Book of Exodus
The Book of Exodus (from grc, Ἔξοδος, translit=Éxodos; he, שְׁמוֹת ''Šəmōṯ'', "Names") is the second book of the Bible. It narrates the story of the Exodus, in which the Israelites leave slavery in Biblical Egypt through ...
. The parashah constitutes . The parashah tells of the last three plagues on Egypt and the first Passover
Passover, also called Pesach (; ), is a major Jewish holiday that celebrates the Biblical story of the Israelites escape from slavery in Egypt, which occurs on the 15th day of the Hebrew month of Nisan, the first month of Aviv, or spring. ...
.
The parashah is made up of 6,149 Hebrew letters, 1,655 Hebrew word
A word is a basic element of language that carries an objective or practical meaning, can be used on its own, and is uninterruptible. Despite the fact that language speakers often have an intuitive grasp of what a word is, there is no conse ...
s, 106 verses, and 207 lines in a Torah Scroll. Jew
Jews ( he, יְהוּדִים, , ) or Jewish people are an ethnoreligious group and nation originating from the Israelites Israelite origins and kingdom: "The first act in the long drama of Jewish history is the age of the Israelites""T ...
s read it the fifteenth Sabbath
In Abrahamic religions, the Sabbath () or Shabbat (from Hebrew ) is a day set aside for rest and worship. According to the Book of Exodus, the Sabbath is a day of rest on the seventh day, commanded by God to be kept as a holy day of rest, as ...
after Simchat Torah
Simchat Torah or Simhat Torah (, lit., "Rejoicing with/of the Torah", Ashkenazi: ''Simchas Torah'') is a Jewish holiday that celebrates and marks the conclusion of the annual cycle of public Torah readings, and the beginning of a new cycle. Simch ...
, generally in January or early February. As the parashah describes the first Passover, Jews also read part of the parashah, , as the initial Torah reading for the first day
A day is the time period of a full rotation of the Earth with respect to the Sun. On average, this is 24 hours, 1440 minutes, or 86,400 seconds. In everyday life, the word "day" often refers to a solar day, which is the length between two ...
of Passover, and another part, , as the initial Torah reading for the first intermediate day ('' Chol HaMoed'') of Passover. Jews also read another part of the parashah, , which describes the laws of Passover, as the ''maftir
Maftir ( he, מפטיר, , concluder) is the last person called up to the Torah on Shabbat and holiday mornings: this person also reads (or at least recites the blessings overs) the ''haftarah'' portion from a related section of the Nevi'im (pro ...
'' Torah reading for the Special Sabbath Shabbat HaChodesh, which falls on Rosh Chodesh
Rosh Chodesh or Rosh Hodesh ( he, ראש חודש; trans. ''Beginning of the Month''; lit. ''Head of the Month'') is the name for the first day of every month in the Hebrew calendar, marked by the birth of a new moon. It is considered a minor ...
Nisan
Nisan (or Nissan; he, נִיסָן, Standard ''Nīsan'', Tiberian ''Nīsān''; from akk, 𒊬𒊒𒄀 ''Nisanu'') in the Babylonian and Hebrew calendars is the month of the barley ripening and first month of spring. The name of the month i ...
, the month in which Jews celebrate Passover.
Readings
In traditional Sabbath Torah reading, the parashah is divided into seven readings, or , '' aliyot''. In theMasoretic Text
The Masoretic Text (MT or 𝕸; he, נֻסָּח הַמָּסוֹרָה, Nūssāḥ Hammāsōrā, lit. 'Text of the Tradition') is the authoritative Hebrew and Aramaic text of the 24 books of the Hebrew Bible (Tanakh) in Rabbinic Judaism. ...
of the Hebrew Bible
The Hebrew Bible or Tanakh (;"Tanach"
'' Tanakh The Hebrew Bible or Tanakh (;"Tanach"
'' peh'')). Parashat Bo has seven further subdivisions, called "closed portion" (, ''setumah'') divisions (abbreviated with the Hebrew letter (''
In the continuation of the reading, God told Moses and Aaron to mark that month as the first of the months of the
The reading concludes with a notice that on the same day, God bought the Israelites out of Egypt. The sixth reading and the sixth open portion end here with the end of chapter .
17
an
, an
and
an
an
describe the Land of Israel as a land flowing “with milk and honey.” Similarly, the Middle Egyptian (early second millennium BCE) tale of Sinuhe Palestine described the Land of Israel or, as the Egyptian tale called it, the land of Yaa: "It was a good land called Yaa. Figs were in it and grapes. It had more wine than water. Abundant was its honey, plentiful its oil. All kind of fruit were on its trees. Barley was there and emmer, and no end of cattle of all kinds."
an
43–50
and refer to the
Some believe that the "Feast of Unleavened Bread" was an agricultural festival at which the Israelites celebrated the beginning of the grain harvest. Moses may have had this festival in mind when in and he petitioned Pharaoh to let the Israelites go to celebrate a feast in the wilderness.W. Gunther Plaut, ''The Torah: A Modern Commentary'', page 464.
"Passover," on the other hand, was associated with a thanksgiving sacrifice of a lamb, also called "the Passover," "the Passover lamb," or "the Passover offering."
, , and an
5
and direct "Passover" to take place on the evening of the fourteenth of
an
27
link the word "Passover" (''Pesach'', ) to God's act to "pass over" (''pasach'', ) the Israelites' houses in the
It was taught in a 
A Midrash taught that God fixed a time of "tomorrow" for the plague of locusts in so that the Egyptians might feel remorse and do penitence (thus showing that the Egyptians were still not barred from doing penitence).
A Midrash read the words of , "And he turned, and went out from Pharaoh," to teach that Moses saw Pharaoh's ministers turning to one another, as if inclined to believe the words of Moses. So Moses turned to go out to allow them to talk about how to repent.
Reading in that "Pharaoh's servants said to him: ‘How long shall this man be a snare unto us?'" the Sages counted Pharaoh's servants among six exemplars who gave good advice, along with Naaman's servants, King 
A Midrash read Pharaoh's words to Moses in , "see that evil is before your face," to indicate that Pharaoh deduced that one who made a request for the young and the old to go could have only one object in mind — to flee. Pharaoh thus perceived that Moses sought to do evil and flee. On that account, Pharaoh said that he would not listen to Moses in anything further, and in the words of , "they were driven out from Pharaoh's presence"
The Mishnat Rabbi Eliezer taught that Pharaoh mocked the Israelites when he told Moses in , "for that is what you desire." The Mishnat Rabbi Eliezer taught that mockery yields evil results, for God did not change the course of nature in any of the plagues until Pharaoh mocked the Israelites. Pharaoh jeered at the Israelites, telling Moses "You tell me, ‘The men, the women, and the children are to go'; yet you really need only the men." And since Pharaoh mocked the Israelites, God altered the course of nature and turned light into darkenss upon Pharaoh.
A Midrash read Pharaoh's words to Moses in , "I have sinned against the Lord your God," to apply to Pharaoh's not letting the Israelites go free (as God had commanded Pharaoh through Moses). And Pharaoh's words to Moses, "I have sinned . . . against you," to apply to Pharaoh's driving Moses out from his presence, as well as to Pharaoh's intention to curse Moses when Pharaoh said in , "So be the Lord with you." Thus Pharaoh sought forgiveness in , asking Moses, "Now therefore forgive, I pray, my sin only this once."
The 
Reading the words "even darkness that could be felt" in , the Sages conjectured that it was as thick as a denar coin, for "even darkness that could be felt" implied a darkness that had substance.
Rabbi Abdimi of 
The Midrash noted that says: "but all the children of Israel had light in their dwellings," not, "in the land of Goshen," and concluded that light accompanied the Israelites wherever they went and illumined what was within barrels, boxes, and treasure-chests. Concerning them says: "Your word is a lamp for my feet."
The Midrash taught that the six days of darkness occurred in Egypt, while the seventh day of darkness was a day of darkness of the sea, as says: "And there was the cloud and the darkness here, yet it gave light by night there." So God sent clouds and darkness and covered the Egyptians with darkness, but gave light to the Israelites, as God had done for them in Egypt. Hence says: "The Lord is my light and my salvation." And the Midrash taught that in the 
A Midrash noted that reports that "Pharaoh's heart was hardened" without God's action, and that this was so for the first five plagues. As the first five plagues did not move Pharaoh to release the Israelites, God decreed that from then on, even if Pharaoh had agreed to release the Israelites, God would not accept it. Thus starting with the sixth plague and thereafter, as reports, the text says, "the Lord hardened Pharaoh's heart."
The 
Rabbi Jannai taught that one should always show respect to a ruler, following the example of Moses, who in , told Pharaoh that "all your servants shall . . . bow down to me," but out of respect for royalty did not say that Pharaoh himself would seek favors of Moses, as reported in . Similarly, a Midrash interpreted God's instructions to Moses and Aaron in , "and to Pharaoh, King of Egypt," to convey that God told Moses and Aaron that although God really ought to punish Pharaoh, God wanted Moses and Aaron to show Pharaoh the respect due to his regal position. And Moses did so, as reports that Moses told Pharaoh that God said, "And all these your servants shall come down to Me." Moses did not say that Pharaoh would come down, only that Pharaoh's servants would do so. But Moses could well have said that Pharaoh himself would come down, for reports, "Pharaoh arose at midnight." But Moses did not mention Pharaoh specifically so as to pay him respect.
Rabbi Joshua ben Karhah taught that a lasting effect resulted from every instance of "fierce anger" in the Torah. The Gemara questioned whether this principle held true in the case of , which reports that Moses "went out from Pharaoh in hot anger," but does not report Moses saying anything to Pharaoh as a result of his anger. In response, the Gemara reported that Resh Lakish taught that Moses slapped Pharaoh before he left Pharaoh's presence.
The Pirke De-Rabbi Eliezer taught that God created the sun and the moon on the 28th of 
Tractate
43–49
; ; ; ; ; ; ; and ; .
Tractate
43–49
; ; ; ;
and . And elsewhere, the Mishnah taught that intent to eat the Passover offering raw (violating the commandment of ) or to break the bones of the offering (violating the commandment of ) did not invalidate the offering itself. The Mishnah in tractate Challah taught that anyone who eats an olive's bulk of unleavened bread (, ''matzah'') on Passover has fulfilled the obligation of , and interpreted to teach that anyone who eats an olive's bulk of leavened bread (, ''
The Mishnah taught that on the evening of the 14th of Nisan, Jews searched for leavened food in the house by candlelight. Any place into which one did not bring leavened food did not require checking. The Sages taught that one needed to check two rows in a wine cellar, as it was a place into which one brought leavened food. The House of Shammai taught that one needed to check the two front rows of the entire wine cellar, but the House of Hillel taught that one needed to check only the two outer rows that were uppermost. They did not worry that perhaps a weasel had dragged leavened bread from house to house, or from place to place, for if they had, they would have had to worry that the weasel had dragged leavened bread from courtyard to courtyard and from city to city, and there would have been no end to the matter. Rabbi Judah taught that they searched for leavened foods on the evening of the 14th, and on the morning of the 14th, and at the time that they destroyed the leavened foods (in the sixth hour — between 11 a.m. and noon). But the Sages maintained that if they did not search on the evening of the 14th, they needed to search on the 14th; if they did not search in the morning of the 14th, they needed to search at the time that they destroyed the leavened foods; if they did not search at that time, they needed to search after that time. And what they left over for the last morning meal before the Festival, they needed to put away in a hidden place, so that they should not need to search after it. Rabbi Meir taught that they could eat leavened foods through the fifth hour of the morning, and needed to burn it at the beginning of the sixth hour. Rabbi Judah taught that they could eat it through the fourth hour of the morning, needed to keep it in suspense during the fifth hour, and needed to burn it at the beginning of the sixth hour. Rabbi Judah also told that they used to put two unfit loaves of the thank offering on the roof of the Temple portico, and as long as the loaves lay there, all the people would eat leavened foods. When they would remove one loaf, the people would keep leavened foods in suspense, neither eating nor burning it. And when they removed both loaves, the people began burning their leavened foods. Rabban 
The Mishnah taught that the grains with which one could discharge one's obligation (pursuant to ) to eat unleavened bread (, ''matzah'') on Passover included wheat, barley, 
Chapter 10 of Mishnah Pesachim taught the procedure for the 
The Gemara taught that one needed to recline for the eating of the unleavened bread (, ''matzah'') and for the drinking of the wine, but not for the bitter herbs.
A Baraita taught that each of the four cups of wine needed to contain at least a ''reviis'' of wine (the volume of one and a half eggs, or roughly 4 to 5 ounces). And Rav Nachman bar Yitzchak taught that one must drink most of each cup.
The Tosefta taught that it is a religious duty for one to bring joy to one's children and dependents on Passover. The Tosefta taught that one brings them joy with wine, as says, “wine . . . makes glad the heart of man.” Rabbi Judah taught that one gives to women what is suitable to bring them joy and to children what is suitable to bring them joy. Similarly, in the Babylonian Talmud, the Rabbis taught that Jews are duty bound to make their children and their household rejoice on a Festival, for says, "And you shall rejoice it, your feast, you and your son and your daughter." The Gemara taught that one makes them rejoice with wine. Rabbi Judah taught that men gladden with what is suitable for them, and women with what is suitable for them. The Gemara explained that what is suitable for men is wine. And Rav Joseph taught that in Babylonia, they gladdened women with colored garments, while in the Land of Israel, they gladdened women with pressed linen garments. Rabbi 
The Mishnah continued that they mixed the first cup of wine for the leader of the Seder. The House of Shammai taught that the leader first recited a blessing for the day, and then a blessing over the wine, while the House of Hillel ruled that the leader first recited a blessing over the wine, and then recited a blessing for the day.
Then they set food before the leader. The leader dipped and ate lettuce (which was ''
They filled a second cup of wine for the leader. Then a child asked questions. If the child was not intelligent, the parent would instruct the child to ask why this night was different from all other nights. On all other nights they ate leavened and unleavened bread, while on this night they ate only unleavened bread (, ''matzah''). On all other nights, they ate all kinds of herbs, while on this night they ate only bitter herbs. (Early editions of the Mishnah and some editions of the Jerusalem Talmud did not include this item.) On all other nights, they ate meat roasted, stewed, or boiled, while on this night they ate only roasted meat. On all other nights, they dipped once, while on this night they dipped twice. (While the Jerusalem Talmud preserved this reading, some editions of the Babylonian Talmud emended this item to read, “On all other nights we do not have to dip even one time . . . .”) And the parent instructed according to the child's intelligence. The parent began to answer the questions by recounting the people's humble beginnings, and concluded with the people's praise. The parent recounted the credo of , "My father was a wandering Aramean . . . ."
The Rabbis taught in a Baraita that if a child is intelligent enough to ask the four questions, the child asks them. If the child is not intelligent enough, the wife asks them. If the wife does not ask the questions, the leader of the seder asks them. And even two scholars who know the laws of Passover must ask one another (if no one else can ask).
The Mishnah stated that one answer to the questions of why this night is different from all other nights is that on all other nights we dip once; however, on this night we dip twice. Mishnah Pesachim 10:4, in, e.g., Jacob Neusner, translator, ''Mishnah'', page 250
Babylonian Talmud Pesachim 116a
in, e.g., ''Talmud Bavli'', elucidated by Eliezer Herzka, Dovid Kamenetsky, Eli Shulman, Feivel Wahl, and Mendy Wachsman, edited by Yisroel Simcha Schorr and Chaim Malinowitz, volume 11, page 116a2. In the Babylonian Talmud, Rava objected to this statement, questioning whether on every other day there was a requirement to dip once. Rather, Rava said that the Mishnah taught that on all other nights we are ''not obligated'' to dip even once; however, on this night we are obligated to dip twice. Rav Safra objected to this explanation, questioning whether one could deduce this from what we do simply to arouse children's curiosity. Rather, Rav Safra said that the Mishnah taught that ''normally'' we do not dip even once; however, on this night we dip twice.Babylonian Talmud Pesachim 116a
in, e.g., ''Talmud Bavli'', elucidated by Eliezer Herzka, Dovid Kamenetsky, Eli Shulman, Feivel Wahl, and Mendy Wachsman, edited by Yisroel Simcha Schorr and Chaim Malinowitz, volume 11, page 116a3. The Mishnah taught that the parent begins the answer with disgrace and concludes with glory. The Gemara asked what the Mishnah meant by “with disgrace.” In the Babylonian Talmud, Rav (
The Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmael taught that there are four types of children (as evinced by the four times — in ; ; ; and — that Scripture reports telling a child) — the wise, the simple, the wicked, and the type who does not know how to ask. The wise child asks, in the words of “What mean the testimonies, and the statutes, and the ordinances, that the Lord our God has commanded you?” The Mekhilta taught that we explain to this child all the laws of Passover. The simple child asks, in the words of “What is this?” The Mekhilta taught that we respond simply with the words of “By strength of hand the Lord brought us out from Egypt, from the house of bondage.” The wicked child asks, in the words of “What do ''you'' mean by this service?” The Mekhilta taught that because wicked children exclude themselves, we should also exclude this child in answering and say, in the words of “It is because of what the Lord did for ''me'' when I came forth out of Egypt” — for me but not for you; had you been there, you would not have been saved. As for the child who does not know how to ask, the Mekhilta taught that we take the initiative, as says (without having reported that the child asked), “You shall tell your child on that day.”
Rabban Gamaliel said that one needed to mention three things on Passover to discharge one's duty: the Passover offering, unleavened bread (, ''matzah''), and bitter herbs (''maror''). The Passover offering was sacrificed because God passed over the Israelites' houses in Egypt. They ate unleavened bread because the Israelites were redeemed from Egypt. And they ate bitter herbs because the Egyptians embittered the lives of the Israelites in Egypt. In every generation, all were bound to regard themselves as though they personally had gone out of Egypt, because says, "You shall tell your child in that day: ‘It is because of what the Lord did for ''me'' when ''I'' came out of Egypt.'" Therefore, it was everyone's duty to thank and praise God for performing those miracles for the Israelites and their descendants. God brought them forth from bondage into freedom, from sorrow into joy, from mourning into festivity, from darkness into light, and from servitude into redemption. Therefore, they were to say hallelujah!
In the Mishnah, the House of Shammai and the House of Hillel disagreed about how far one should recite into the
in, e.g., Jacob Neusner, translator, ''Mishnah'', page 250
Babylonian Talmud Pesachim 116b
in, e.g., ''Talmud Bavli'', elucidated by Eliezer Herzka, Dovid Kamenetsky, Eli Shulman, Feivel Wahl, and Mendy Wachsman, edited by Yisroel Simcha Schorr and Chaim Malinowitz, volume 11, page 116b2. The Tosefta and the Jerusalem Talmud reported that the House of Shammai argued to the House of Hillel that since the original Passover meal in Egypt preceded the Exodus, it would be inappropriate at a Passover seder to give thanks for the Exodus. The House of Hillel argued to the House of Shammai that since the Israelites only left Egypt at midday (for which the Jerusalem Talmud cited , which it read to say, “And it came to pass in the middle of that day”), it would still be inappropriate to mention the Exodus on the morning after the seder. The Jerusalem Talmud reported that the House of Hillel concluded that once one has started a religious duty, one should finish it. And Rabbi Abuna bar Sehorah questioned the argument of the House of Shammai, as one will already have mentioned the Exodus from Egypt in the Sanctification blessing said over a cup at the seder's beginning. The Mishnah taught that one concluded with a blessing of redemption. Rabbi
43–49
; ; ; ;
and . and the second Passover in . The Mishnah taught that the prohibitions of that "seven days shall there be no leaven found in your houses" and of that "no leaven shall be seen in all your territory" applied to the first Passover; while at the second Passover, one could have both leavened and unleavened bread in one's house. And the Mishnah taught that for the first Passover, one was required to recite the Hallel () when the Passover lamb was eaten; while the second Passover did not require the reciting of Hallel when the Passover lamb was eaten. But both the first and second Passovers required the reciting of Hallel when the Passover lambs were offered, and both Passover lambs were eaten roasted with unleavened bread (, ''matzah'') and bitter herbs. And both the first and second Passovers took precedence over the Sabbath.
A Midrash interpreted the words of , "Lo, if we sacrifice the abomination of the Egyptians before their eyes, will they not stone us?" to teach that the Egyptians saw the lamb as a god. Thus, when God told Moses to slay the paschal lamb (as reflected in ), Moses asked God how he could possibly do so, when the lamb was as Egyptian god. God replied that the Israelites would not depart from Egypt until they slaughtered the Egyptian gods before the Egyptians' eyes, so that God might teach them that their gods were really nothing at all. And thus God did so, for on the same night that God slew the Egyptian firstborn, the Israelites slaughtered their paschal lambs and ate them. When the Egyptians saw their firstborn slain and their gods slaughtered, they could do nothing, as reports, "While the Egyptians were burying them whom the Lord had smitten among them, even all their firstborn; upon their gods also the Lord executed judgment."
A Midrash noted that God commanded the Israelites to perform certain precepts with similar material from trees: God commanded that the Israelites throw cedar wood and hyssop into the Red Heifer mixture of and use hyssop to sprinkle the resulting waters of lustration in ; God commanded that the Israelites use cedar wood and hyssop to purify those stricken with skin disease in ; and in Egypt God commanded the Israelites to use the bunch of hyssop to strike the lintel and the two side-posts with blood in .
The Midrash noted that many things appear lowly, but God commanded many precepts to be performed with them. The hyssop, for instance, appears to be of no worth to people, yet its power is great in the eyes of God, who put it on a level with cedar in the purification of the leper in and the burning of the Red Cow in
and employed it in the Exodus from Egypt in . A Midrash taught that the words of , "The fig-trees put forth her green figs," refer to the sinners of Israel who died in the three days of darkness, as says, "And there was a thick darkness . . . they saw not one another." The Mishnah described the appropriate hyssop for ceremonial use as a bunch containing three stalks bearing three buds. Rabbi Judah said three stalks bearing three buds each. Reading , regarding the Hebrew servant who chose not to go free and whose master brought him to the doorpost and bore his ear through with an awl, Rabbi Simeon bar Rabbi explained that God singled out the doorpost from all other parts of the house because the doorpost was witness in Egypt when God passed over the lintel and the doorposts (as reported in ) and proclaimed (in the words of ), “For to me the children of Israel are servants, they are my servants,” and not servants of servants, and so God brought them forth from bondage to freedom, yet this servant acquired a master for himself. Rav Joseph interpreted the words of , “And none of you shall go out at the door of his house until the morning,” to teach that once God has granted permission to the Destroyer, he does not distinguish between righteous and wicked. Moreover, he even begins with the righteous at the outset, as says, “And I will cut off from you the righteous and the wicked” (mentioning the righteous first). Rav Joseph wept at this, but
Reading , "For the Lord will pass through to smite the Egyptians," a Midrash observed that some say that God acted through the medium of an angel ("the Destroyer," , ''ha-mashchit''), while others said that God acted on God's own.
A Midrash deduced from , “And the Lord will pass over the door,” that God was at the door at that time. The Midrash thus questioned why says, “And when He sees the blood upon the lintel.” The Midrash explained that this followed the usual practice, just as a butcher marks with red paint those sheep destined for slaughter to distinguish them from those that the butcher wishes to keep alive. So the Midrash told that God stood at the door and thrust away the Destroyer so that he should not smite the Israelites.
The Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmael interpreted the words "the firstborn of Pharaoh who sat on his throne" in to teach that Pharaoh himself was a firstborn, as well. And the Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmael taught that God preserved him as the only firstborn of Egypt to survive the plague.
The Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmael asked how the captives had sinned that God struck their firstborn, as reports. The Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmael explained that God struck them so that they should not say that their god brought this punishment on the Egyptians but not on them. Alternatively, the Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmael told that God struck them because the captives used to rejoice over every decree that Pharaoh decreed against the Israelites. And the Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmael taught that the Egyptian servants did so, as well, thus explaining why God said in that God would strike the firstborn of the maidservant who was behind the mill.
Reading the report of that "there was not a house where there was not one dead," Rabbi Nathan asked whether there were no houses without firstborn. The Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmael explained that when an Egyptian firstborn would die, the parents would set up a statue of the firstborn in the house. The Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmael further taught that on the night of the plague of the firstborn, God crushed, ground, and scattered those statues as well, and the parents grieved anew as though they had just buried their firstborn.Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmael, Tractate Pisha, chapter 13, in, e.g., Jacob Lauterbach, translator, ''Mekhilta de-Rabbi Ishmael'', volume 1, page 69.
The Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmael interpreted the words "and he called for Moses and Aaron" in to teach that Pharaoh went around the land of Egypt asking everyone where Moses and Aaron lived.
The Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmael explained that the Egyptians said, "We are all dead men," in because in many families, many sons died. The Egyptian men had thought that a man who had four or five sons would have lost only the eldest, in accord with the warning of Moses in that "the ''firstborn'' in the land of Egypt shall die." But they did not know, told the Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmael, that all their sons were the firstborn sons of different bachelors with whom their wives had committed adultery. God exposed the women's adultery, and all of the sons died. The Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmael taught that if God makes public evil, which is of lesser importance, how much more will God reward good, which is of greater importance.
Similarly, reading God's words in , "accept gifts for Me from ''every person'' whose heart so moves him," the Mekhilta of Rabbi Simeon deduced that each and every Israelite was so rich from having stripped the Egyptians — as reported in — that each Israelite had the wherewithal to erect the Tent of Meeting, with all its vessels, all of its golden hooks, boards, wooden bars, columns, and pedestals.
A Baraita taught that in the time of 
A Midrash taught that the Israelites were counted on ten occasions: (1) when they went down to Egypt (); (2) when they went up out of Egypt (); (3) at the first census in Numbers (); (4) at the second census in Numbers (); (5) once for the banners; (6) once in the time of Joshua for the division of the Land of Israel; (7) once by 
A Midrash explained that Moses numbered the Israelites like a shepherd to whom an owner entrusted a flock by number. When the shepherd came to the end of the shepherd's time, on returning them, the shepherd had to count them again. When Israel left Egypt, God entrusted the Israelites to Moses by number, as reports, “And the Lord spoke to Moses in the wilderness of Sinai . . . ‘Take the sum of all the congregation of the children of Israel.’” And records that “the children of Israel journeyed from Rameses to Succoth, about 600,000 men on foot,” demonstrating that Moses took responsibility for the Israelites in Egypt by number. When, therefore, Moses was about to depart from the world in the plain of Moab, he returned them to God by number after having them counted in the census reported at .
The Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmael interpreted the account of unleavened cakes of dough in to teach that the Israelites had kneaded the dough but did not have sufficient time to let it leaven before they were redeemed.
A Baraita taught that King Ptolemy brought together 72 elders and placed them in 72 separate rooms, without telling them why he had brought them together, and asked each of them to translate the Torah. God then prompted each of the elders to conceive the same idea and not to follow the Masoretic Text in their translation in a number of cases, including , “And the abode of the children of Israel which they stayed in Egypt ''and in other lands'' was 400 years.” The translation of the 72 elders inserted the words “and in other lands,” because, according to the Biblical record, the Israelites were in Egypt at most 210 years.
A Baraita taught that when Moses broke the stone tablets in , it was one of three actions that Moses took based on his own understanding with which God then agreed. The Gemara explained that Moses reasoned that if the Passover lamb, which was just one of the 613 commandments, was prohibited by to aliens, then certainly the whole Torah should be prohibited to the Israelites, who had acted as apostates with the
48
the Gemara told the tale of a certain Syrian non-Jew who used to eat of the Passover sacrifices in Jerusalem, boasting that says, “There shall no alien eat thereof,” and says, “No uncircumcised person shall eat thereof,” yet he ate of the very best. Rabbi Judah ben Bathyra asked him whether he had ever eaten of the fat tail, and the Syrian replied that he had not. So Rabbi Judah ben Bathyra told the Syrian that the next time he went to Jerusalem for Passover, he should ask them to give him the fat tail. So when the Syrian went up, he asked them for the fat-tail. They answered him that the fat-tail belongs to God (and is burnt on the altar) and asked him who told him to ask for it. The Syrian told them that Rabbi Judah ben Bathyra had done so. Their suspicions aroused, they investigated who the Syrian was, discovered that he was not a Jew, and killed him. Then they sent a message to Rabbi Judah ben Bathyra saying that he was in
11–16
and and — invalidates the others, and indeed even one imperfect letter can invalidate the whole. Tractate
12–13
; and ; and and . Elsewhere, the Mishnah drew from that money in exchange for a firstborn donkey could be given to any
17
, and , , an
and
an
an
Once when Rami bar Ezekiel visited
27
; and
an
The ''
Reading “The Lord spoke . . . in the Sinai Desert . . . on the first of the month . . . ‘Take a census,’”
16
Maimonides taught that God designed the wearing of ''tefillin'' as a more enduring form of worship than the practice of sacrifices, which Maimonides taught were a transitional step to wean the Israelites off of the worship of the times and move them toward prayer as the primary means of worship. Maimonides noted that in nature, God created animals that develop gradually. For example, when a
16
and similar kinds of service. Maimonides explained the laws governing the redemption of a firstborn son ('' pidyon haben'') in . Maimonides taught that it is a positive commandment for every Jewish man to redeem his son who is the firstborn of a Jewish mother, as says, "All first issues of the womb are mine," and says, "And you shall surely redeem a firstborn man." Maimonides taught that a mother is not obligated to redeem her son. If a father fails to redeem his son, when the son comes of age, he is obligated to redeem himself. If it is necessary for a man to redeem both himself and his son, he should redeem himself first and then his son. If he only has enough money for one redemption, he should redeem himself. A person who redeems his son recites the blessing: "Blessed are You . . . who sanctified us with His commandments and commanded us concerning the redemption of a son." Afterwards, he recites the ''
28
and ; Pharaoh made Israel's labor heavy in ; God in response sent heavy plagues in ;
and , so that God might be glorified over Pharaoh in
an
and the book culminates with the descent of God's fiery Glory, described as a “heavy cloud,” first upon Sinai and later upon the Tabernacle in ; ; ;
and .
Harold Fisch argued that the command of and to hand on from one generation to another
I, scene 5, line 98
of
Gunther Plaut reported that scholars generally agree that the term “Hebrew” (, ''Ivri''), as in , came from the name of a group called ''
Moritz Markus Kalisch read to indicate that Pharaoh's servants, whom Kalisch identified with Pharaoh's magicians, had become convinced of God's unlimited power.
26
, and theorize that the holiday may originally have involved some sort of ritual “hopping.” A second Festival — the Festival of Unleavened Bread — involved farmers eating unleavened barley bread for seven days when the winter's barley crop had reached maturity and was ready for harvest. Farmers observed this Festival with a trip to a local sanctuary (as in and ). Modern scholars believe that the absence of yeast in the bread indicated purity (as in ). The listing of Festivals in and appear to provide evidence for the independent existence of the Festival of Unleavened Bread. Modern scholars suggest that the farmers' Festival of Unleavened Bread and the shepherds' Passover later merged into a single festival, Passover moved from the home to the Temple, and the combined festival was explicitly connected to the Exodus (as in ). Collins reported that the Egyptians built the city of Pi-Ramesse, mentioned in , on the site of the old Hyksos capital of Avari and reoccupied it in the time of Ramesses II (1304–1237 BCE), and as a consequence, most scholars have favored a date around 1250 BCE for the Exodus. Collins argued that all we can really say is that the biblical Exodus account was written some time after the building of Pi-Ramesse and Per-Atum, and possibly that the author knew of a tradition associating Semitic laborers with those cities.
17
an
, an
and
an
an
MacDonald wrote that the term for milk (, ''chalav'') could easily be the word for "fat" (, ''chelev''), and the word for honey (, ''devash'') could indicate not bees' honey but a sweet syrup made from fruit. The expression evoked a general sense of the bounty of the land and suggested an ecological richness exhibited in a number of ways, not just with milk and honey. MacDonald noted that the expression was always used to describe a land that the people of Israel had not yet experienced, and thus characterized it as always a future expectation. Ephraim Speiser wrote that the word “Torah” () is based on a verbal stem signifying “to teach, guide,” and the like, and the derived noun can carry a variety of meanings. Speiser argued that when the noun is applied to God in , its connotation is broadened to embrace a cherished way of life, but cannot be mistaken for the title of the Pentateuch as a whole. Jacob Milgrom taught that the verbs used in the laws of the redemption of a firstborn son (''pidyon haben'') in and and , "''natan'', ''kiddesh'', ''he‘evir'' to the Lord," as well as the use of ''padah'', "ransom," indicate that the firstborn son was considered God's property. Milgrom surmised that this may reflect an ancient rule where the firstborn was expected to care for the burial and worship of his deceased parents. Thus the Bible may preserve the memory of the firstborn bearing a sacred status, and the replacement of the firstborn by the Levites in
40–51
and may reflect the establishment of a professional priestly class. Milgrom dismissed as without support the theory that the firstborn was originally offered as a sacrifice. In April 2014, the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of
13–15
as fathers are. Terence Fretheim argued that give a special twist to the issue of the firstborn, teaching that Israel was to be attentive to its firstborn because of the suffering of the Egyptian firstborn. Fretheim noted that does not mention the redeemed Israelite children of Passover night but the sacrificed Egyptian firstborn, followed by “Therefore.” Fretheim thus argued that the firstborn belong to God not only because Israelite children were saved but also because Egyptian children were killed. Fretheim argued that thus reminds Israel at what cost Israel's firstborn were redeemed. Fretheim nonetheless considered it doubtful that child sacrifice was in view.
*To slaughter the Passover lamb at the specified time
*To eat the Passover lamb with unleavened bread (, ''matzah'') and bitter herbs (''maror'') on the night of the fourteenth of Nisan
*Not to eat the Passover meat raw or boiled
*Not to leave any meat from the Passover lamb over until morning
*To destroy all leavened bread on the 14th of Nisan
*To eat unleavened bread (, ''matzah'') on the first night of Passover
*Not to find chametz in your domain seven days
*Not to eat mixtures containing ''chametz'' all seven days of Passover
*An 
Also in the ''magid'' section, the Haggadah quotes to answer the question: For what purpose did the Israelites eat the Passover offering at the time of the 
In the ''magid'' section, the Haggadah responds to a question that "one could think" that raises — that the obligation to tell the Exodus story begins on the first of the month — and clarifies that the obligation begins when Jews have their maztah and maror in front of them.
Also in the ''magid'' section, the Haggadah quotes — emphasizing the word "for me" (''li'') — for the proposition that in every generation, Jews have a duty to regard themselves as though they personally had gone out of Egypt.
Many Jews recite and two of the four texts contained in the 
Much of the language of the ''leshem yihud'' prayer before putting on
49–52
(hyssop); (Passover). * (firstborn); (Passover); (firstborn);
(hyssop); (Passover). * (hardening of heart); (hardening of heart); (parting gifts for freed slaves); (firstborn); (Passover). * (destruction of all but those with a red mark on their dwelling); (hardening of heart). * (firstborn). * (slaying those without the mark). * (darkness). * ("Purge me with hyssop"); (plagues); (plagues); (midnight). * (midnight).
Land of Israel, 2nd century BCE. In, e.g., ''The Book of Jubilees or the Little Genesis''. Translated by Robert H. Charles. London: Black, 1902. In, e.g., ''The Book of Jubilees: Translation of Early Jewish and Palestinian Texts'', pages 216–19.
Alexandria, Egypt, 2nd–1st century BCE. *
2:14:4
Circa 93–94. In, e.g., ''The Works of Josephus: Complete and Unabridged, New Updated Edition''. Translated by
Challah 1:24:9Orlah 3:3Bikkurim 2:9
Pesachim 1:1–10:9; Beitzah 1:1–5:7; Rosh Hashanah 1:1
Megillah 3:4Avodah Zarah 5:9Zevahim 3:6Menachot 3:7Bekhorot 1:1–6:128:1Keritot 1:1Parah 11:9
3rd century. In, e.g., ''The Mishnah: A New Translation''. Translated by
Rosh Hashanah 1:1–3Megillah 3:4
Sotah 4:5; Makkot 4:1; Zevachim 1:1; Menachot 8:28; Bekhorot 1:1–7:15. (Land of Israel, circa 250 CE). In, e.g., ''The Tosefta: Translated from the Hebrew, with a New Introduction''. Translated by Jacob Neusner, volume 1, pages 198, 339, 471–522, 572, 585–86, 605, 645, 846; volume 2, pages 1208–09, 1308, 1445, 1469–94. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 2002. *
*Babylonian
Berakhot 3b–4a9a–b10b37a38b55b–56bShabbat 24b–25a28b60b87a–b108a114b133a147bEruvin 23a27a96aPesachim 2a–121bYoma 36a49b51a79bSukkah 11b13a27a29a33a42bBeitzah 2a–40bRosh Hashanah 2a4a–b7a8b11b20a22a25bTaanit 7aMegillah 5a6b7b21a29a30a31aChagigah 7b10b16b–17aYevamot 5b40a46a48a62a70a–71a72a74aKetubot 7a102a111bNedarim 25a36aNazir 7a23aGittin 10a25a38aKiddushin 6b29a34a35a37a–b41b–42a57b72b76aBava Kamma 13a37b41a50b54a–b60a63a64a76b78a110bBava Metzia 6b42a115bBava Batra 97b118bSanhedrin 4b12b18a36a42a48b63a91a100aMakkot 4b8b11a13a–b15a16a17a–b21b–22aShevuot 3bAvodah Zarah 24a27a74aZevachim 7a–b9a10b–12a23a25b36a37b57b91a102a106b116aMenachot 28a29a–b34a–b36b–37a42b47b49b53a66a67a82b83b98aChullin 11a17b68a69b–70a74b78b82b91a115a120a129a133b–34a136b141bBekhorot 2a–61aArakhin 8b13b18a–b19b24bTemurah 4b5b18b30bKeritot 2a4a28aMeilah 13a
Exodus 10–13
* Rashbam. ''Commentary on the Torah''. Troyes, early 12th century. In, e.g., ''Rashbam's Commentary on Exodus: An Annotated Translation''. Edited and translated by Martin I. Lockshin, pages 93–132. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1997.
*
''Hilchot Teshuvah'', chapter 3, paragraph 3
Egypt. Circa 1170–1180. In, e.g., ''Mishneh Torah: Hilchot Teshuvah: The Laws of Repentance''. Translated by Eliyahu Touger, pages 140–48. New York: Moznaim Publishing, 1990.
*Maimonides. ''Mishneh Torah''
In, e.g., ''Mishneh Torah: Hilchot Shekalim: The Laws of Shekalim: and Hilchot Kiddush HaChodesh: The Laws of Sanctification of the New Moon''. Translated by Eliyahu Touger, volume 14, pages 102–13. New York: Moznaim Publishing, 1993. *Maimonides. ''The Eight Chapters on Ethics'', chapter 8. Egypt. Late 12th century. In, e.g., ''The Eight Chapters of Maimonides on Ethics (Shemonah Perakim): A Psychological and Ethical Treatise''. Edited, annotated, and translated, with an introduction by Joseph I. Gorfinkle, pages 95–96. New York:
*
*
*
''The Jewish Cemetery at Newport ''
Boston, 1854. In Harold Bloom. ''American Religious Poems'', pages 80–81. New York: Library of America, 2006. *
*Malbim. ''The Torah and the Commandments''. Warsaw, 1874–80. In, e.g., Malbim: Rabbenu Meir Leibush ben Yechiel Michel. ''Commentary on the Torah''. Translated by Zvi Faier, volume 4, pages 254–84; volume 5, pages 1–386. Israel: M.P. Press/Hillel Press, 1984.
*Yehudah Aryeh Leib Alter. ''Sefat Emet''. Góra Kalwaria (Ger), Poland, before 1906. Excerpted in ''The Language of Truth: The Torah Commentary of Sefat Emet''. Translated and interpreted by Arthur Green, pages 93–97. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1998. Reprinted 2012.
*Hermann Cohen. ''Religion of Reason: Out of the Sources of Judaism''. Translated with an introduction by Simon Kaplan; introductory essays by Leo Strauss, pages 121, 328. New York: Ungar, 1972. Reprinted Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1995. Originally published as ''Religion der Vernunft aus den Quellen des Judentums''. Leipzig: Gustav Fock, 1919.
*James Joyce. ''Ulysses (novel), Ulysses'', s:Ulysses (1922)/Chapter 7, chapter 7 (Aeolus). Paris: Shakespeare and Company (1919–1941), Shakespeare and Company, 1922. Reprinted, e.g., ''Ulysses: The Corrected Text''. Edited by Hans Walter Gabler with Wolfhard Steppe and Claus Melchior, pages 116–17. New York: Random House, 1986. (The orator John F. Taylor is quoted saying: “It seemed to me that I had been transported into a country far away from this country, into an age remote from this age, that I stood in ancient Egypt and that I was listening to the speech of some highpriest of that land addressed to the youthful Moses. . . . And it seemed to me that I heard the voice of that Egyptian highpriest raised in a tone of like haughtiness and like pride. I heard his words and their meaning was revealed to me. . . . Why will you Jews not accept our culture, our religion and our language? You are a tribe of nomad herdsmen: we are a mighty people. You have no cities nor no wealth: our cities are hives of humanity and our galleys, trireme and quadrireme, laden with all manner merchandise furrow the waters of the known globe. You have but emerged from primitive conditions: we have a literature, a priesthood, an agelong history and a polity. . . . But, ladies and gentlemen, had the youthful Moses listened to and accepted that view of life, had he bowed his head and bowed his will and bowed his spirit before that arrogant admonition he would never have brought the chosen people out of their house of bondage, nor followed the pillar of the cloud by day. He would never have spoken with the Eternal amid lightnings on Sinai's mountaintop nor ever have come down with the light of inspiration shining in his countenance and bearing in his arms the tables of the law, graven in the language of the outlaw.”).
*Alexander Alan Steinbach. ''Sabbath Queen: Fifty-four Bible Talks to the Young Based on Each Portion of the Pentateuch'', pages 45–48. New York: Behrman's Jewish Book House, 1936.
*Benno Jacob. ''The Second Book of the Bible: Exodus''. London, 1940. Translated by Walter Jacob, pages 280–376. Hoboken, New Jersey: KTAV Publishing House, 1992.
*A. M. Klein. ''Concerning Four Strange Sons.'' Circa 1937. ''Haggadah.'' 1940. In ''The Collected Poems of A.M. Klein'', pages 78–79, 143–46. Toronto: McGraw-Hill Ryerson, 1974.
*Thomas Mann. ''Joseph and His Brothers''. Translated by John E. Woods (translator), John E. Woods, pages 79, 384–86, 715, 788. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2005. Originally published as ''Joseph und seine Brüder''. Stockholm: Bermann-Fischer Verlag, 1943.
*
“The Priestly Redaction and Interpretation of the Plague Narrative in Exodus.”
''The Jewish Quarterly Review'', new series, volume 66, number 4 (April 1976): pages 193–211. *Robert R. Wilson, "The Hardening of Pharaoh's Heart." ''Catholic Biblical Quarterly'', volume 41 (number 1) (1979): pages 18–36. *Elie Munk. ''The Call of the Torah: An Anthology of Interpretation and Commentary on the Five Books of Moses''. Translated by E.S. Mazer, volume 2, pages 112–61. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1995. Originally published as ''La Voix de la Thora''. Paris: Fondation Samuel et Odette Levy, 1981. *Judith R. Baskin. ''Pharaoh's Counsellors: Job, Jethro, and Balaam in Rabbinic and Patristic Tradition''. Brown Judaic Studies, 1983. *Dan Jacobson. "A Plague of Darkness." In ''Gates to the New City: A Treasury of Modern Jewish Tales''. Edited by Howard Schwartz, pages 157–60. New York: Avon, 1983. Reissue edition Jason Aronson, 1991. *Baruch M. Bokser. ''Origins of the Seder: The Passover Rite and Early Rabbinic Judaism''. Oakland: University of California Press, 1984; reprinted New York: Jewish Theological Seminary Press, 2002. *Mayer Rabinowitz
"A Pesah Guide."
New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 1984. OH 453.1984. *Pinchas Hacohen Peli, Pinchas H. Peli. ''Torah Today: A Renewed Encounter with Scripture'', pages 63–66. Washington, D.C.: B'nai B'rith Books, 1987. *Mark S. Smith. ''The Early History of God: Yahweh and the Other Deities in Ancient Israel'', pages 2, 10, 108, 113. New York: HarperSanFrancisco, 1990. *Ziony Zevit
“Three Ways to Look at the Ten Plagues:Were they natural disasters, a demonstration of the impotence of the Egyptian gods or an undoing of Creation?
''Bible Review'', volume 6, number 3 (1990). *Harvey J. Fields. ''A Torah Commentary for Our Times: Volume II: Exodus and Leviticus'', pages 25–31. New York: UAHC Press, 1991. *Nahum M. Sarna. ''The JPS Torah Commentary: Exodus: The Traditional Hebrew Text with the New JPS Translation'', pages 48–68, 270–73. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1991. *Nechama Leibowitz, Nehama Leibowitz. ''New Studies in Shemot (Exodus)'', volume 1, pages 178–230. Jerusalem: Haomanim Press, 1993. Reprinted as ''New Studies in the Weekly Parasha''. Lambda Publishers, 2010. *Gerald Skolnik
"Should There Be a Special Ceremony in Recognition of a First-Born Female Child?"
New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 1993. YD 305:1.1993. In ''Responsa: 1991–2000: The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement''. Edited by Kassel Abelson and David J. Fine, pages 163–65. New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2002. *Aaron Wildavsky. ''Assimilation versus Separation: Joseph the Administrator and the Politics of Religion in Biblical Israel'', page 14. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction Publishers, 1993. *Joseph B. Soloveitchik. ''Festival of Freedom: Essays on Pesah and the Haggadah''. Before 1994. Reprinted Ktav Publishing, 2006. *Walter Brueggemann. “The Book of Exodus.” In ''Interpreter's Bible series, The New Interpreter's Bible''. Edited by Leander E. Keck, volume 1, pages 760–987. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1994. *Shimon Finkelman, Moshe Dov Stein, Moshe Lieber, Nosson Scherman. ''Pesach-Passover: Its Observance, Laws and Significance / A Presentation Based on Talmudic and Traditional Sources''. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1994. *Judith S. Antonelli. "Firstborn Daughters." In ''In the Image of God: A Feminist Commentary on the Torah'', pages 154–66. Northvale, New Jersey: Jason Aronson, 1995. *Gunther Plaut, W. Gunther Plaut. ''The Haftarah Commentary'', pages 140–48. New York: UAHC Press, 1996. *Sorel Goldberg Loeb and Barbara Binder Kadden. ''Teaching Torah: A Treasury of Insights and Activities'', pages 100–06. Denver: A.R.E. Publishing, 1997.
*Barack Obama. ''Dreams from My Father'', page 294. New York: Three Rivers Press, 1995, 2004. (Moses and Pharaoh).
* Jacob Milgrom. "The Alien in Your Midst: Every Nation Has Its Ger: The Permanent Resident. The Torah Commands Us, First, Not To Oppress the Ger, and Then To Befriend and Love Him." ''Bible Review'', volume 11 (numbers 6) (Dec. 1995).
*Ellen Frankel. ''The Five Books of Miriam: A Woman’s Commentary on the Torah'', pages 105–08. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1996.
*Robert Goodman. “Pesach” and “Rosh Chodesh.” In ''Teaching Jewish Holidays: History, Values, and Activities'', pages 153–72, 241–47. Denver: A.R.E. Publishing, 1997.
*William H.C. Propp. ''Exodus 1–18'', volume 2, pages 290–461. New York: Anchor Bible, 1998.
*''Exodus to Deuteronomy: A Feminist Companion to the Bible (Second Series)''. Edited by Athalya Brenner, pages 31, 72, 95–96. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2000.
*Avivah Gottlieb Zornberg. ''The Particulars of Rapture: Reflections on Exodus'', pages 132–98. New York: Doubleday, 2001.
*Lainie Blum Cogan and Judy Weiss. ''Teaching Haftarah: Background, Insights, and Strategies'', pages 422–27. Denver: A.R.E. Publishing, 2002.
*Michael Fishbane. ''The JPS Bible Commentary: Haftarot'', pages 93–97. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2002.
*Robert Alter. ''The Five Books of Moses: A Translation with Commentary'', pages 365–88. New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 2004.
*Martin Sicker. ''A Passover Seder Companion and Analytic Introduction to the Haggadah''. New York: iUniverse, 2004.
*Jeffrey H. Tigay. "Exodus." In ''The Jewish Study Bible''. Edited by Adele Berlin and Marc Zvi Brettler, pages 122–33. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.
*''Professors on the Parashah: Studies on the Weekly Torah Reading'' Edited by Leib Moscovitz, pages 100–04. Jerusalem: Urim Publications, 2005.
*W. Gunther Plaut. ''The Torah: A Modern Commentary: Revised Edition''. Revised edition edited by David E. Stern, David E.S. Stern, pages 405–29. New York: Union for Reform Judaism, 2006.
*Diane Ackerman. ''The Zookeeper's Wife, The Zookeeper's Wife: A War Story'', pages 181–82, 211. New York: W.W. Norton, 2007. (Passover in the Warsaw Ghetto).
*Suzanne A. Brody. "Pidyon HaBen." In ''Dancing in the White Spaces: The Yearly Torah Cycle and More Poems'', page 77. Shelbyville, Kentucky: Wasteland Press, 2007.
*Esther Jungreis. ''Life Is a Test'', page 117. Brooklyn: Shaar Press, 2007.
*James Kugel, James L. Kugel. ''How To Read the Bible: A Guide to Scripture, Then and Now'', pages 217–32, 278, 299, 318–24, 669. New York: Free Press, 2007.
*Kenton L. Sparks
“‘Enūma Elish’ and Priestly Mimesis: Elite Emulation in Nascent Judaism.”
''Journal of Biblical Literature'', volume 126 (2007): 635–37. (“Priestly Mimesis in the Exodus Story”). *''The Torah: A Women's Commentary''. Edited by Tamara Cohn Eskenazi and Andrea Weiss (rabbi), Andrea L. Weiss, pages 355–78. New York: Union for Reform Judaism, URJ Press, 2008. *Thomas B. Dozeman. ''Commentary on Exodus'', pages 238–98. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2009. *Reuven Hammer. ''Entering Torah: Prefaces to the Weekly Torah Portion'', pages 89–93. New York: Gefen Publishing House, 2009. *Rebecca G.S. Idestrom
“Echoes of the Book of Exodus in Ezekiel.”
''Journal for the Study of the Old Testament'', volume 33 (number 4) (June 2009): pages 489–510. (Motifs from Exodus found in Ezekiel, including the call narrative, divine encounters, captivity, signs, plagues, judgment, redemption, tabernacle/temple, are considered.). *Jason Gary Klein. “The Ritual of Storytelling: Parashat Bo (Exodus 10:1–13:16).” In ''Torah Queeries: Weekly Commentaries on the Hebrew Bible''. Edited by Gregg Drinkwater, Joshua Lesser, and David Shneer; foreword by Judith Plaskow, pages 85–88. New York: New York University Press, 2009. *Bruce Wells. "Exodus." In ''Zondervan Illustrated Bible Backgrounds Commentary''. Edited by John H. Walton, volume 1, pages 198–211. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan, 2009.
*Julie Cadwallader-Staub.
Joy
'. In ''Face to Face: A Poetry Collection''. DreamSeeker Books, 2010. ("land of milk and honey"). *Idan Dershowitz
“A Land Flowing with Fat and Honey.”
''Vetus Testamentum'', volume 60 (number 2) (2010): pages 172–76. *Jonathan Sacks. ''Covenant & Conversation: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible: Exodus: The Book of Redemption'', pages 69–94. Jerusalem: Maggid Books, 2010. *Sam Ernst and Jim Dunn (writer), Jim Dunn. "A Tale of Two Audreys." In ''Haven (TV series), Haven'', season 2, episode 1. Entertainment One, 2011. (plagues plot element). *Katherine Low
“Implications Surrounding Girding the Loins in Light of Gender, Body, and Power.”
''Journal for the Study of the Old Testament'', volume 36 (number 1) (September 2011): pages 3–30. (). *Jeffrey Stackert
“Why Does the Plague of Darkness Last for Three Days? Source Ascription and Literary Motif in Exodus 10:21–23, 27.”
''Vetus Testamentum'', volume 61 (number 4) (2011): pages 657–76. *William G. Dever. ''The Lives of Ordinary People in Ancient Israel: When Archaeology and the Bible Intersect'', page 188. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2012.
*Shmuel Herzfeld. "Do Not Leave Your Doorway until the Morning." In ''Fifty-Four Pick Up: Fifteen-Minute Inspirational Torah Lessons'', pages 86–92. Jerusalem: Gefen Publishing House, 2012.
*''Torah MiEtzion: New Readings in Tanach: Shemot''. Edited by Ezra Bick and Yaakov Beasley, pages 109–55. Jerusalem: Maggid Books, 2012.
*Fernanda Santos. "Brooklyn Matzo Prebaked in an Arizona Field: A Safeguarded Grain Untouched by Rain or Other Moisture." ''The New York Times''. June 29, 2013. Page A1.
*Tibor Krausz
"The divine confidence trick."
''The Jerusalem Report'', volume 25 (number 1) (April 21, 2014): page 47. *Michael Balinsky
"Passover Jews and Shavuot Jews: On Shavuot, we are all called to Mount Sinai to affirm our covenantal bond with God and our people."
''The Jerusalem Report'', volume 25 (number 5) (June 16, 2014): page 47. *Jonathan Sacks. ''Lessons in Leadership: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible'', pages 73–77. New Milford, Connecticut: Maggid Books, 2015. *David Fohrman. ''The Exodus You Almost Passed Over''. Aleph Beta Press, 2016. *Jean-Pierre Isbouts. ''Archaeology of the Bible: The Greatest Discoveries from Genesis to the Roman Era'', pages 105–07. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society, National Geographic, 2016. *“The Hittites: Between Tradition and History.” ''Biblical Archaeology Review'', volume 42 (number 2) (March/April 2016): pages 28–40, 68. *Jonathan Sacks. ''Essays on Ethics: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible'', pages 91–95. New Milford, Connecticut: Maggid Books, 2016. *Shai Held. ''The Heart of Torah, Volume 1: Essays on the Weekly Torah Portion: Genesis and Exodus'', pages 144–54. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2017. *James L. Kugel. ''The Great Shift: Encountering God in Biblical Times'', page 408. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2017. *Steven Levy and Sarah Levy. ''The JPS Rashi Discussion Torah Commentary'', pages 47–49. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2017. *Pekka Pitkänen
“Ancient Israelite Population Economy: Ger, Toshav, Nakhri and Karat as Settler Colonial Categories.”
''Journal for the Study of the Old Testament'', volume 42 (number 2) (December 2017): pages 139–53. *Bill Dauster
"Pharaoh’s Administration Offers a Cautionary Tale for Today."
''Washington Jewish Week''. January 11, 2018, page 19. *David L. Abramson
“Do you really believe in bashert?”
''Washington Jewish Week''. January 18, 2018, page 31. *Biblical Archaeology Society Staff
“Exodus in the Bible and the Egyptian Plagues: Can we make sense of the Biblical plagues?”
''Bible History Daily'', March 31, 2020.
Hear the parashah chanted
Academy for Jewish Religion, CaliforniaAcademy for Jewish Religion, New YorkAkhlah: The Jewish Children's Learning NetworkAleph Beta AcademyAmerican Jewish University — Ziegler School of Rabbinic StudiesAscent of SafedBar-Ilan University
Chabad.orgeparsha.comG-dcastJewish Theological SeminaryMechon HadarMiriam AflaloMyJewishLearning.comOhr SameachOzTorah, Torah from AustraliaOz Ve Shalom — Netivot ShalomPardes from JerusalemProfessor James L. KugelProfessor Michael CarasikRabbi Dov LinzerRabbi Jonathan SacksRabbiShimon.comRabbi Shmuel Herzfeld
Reconstructionist JudaismShiur.comTeach613.org, Torah Education at Cherry HillTheTorah.comTorah from DixieTorahVort.comUnion for Reform JudaismUnited Synagogue of Conservative JudaismYeshivat Chovevei TorahYeshiva University
{{DEFAULTSORT:Bo (Parsha) Weekly Torah readings in Shevat Weekly Torah readings from Exodus
'' Tanakh The Hebrew Bible or Tanakh (;"Tanach"
'' peh'')). Parashat Bo has seven further subdivisions, called "closed portion" (, ''setumah'') divisions (abbreviated with the Hebrew letter (''
samekh
Samekh (Phoenician ''sāmek'' ; Hebrew ''samekh'' , Syriac ''semkaṯ'') is the fifteenth letter of the Semitic abjads, including the Hebrew alphabet.
Samekh represents a voiceless alveolar fricative . Unlike most Semitic consonants, the p ...
'')) within the open portion divisions. The first open portion contains the first and part of the second readings. The second open portion covers the balance of the second and part of the third readings. The third open portion covers the balance of the third and all of the fourth readings. The fourth open portion covers the fifth and part of the sixth readings. The fifth and sixth open portion divisions further divide the sixth reading. The seventh open portion divides the seventh reading. Closed portion divisions separate the first and second readings, separate the second and third readings, and separate the third and fourth readings. Further closed portion divisions divide the fourth and sixth readings, and conclude the seventh reading.
First reading — Exodus 10:1–11
In the first reading, after seven plagues, God continued visiting plagues on Egypt.Moses
Moses hbo, מֹשֶׁה, Mōše; also known as Moshe or Moshe Rabbeinu ( Mishnaic Hebrew: מֹשֶׁה רַבֵּינוּ, ); syr, ܡܘܫܐ, Mūše; ar, موسى, Mūsā; grc, Mωϋσῆς, Mōÿsēs () is considered the most important pr ...
and Aaron
According to Abrahamic religions, Aaron ''′aharon'', ar, هارون, Hārūn, Greek (Septuagint): Ἀαρών; often called Aaron the priest ()., group="note" ( or ; ''’Ahărōn'') was a prophet, a high priest, and the elder brother of ...
warned Pharaoh
Pharaoh (, ; Egyptian: '' pr ꜥꜣ''; cop, , Pǝrro; Biblical Hebrew: ''Parʿō'') is the vernacular term often used by modern authors for the kings of ancient Egypt who ruled as monarchs from the First Dynasty (c. 3150 BC) until th ...
to let the Israelite
The Israelites (; , , ) were a group of Semitic-speaking tribes in the ancient Near East who, during the Iron Age, inhabited a part of Canaan.
The earliest recorded evidence of a people by the name of Israel appears in the Merneptah Stel ...
s go, or suffer locust
Locusts (derived from the Vulgar Latin ''locusta'', meaning grasshopper) are various species of short-horned grasshoppers in the family Acrididae that have a swarming phase. These insects are usually solitary, but under certain circumstanc ...
s (, ''arbeh'') covering the land. Pharaoh's courtiers pressed Pharaoh to let the men go, so Pharaoh brought Moses and Aaron back and asked them, "Who are the ones to go?" Moses insisted that young and old, sons and daughters, flocks and herds would go, but Pharaoh rejected Moses' request and expelled Moses and Aaron from his presence. The first reading and a closed portion end here.
Second reading — Exodus 10:12–23
In the second reading, Moses held his rod over the land, and God drove an east wind to bring locusts to invade all the land. Pharaoh summoned Moses and Aaron, asked forgiveness, and asked them to plead with God to remove the locusts. Moses did so, and God brought a west wind to lift the locusts into theSea of Reeds
In the Exodus narrative, Yam Suph ( he, יַם-סוּף, ''Yam-Sūp̄'', Reed Sea) or Reed Sea, sometimes translated as Sea of Reeds, is the body of water which the Israelites crossed following their exodus from Egypt. The same phrase appears in o ...
. But God stiffened Pharaoh's heart, and he would not let the Israelites go. The first open portion ends here.
In the continuation of the reading, God instructed Moses to hold his arm toward the sky to bring darkness
Darkness, the direct opposite of lightness, is defined as a lack of illumination, an absence of visible light, or a surface that absorbs light, such as black or brown.
Human vision is unable to distinguish colors in conditions of very low ...
(, ''choshech'') upon the land, and Moses did so, but the Israelites enjoyed light. The second reading and a closed portion end here.
Third reading — Exodus 10:24–11:3
In the third reading, Pharaoh summoned Moses and told him to go, leaving only the Israelites' flocks and herds behind, but Moses insisted that none of the Israelites' livestock be left behind, for " shall not know with what we are to worship the Lord until we arrive there." But God stiffened Pharaoh's heart, and he expelled Moses saying: " e moment you look upon my face, you shall die." The second open portion ends here with the end of chapter . In the continuation of the reading in chapter , God told Moses that God would bring one more plague, and then Pharaoh would let the Israelites go. God told Moses to tell the Israelites to ask their neighbors for silver and gold, and God disposed the Egyptians to favor the Israelites and Moses. The third reading and a closed portion end here.Fourth reading — Exodus 11:4–12:20
In the fourth reading, Moses warned Pharaoh that God would kill every firstborn in Egypt. And Moses left Pharaoh in hot anger. A closed portion ends here.
In the continuation of the reading, God told Moses and Aaron to mark that month as the first of the months of the year
A year or annus is the orbital period of a planetary body, for example, the Earth, moving in its orbit around the Sun. Due to the Earth's axial tilt, the course of a year sees the passing of the seasons, marked by change in weather, the h ...
. And God told them to instruct the Israelites in the laws of the Passover service, of the Passover lamb, and of abstaining from leavened bread. (See Commandments below.) The fourth reading and the third open portion end here.
Fifth reading — Exodus 12:21–28
In the short fifth reading, Moses instructed the elders of Israel to kill their Passover lambs, paint their doorways with the lamb's blood, and remain inside their houses until the morning. For God would smite the Egyptians, but when God saw the blood on the lintel, God would ''pass over'' the house and not allow " the Destroyer" to come into that house. The Israelites were to observe the Passover service for all time, and when their children would ask what the service means, they were to say that it commemorated the time when God passed over the Israelites' houses when God smote the Egyptians. ' And the people bowed the head and worshipped. And the Israelites did as God commanded Moses and Aaron. The fifth reading and a closed portion end here.
Sixth reading — Exodus 12:29–51
In the sixth reading, in the middle of the night, God struck down all the firstborn in Egypt. Pharaoh arose in the night to a loud cry in Egypt, summoned Moses and Aaron, and told them to take the Israelites and go. So the Israelites took their dough before it was leavened, and asked forsilver
Silver is a chemical element with the symbol Ag (from the Latin ', derived from the Proto-Indo-European ''h₂erǵ'': "shiny" or "white") and atomic number 47. A soft, white, lustrous transition metal, it exhibits the highest electrical ...
, gold
Gold is a chemical element with the symbol Au (from la, aurum) and atomic number 79. This makes it one of the higher atomic number elements that occur naturally. It is a bright, slightly orange-yellow, dense, soft, malleable, and ductile ...
, and clothing from the Egyptians. The fourth open portion ends here.
In the continuation of the reading, the Israelites and a mixed multitude journeyed from Rameses to Sukkot
or ("Booths, Tabernacles")
, observedby = Jews, Samaritans, a few Protestant denominations, Messianic Jews, Semitic Neopagans
, type = Jewish, Samaritan
, begins = 15th day of Tishrei
, ends = 21st day of Tis ...
. They baked unleavened bread (, ''matzah
Matzah or matzo ( he, מַצָּה, translit=maṣṣā'','' pl. matzot or Ashk. matzos) is an unleavened flatbread that is part of Jewish cuisine and forms an integral element of the Passover festival, during which ''chametz'' ( leaven an ...
''), because they could not delay before they left Egypt. The Israelites dwelt in Egypt for 430 years and left the land after the night of watching for the Lord. The fifth open portion ends here.
In the continuation of the reading, God told Moses and Aaron the laws of who was to keep the Passover. A closed portion ends here.See, e.g., Menachem Davis, editor, ''Schottenstein Edition Interlinear Chumash: Shemos/Exodus'', page 83.
The reading concludes with a notice that on the same day, God bought the Israelites out of Egypt. The sixth reading and the sixth open portion end here with the end of chapter .
Seventh reading — Exodus 13:1–16
In the seventh reading, in chapter , God instructed Moses to tell the Israelites to consecrate to God every firstborn man and beast, and Moses did so. Moses told the people to remember the day and the month in which God brought them out of Egypt, and to keep the service to commemorate their deliverance in the same month, eating only unleavened bread (, ''matzah''). And they were to tell their children, to keep it as a sign upon their hands and for a memorial between their eyes, and to keep this ordinance in itsseason
A season is a division of the year based on changes in weather, ecology, and the number of daylight hours in a given region. On Earth, seasons are the result of the axial parallelism of Earth's tilted orbit around the Sun. In temperate and ...
from year to year. The seventh open portion ends here.
In the continuation of the reading, God instructed Moses in the laws of the firstborn.
In the ''maftir
Maftir ( he, מפטיר, , concluder) is the last person called up to the Torah on Shabbat and holiday mornings: this person also reads (or at least recites the blessings overs) the ''haftarah'' portion from a related section of the Nevi'im (pro ...
'' () reading that concludes the parashah, God instructed that if their children asked about consecrating the firstborn, the Israelites were to tell their children that God slew the firstborn of Egypt, and therefore the Israelites were to sacrifice to God all firstborn animals and redeem their firstborn sons. And thus it shall be for a sign upon their hands, and for frontlets between their eyes, for with a mighty hand God brought them out of Egypt. The seventh reading, a closed portion, and the parashah end here.
Readings according to the triennial cycle
Jews who read the Torah according to thetriennial cycle
The Triennial cycle of Torah reading may refer to either
* The historical practice in ancient Israel by which the entire Torah was read in serial fashion over a three-year period, or
* The practice adopted by many Reform, Conservative, Reconstruct ...
of Torah reading read the parashah according to the following schedule:
In ancient parallels
The parashah has parallels in these ancient sources:
Exodus chapter 10
The plague of locusts in finds parallels in several ancient texts, often involving the actions of gods. The ancientSumer
Sumer () is the earliest known civilization in the historical region of southern Mesopotamia (south-central Iraq), emerging during the Chalcolithic and early Bronze Ages between the sixth and fifth millennium BC. It is one of the cradles of ...
ian tale ''The Disputation Between the Hoe
Hoe or HOE may refer to:
* Hoe (food), a Korean dish of raw fish
* Hoe (letter), a Georgian letter
* Hoe (tool), a hand tool used in gardening and farming
** Hoe-farming, a term for primitive forms of agriculture
* Backhoe, a piece of excavating ...
and the Plow
A plough or plow ( US; both ) is a farm tool for loosening or turning the soil before sowing seed or planting. Ploughs were traditionally drawn by oxen and horses, but in modern farms are drawn by tractors. A plough may have a wooden, iron or ...
'' relates the acts of the god Enlil
Enlil, , "Lord f theWind" later known as Elil, is an ancient Mesopotamian god associated with wind, air, earth, and storms. He is first attested as the chief deity of the Sumerian pantheon, but he was later worshipped by the Akkadians, Ba ...
’s hand and the locust swarm. Similarly, an Ugarit
)
, image =Ugarit Corbel.jpg
, image_size=300
, alt =
, caption = Entrance to the Royal Palace of Ugarit
, map_type = Near East#Syria
, map_alt =
, map_size = 300
, relief=yes
, location = Latakia Governorate, Syria
, region = ...
ic poem about the goddess Anat
Anat (, ), Anatu, classically Anath (; uga, 𐎓𐎐𐎚 ''ʿnt''; he, עֲנָת ''ʿĂnāṯ''; ; el, Αναθ, translit=Anath; Egyptian: '' ꜥntjt'') was a goddess associated with warfare and hunting, best known from the Ugaritic text ...
circa 1450–1200 BCE related how Anat did battle, leaving corpses like locusts. In a New Kingdom Egyptian letter, one scribe
A scribe is a person who serves as a professional copyist, especially one who made copies of manuscripts before the invention of automatic printing.
The profession of the scribe, previously widespread across cultures, lost most of its promi ...
chided another for leaving scribal work to labor in agriculture, where “The mice abound in the field, the locust descends, the cattle devour.” An Akkadian Akkadian or Accadian may refer to:
* Akkadians, inhabitants of the Akkadian Empire
* Akkadian language, an extinct Eastern Semitic language
* Akkadian literature, literature in this language
* Akkadian cuneiform
Cuneiform is a logo-syllabic ...
prophecy
In religion, a prophecy is a message that has been communicated to a person (typically called a ''prophet'') by a supernatural entity. Prophecies are a feature of many cultures and belief systems and usually contain divine will or law, or p ...
foretold that locusts would arise and devour the land. The 754 BCE treaty
A treaty is a formal, legally binding written agreement between actors in international law. It is usually made by and between sovereign states, but can include international organizations, individuals, business entities, and other legal per ...
between Ashur-nirari V
Ashur-nirari V (Neo-Assyrian cuneiform: , meaning " Ashur is my help") was the king of the Neo-Assyrian Empire from 755 BC to his death in 745 BC. Ashur-nirari was a son of Adad-nirari III (811–783 BC) and succeeded his brother Ashur-dan III as ...
of Assyria
Assyria ( Neo-Assyrian cuneiform: , romanized: ''māt Aššur''; syc, ܐܬܘܪ, ʾāthor) was a major ancient Mesopotamian civilization which existed as a city-state at times controlling regional territories in the indigenous lands of the A ...
and Mati'ilu of Arpad, Syria, provided that if Mati'ilu violated the treaty, “May locusts appear and devour his land.” Similarly, the treaty between Ktk and Arpad struck at about 750 BCE provided: “If Matti’el is false to Barga’yah and to his son and to his offspring . . . May Hadad
Hadad ( uga, ), Haddad, Adad (Akkadian: 𒀭𒅎 '' DIM'', pronounced as ''Adād''), or Iškur ( Sumerian) was the storm and rain god in the Canaanite and ancient Mesopotamian religions.
He was attested in Ebla as "Hadda" in c. 2500 BCE. ...
pour out everything evil on earth and in heaven, and every trouble. And may he pour out hail
Hail is a form of solid precipitation. It is distinct from ice pellets (American English "sleet"), though the two are often confused. It consists of balls or irregular lumps of ice, each of which is called a hailstone. Ice pellets generally fal ...
stones upon Arpad. Seven years shall the locust eat. Seven years shall the worm
Worms are many different distantly related bilateral animals that typically have a long cylindrical tube-like body, no limbs, and no eyes (though not always).
Worms vary in size from microscopic to over in length for marine polychaete wor ...
eat. Seven years shall blight come upon the face of its land, and no grass shall sprout, so that nothing green can be seen and its vegetation does not appear.” And the Vassal
A vassal or liege subject is a person regarded as having a mutual obligation to a lord or monarch, in the context of the feudal system in medieval Europe. While the subordinate party is called a vassal, the dominant party is called a suzerai ...
-Treaties of Esarhaddon
Esarhaddon, also spelled Essarhaddon, Assarhaddon and Ashurhaddon ( Neo-Assyrian cuneiform: , also , meaning " Ashur has given me a brother"; Biblical Hebrew: ''ʾĒsar-Ḥaddōn'') was the king of the Neo-Assyrian Empire from the death of hi ...
, who ruled the Neo-Assyrian Empire
The Neo-Assyrian Empire was the fourth and penultimate stage of ancient Assyrian history and the final and greatest phase of Assyria as an independent state. Beginning with the accession of Adad-nirari II in 911 BC, the Neo-Assyrian Empire grew ...
681–669 BCE, threatened the vassal who breached the treaty with these threats: “May Adad
Hadad ( uga, ), Haddad, Adad ( Akkadian: 𒀭𒅎 '' DIM'', pronounced as ''Adād''), or Iškur ( Sumerian) was the storm and rain god in the Canaanite and ancient Mesopotamian religions.
He was attested in Ebla as "Hadda" in c. 2500 BCE. ...
, the canal inspector of heaven and earth, put an end to vegetation in your land, may he avoid your meadows and hit your land with a severe destructive downpour, may locusts, which diminish the produce of the land, devour your crops, let there be no sound of the grinding stone or the oven in your houses, let barley rations to be ground disappear for you, so that they grind your bones, (the bones of) your sons and daughters instead of barley rations, and not even the (first) joint of your finger should be able to dip into the dough, may the . . . eat the dough from your troughs. . . . May they (the gods) let lice, caterpillars, and other field pests eat up your land and your district as if locusts.” An Assyrian blessing wished: “The evil locust which ravages the grain, the malignant grasshopper which dries up the orchards, which would cut off the regular offerings of god and goddess, — Enlil listens to you, Tutu obeys you — may it (the grasshopper) be counted as nought!”
Exodus chapter 12
The command to apply blood to the lintel and the two door-posts in parallelsBabylonia
Babylonia (; Akkadian: , ''māt Akkadī'') was an ancient Akkadian-speaking state and cultural area based in the city of Babylon in central-southern Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq and parts of Syria). It emerged as an Amorite-ruled state c ...
n Namburbi
The NAM-BÚR-BI are magical texts which take the form of incantations ( Akkadian: ''namburbȗ''). They were named for a series of prophylactic Babylonian and Assyrian rituals to avert inauspicious portents before they took on tangible form. At th ...
rituals in which blood was smeared on doors and keyholes so that "evil lagueshall not enter the house."
Exodus chapter 13
an17
an
, an
and
an
an
describe the Land of Israel as a land flowing “with milk and honey.” Similarly, the Middle Egyptian (early second millennium BCE) tale of Sinuhe Palestine described the Land of Israel or, as the Egyptian tale called it, the land of Yaa: "It was a good land called Yaa. Figs were in it and grapes. It had more wine than water. Abundant was its honey, plentiful its oil. All kind of fruit were on its trees. Barley was there and emmer, and no end of cattle of all kinds."
In inner-biblical interpretation
The parashah has parallels or is discussed in these Biblical sources:Exodus chapters 7–12
The description of the 10 plagues exhibits patterns and progressions, as follows:Psalms
The Book of Psalms ( or ; he, תְּהִלִּים, , lit. "praises"), also known as the Psalms, or the Psalter, is the first book of the ("Writings"), the third section of the Tanakh, and a book of the Old Testament. The title is derived ...
and each recount differing arrangements of seven plagues. recalls plagues of (1) blood, (2) flies, (3) frogs, (4) locusts, (5) hail, (6) livestock, and (7) firstborn, but not plagues of lice, boils, or darkness. recalls plagues of (1) darkness, (2) blood, (3) frogs, (4) flies and lice, (5) hail, (6) locusts, and (7) firstborn, but not plagues of livestock or boils.
Exodus chapters 12–13
Passover
an43–50
and refer to the
Festival
A festival is an event ordinarily celebrated by a community and centering on some characteristic aspect or aspects of that community and its religion or cultures. It is often marked as a local or national holiday, mela, or eid. A festival c ...
of Passover. In the Hebrew Bible
The Hebrew Bible or Tanakh (;"Tanach"
'' the Exodus The Exodus (Hebrew: יציאת מצרים, ''Yeẓi’at Miẓrayim'': ) is the founding myth of the Israelites whose narrative is spread over four books of the Torah (or Pentateuch, corresponding to the first five books of the Bible), namely E ...
and when the Biblical text became settled. and indicate that the dedication of the firstborn also became associated with the festival.
'' the Exodus The Exodus (Hebrew: יציאת מצרים, ''Yeẓi’at Miẓrayim'': ) is the founding myth of the Israelites whose narrative is spread over four books of the Torah (or Pentateuch, corresponding to the first five books of the Bible), namely E ...
Some believe that the "Feast of Unleavened Bread" was an agricultural festival at which the Israelites celebrated the beginning of the grain harvest. Moses may have had this festival in mind when in and he petitioned Pharaoh to let the Israelites go to celebrate a feast in the wilderness.W. Gunther Plaut, ''The Torah: A Modern Commentary'', page 464.
"Passover," on the other hand, was associated with a thanksgiving sacrifice of a lamb, also called "the Passover," "the Passover lamb," or "the Passover offering."
, , and an5
and direct "Passover" to take place on the evening of the fourteenth of
Aviv
Aviv ( he, אביב) means "barley ripening", and by extension "spring season" in Hebrew. It is also used as a given name, surname, and place name, as in Tel Aviv. The first month of the year is called the month of Aviv in the Pentateuch. The mo ...
(Nisan in the Hebrew calendar
The Hebrew calendar ( he, הַלּוּחַ הָעִבְרִי, translit=HaLuah HaIvri), also called the Jewish calendar, is a lunisolar calendar used today for Jewish religious observance, and as an official calendar of the state of Israel ...
after the Babylonian captivity
The Babylonian captivity or Babylonian exile is the period in Jewish history during which a large number of Judeans from the ancient Kingdom of Judah were captives in Babylon, the capital city of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, following their defeat ...
). , , , and confirm that practice. , , and , , and direct the "Feast of Unleavened Bread" to take place over seven days and and direct that it begin on the fifteenth of the month. Some believe that the propinquity of the dates of the two festivals led to their confusion and merger.
an27
link the word "Passover" (''Pesach'', ) to God's act to "pass over" (''pasach'', ) the Israelites' houses in the
plague
Plague or The Plague may refer to:
Agriculture, fauna, and medicine
*Plague (disease), a disease caused by ''Yersinia pestis''
* An epidemic of infectious disease (medical or agricultural)
* A pandemic caused by such a disease
* A swarm of pes ...
of the firstborn. In the Torah, the consolidated Passover and Feast of Unleavened Bread thus commemorate the Israelites' liberation from Egypt
Egypt ( ar, مصر , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a List of transcontinental countries, transcontinental country spanning the North Africa, northeast corner of Africa and Western Asia, southwest corner of Asia via a land bridg ...
.
Benjamin Sommer saw in and a case in which one Biblical author explicitly interpreted another Biblical text. Both texts provide regulations concerning the Passover sacrifice, but the regulations differ. instructed the Israelites to boil the Passover sacrifice. Sommer argued that takes issue with on this point, however, warning (in Sommer's translation), “Don’t eat it raw or boiled in water; rather, at itroasted in fire.” Sommer did not find such a disagreement in this ancient Jewish literature surprising, arguing that two groups in the Biblical period agreed that the Passover sacrifice was important but disagreed on its precise details.
The Hebrew Bible frequently notes the Israelites' observance of Passover at turning points in their history. reports God's direction to the Israelites to observe Passover in the wilderness of Sinai on the anniversary of their liberation from Egypt. reports that upon entering the Promised Land
The Promised Land ( he, הארץ המובטחת, translit.: ''ha'aretz hamuvtakhat''; ar, أرض الميعاد, translit.: ''ard al-mi'ad; also known as "The Land of Milk and Honey"'') is the land which, according to the Tanakh (the Hebrew ...
, the Israelites kept the Passover on the plains of Jericho
Jericho ( ; ar, أريحا ; he, יְרִיחוֹ ) is a Palestinian city in the West Bank. It is located in the Jordan Valley, with the Jordan River to the east and Jerusalem to the west. It is the administrative seat of the Jericho ...
and ate unleavened cakes and parched corn, produce of the land, the next day. reports that King Josiah
Josiah ( or ) or Yoshiyahu; la, Iosias was the 16th king of Judah (–609 BCE) who, according to the Hebrew Bible, instituted major religious reforms by removing official worship of gods other than Yahweh. Josiah is credited by most biblical ...
commanded the Israelites to keep the Passover in Jerusalem
Jerusalem (; he, יְרוּשָׁלַיִם ; ar, القُدس ) (combining the Biblical and common usage Arabic names); grc, Ἱερουσαλήμ/Ἰεροσόλυμα, Hierousalḗm/Hierosóluma; hy, Երուսաղեմ, Erusałēm. i ...
as part of Josiah's reforms, but also notes that the Israelites had not kept such a Passover from the days of the Biblical judges
The biblical judges ''šōp̄êṭ''/''shofet'', pl. ''šōp̄əṭîm''/''shoftim'') are described in the Hebrew Bible, and mostly in the Book of Judges, as people who served roles as military leaders in times of crisis, in the period before an ...
nor in all the days of the kings of Israel
This article is an overview of the kings of the United Kingdom of Israel as well as those of its successor states and classical period kingdoms ruled by the Hasmonean dynasty and Herodian dynasty.
Kings of Ancient Israel and Judah
The Heb ...
or the kings of Judah
The Kings of Judah were the monarchs who ruled over the ancient Kingdom of Judah. According to the biblical account, this kingdom was founded after the death of Saul, when the tribe of Judah elevated David to rule over it. After seven years, Davi ...
, calling into question the observance of even Kings David
David (; , "beloved one") (traditional spelling), , ''Dāwūd''; grc-koi, Δαυΐδ, Dauíd; la, Davidus, David; gez , ዳዊት, ''Dawit''; xcl, Դաւիթ, ''Dawitʿ''; cu, Давíдъ, ''Davidŭ''; possibly meaning "beloved one". w ...
and Solomon
Solomon (; , ),, ; ar, سُلَيْمَان, ', , ; el, Σολομών, ; la, Salomon also called Jedidiah (Hebrew language, Hebrew: , Modern Hebrew, Modern: , Tiberian Hebrew, Tiberian: ''Yăḏīḏăyāh'', "beloved of Yahweh, Yah"), ...
. The more reverent , however, reports that Solomon offered sacrifices on the festivals, including the Feast of Unleavened Bread. And reports King Hezekiah
Hezekiah (; hbo, , Ḥīzqīyyahū), or Ezekias); grc, Ἐζεκίας 'Ezekías; la, Ezechias; also transliterated as or ; meaning "Yahweh, Yah shall strengthen" (born , sole ruler ), was the son of Ahaz and the 13th king of Kingdom of Jud ...
's observance of a second Passover anew, as sufficient numbers of neither the priests nor the people were prepared to do so before then. And reports that the Israelites returned from the Babylonian captivity observed Passover, ate the Passover lamb, and kept the Feast of Unleavened Bread seven days with joy.
In early nonrabbinic interpretation
The parashah has parallels or is discussed in these early nonrabbinic sources:
Exodus chapter 12
TheBook of Jubilees
The Book of Jubilees, sometimes called Lesser Genesis (Leptogenesis), is an ancient Jewish religious work of 50 chapters (1,341 verses), considered canonical by the Ethiopian Orthodox Church as well as Beta Israel (Ethiopian Jews), where it is ...
taught that the Israelites were forbidden to break any bone of the Passover lamb so that no bone should be crushed of the children of Israel.
Philo
Philo of Alexandria (; grc, Φίλων, Phílōn; he, יְדִידְיָה, Yəḏīḏyāh (Jedediah); ), also called Philo Judaeus, was a Hellenistic Jewish philosopher who lived in Alexandria, in the Roman province of Egypt.
Philo's de ...
wrote that God instructed the Israelites to offer unleavened bread and bitter herbs together with the Passover sacrifice because unleavened bread signified great haste and speed, while bitter herbs signified the life of bitterness and struggle that the Israelites endured as slaves. Philo also taught that the deeper meaning was that leavened and fermented foods rose, while unleavened foods remained low, and each of these states symbolized types of the soul. Leavening symbolized the haughty soul swollen with arrogance, while the unleavened symbolized the unchangeable and prudent soul choosing the middle way rather than extremes. The bitter herbs manifested a psychic migration from passion to impassivity and from wickedness to virtue. For, Philo taught, those who naturally and genuinely repented became bitter toward their former way of life, lamenting the time that they had given over to the seductive and deceitful mistress of desire, being deceived by desire when they ought to have renewed themselves and advanced in the contemplation of wisdom toward the goal of a happy and immortal life. And so, those who desired repentance ate the unleavened bread with bitter herbs; they first ate bitterness over their old and unendurable life, and then ate the opposite of boastful arrogance in meditation on humility. For, Philo concluded, the memory of former sins caused fear, and by restraining sin through recollection, brought profit to the mind.
In classical rabbinic interpretation
The parashah is discussed in theserabbi
A rabbi () is a spiritual leader or religious teacher in Judaism. One becomes a rabbi by being ordained by another rabbi – known as '' semikha'' – following a course of study of Jewish history and texts such as the Talmud. The basic form o ...
nic sources from the era of the Mishnah
The Mishnah or the Mishna (; he, מִשְׁנָה, "study by repetition", from the verb ''shanah'' , or "to study and review", also "secondary") is the first major written collection of the Jewish oral traditions which is known as the Oral Tor ...
and the Talmud
The Talmud (; he, , Talmūḏ) is the central text of Rabbinic Judaism and the primary source of Jewish religious law ('' halakha'') and Jewish theology. Until the advent of modernity, in nearly all Jewish communities, the Talmud was the ce ...
:
Exodus chapter 10
Reading , , and , aMidrash
''Midrash'' (;"midrash"
''Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary''. he, מִדְרָשׁ; ...
taught that in 18 verses, Scripture places Moses and Aaron (the instruments of Israel's deliverance) on an equal footing (reporting that God spoke to both of them alike), and thus there are 18 benedictions in the ''''Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary''. he, מִדְרָשׁ; ...
Amidah
The ''Amidah Amuhduh'' ( he, תפילת העמידה, ''Tefilat HaAmidah'', 'The Standing Prayer'), also called the ''Shemoneh Esreh'' ( 'eighteen'), is the central prayer of the Jewish liturgy. Observant Jews recite the ''Amidah'' at each ...
''.
A Midrash taught that in , God begins with the word "Come (, ''bo'')," instead of "Go (, ''lech'')," to teach that the Glory of God fills the whole earth, including Pharaoh's Egypt.
Rabbi Johanan asked whether God's words in , "For I have hardened his heart," did not provide heretics with ground for arguing that Pharaoh had no means of repenting. Rabbi Simeon ben Lakish
Shim‘on ben Lakish ( he, שמעון בן לקיש; arc, שמעון בר לקיש ''Shim‘on bar Lakish'' or ''bar Lakisha''), better known by his nickname Reish Lakish (c. 200 — c. 275), was an amora who lived in the Roman province of Judae ...
(Resh Lakish) replied that the mouths of the heretics should be stopped up. For, as teaches, "If it concerns the scorners, He scorns them." When God warns people once, twice, and even a third time, and they still do not repent, then God closes their hearts against repentance so that God may exact vengeance from them for their sins. Thus it was with the wicked Pharaoh. Since God sent five times to him (in the first five plagues) and he took no notice, God then told Pharaoh that he had stiffened his neck and hardened his heart, so God would add to Pharaoh's impurity. The Midrash taught that the expression "I hardened" (, ''hichbad'ti'') implied that God made Pharaoh's heart like a liver (, ''kaveid''), which stiffens (and becomes unabsorbent) if boiled a second time. So Pharaoh's heart was made like a liver, and he did not receive the words of God.
Similarly, Rabbi Phinehas, the priest, son of Rabbi Hama, interpreted God's hardening of Pharaoh's heart in light of , "But they who are godless in heart lay up anger; they cry not for help when He binds them." Rabbi Phinehas taught that if the godless, for whose repentance God waits, do not do so, then later on, even when they do think of it, God distracts their hearts from penitence. Rabbi Phinehas interpreted the words of , "And they who are godless in heart," to teach that those who begin by being godless in heart end up bringing upon themselves God's anger. And Rabbi Phinehas interpreted the words of , "They cry not for help when He binds them," to teach that though the godless wish later to return to God and to pray to God, they are no longer able, because God binds them and bars their way. Thus after several plagues, Pharaoh wished to pray to God, but God told Moses in "Before he goes out o pray to God stand before Pharaoh."
Reading the words of , "and the heart of his servants," a Midrash taught that when Pharaoh's heart softened, his servants' hardened, and when they softened, he hardened. When both softened, God hardened their hearts, as states. God closed their hearts to repentance to punish them for their earlier stubbornness.
Reading the words "My signs (, ''ototai'') in the midst of them" in , Rabbi Judah ben Simon taught that God inscribed the letters of the plagues on their very bodies. Similarly, a Midrash taught that God inscribed abbreviations of the plagues on the staff of Moses, so that he would know which plague was next.
It was taught in a Baraita
''Baraita'' ( Aramaic: "external" or "outside"; pl. ''Barayata'' or ''Baraitot''; also Baraitha, Beraita; Ashkenazi: Beraisa) designates a tradition in the Jewish oral law not incorporated in the Mishnah. ''Baraita'' thus refers to teachings ...
that Rabbi Judah the Prince (or others say Rabbi Meir
Rabbi Meir ( he, רַבִּי מֵאִיר) was a Jewish sage who lived in the time of the Mishnah. He was considered one of the greatest of the Tannaim of the fourth generation (139-163). He is the third most frequently mentioned sage in the Mis ...
) used to say that Providence repays a person measure for measure. Thus, a Midrash taught that God sent the plagues against Pharaoh measure for measure. God changed the Egyptians' water into blood because the Egyptians prevented the Israelites from using the ritual bath (''mikveh
Mikveh or mikvah (, ''mikva'ot'', ''mikvoth'', ''mikvot'', or (Yiddish) ''mikves'', lit., "a collection") is a bath used for the purpose of ritual immersion in Judaism to achieve ritual purity.
Most forms of ritual impurity can be purifi ...
'') so as to prevent the Israelite women from having marital relations with their husbands. God brought frogs because the Egyptians had ordered the Israelites to bring them reptiles and creeping creatures (which were an abomination to the Israelites). God sent lice because the Egyptians had made the Israelites clean the dirty streets and marketplaces. God sent swarms of wild animals because the Egyptians had demanded that the Israelites catch bear
Bears are carnivoran mammals of the family Ursidae. They are classified as caniforms, or doglike carnivorans. Although only eight species of bears are extant, they are widespread, appearing in a wide variety of habitats throughout the No ...
s, lion
The lion (''Panthera leo'') is a large cat of the genus '' Panthera'' native to Africa and India. It has a muscular, broad-chested body; short, rounded head; round ears; and a hairy tuft at the end of its tail. It is sexually dimorphic; adu ...
s, and leopard
The leopard (''Panthera pardus'') is one of the five extant species in the genus '' Panthera'', a member of the cat family, Felidae. It occurs in a wide range in sub-Saharan Africa, in some parts of Western and Central Asia, Southern Russia, ...
s so as to separate the Israelite men from their wives. God brought the pestilence upon the Egyptians' cattle because they had forced the Israelites to serve as shepherds so as to keep the Israelite men away from their wives. God sent boils because the Egyptians had demanded that the Israelites warm things for them. God sent hail to destroy the Egyptians' crops because the Egyptians had sent the Israelites into the fields to plow and sow. God brought the locusts to destroy the Egyptians' grain because the Egyptians had forced the Israelites to plant wheat and barley for them. God brought darkness because among the Israelites were transgressors who had Egyptian patrons and lived in affluence and honor in Egypt and did not want to leave Egypt, and so God brought darkness so that God could kill these transgressors without the Egyptians' seeing.
A Midrash taught that God brought the locusts upon the Egyptians in because the Egyptians had made the Israelites sow wheat
Wheat is a grass widely cultivated for its seed, a cereal grain that is a worldwide staple food. The many species of wheat together make up the genus ''Triticum'' ; the most widely grown is common wheat (''T. aestivum''). The archaeologi ...
and barley
Barley (''Hordeum vulgare''), a member of the grass family, is a major cereal grain grown in temperate climates globally. It was one of the first cultivated grains, particularly in Eurasia as early as 10,000 years ago. Globally 70% of barley p ...
for them, and thus God brought locusts to devour what the Israelites had sown for them.Exodus Rabbah 13:6, in, e.g., Simon Lehrman, translator, ''Midrash Rabbah: Exodus'', volume 3, page 154.
A Midrash taught that God fixed a time of "tomorrow" for the plague of locusts in so that the Egyptians might feel remorse and do penitence (thus showing that the Egyptians were still not barred from doing penitence).
A Midrash read the words of , "And he turned, and went out from Pharaoh," to teach that Moses saw Pharaoh's ministers turning to one another, as if inclined to believe the words of Moses. So Moses turned to go out to allow them to talk about how to repent.
Reading in that "Pharaoh's servants said to him: ‘How long shall this man be a snare unto us?'" the Sages counted Pharaoh's servants among six exemplars who gave good advice, along with Naaman's servants, King Saul
Saul (; he, , ; , ; ) was, according to the Hebrew Bible, the first monarch of the United Kingdom of Israel. His reign, traditionally placed in the late 11th century BCE, supposedly marked the transition of Israel and Judah from a scattered tri ...
's ministers, the ministers of the King of Aram, and the ministers of King Ahasuerus
Ahasuerus ( ; , commonly ''Achashverosh'';; fa, اخشورش, Axšoreš; fa, label= New Persian, خشایار, Xašāyār; grc, Ξέρξης, Xérxēs. grc, label= Koine Greek, Ἀσουήρος, Asouḗros, in the Septuagint; la, Assue ...
.
Reading Pharaoh's question in , "Who are they that shall go?" a Midrash taught that Pharaoh asked this because he saw in the stars that of all who would leave Egypt, only two, Joshua
Joshua () or Yehoshua ( ''Yəhōšuaʿ'', Tiberian: ''Yŏhōšuaʿ,'' lit. 'Yahweh is salvation') ''Yēšūaʿ''; syr, ܝܫܘܥ ܒܪ ܢܘܢ ''Yəšūʿ bar Nōn''; el, Ἰησοῦς, ar , يُوشَعُ ٱبْنُ نُونٍ '' Yūšaʿ ...
and Caleb
Caleb (), sometimes transliterated as Kaleb ( he, כָּלֵב, ''Kalev'', ; Tiberian vocalization: Kālēḇ; Hebrew Academy: Kalev), is a figure who appears in the Hebrew Bible as a representative of the Tribe of Judah during the Israelite ...
, were destined to enter the Land of Israel
The Land of Israel () is the traditional Jewish name for an area of the Southern Levant. Related biblical, religious and historical English terms include the Land of Canaan, the Promised Land, the Holy Land, and Palestine (see also Isr ...
. It was to these two to whom Pharaoh alluded when he asked, "Who are they?"
A Midrash read Pharaoh's words to Moses in , "see that evil is before your face," to indicate that Pharaoh deduced that one who made a request for the young and the old to go could have only one object in mind — to flee. Pharaoh thus perceived that Moses sought to do evil and flee. On that account, Pharaoh said that he would not listen to Moses in anything further, and in the words of , "they were driven out from Pharaoh's presence"
The Mishnat Rabbi Eliezer taught that Pharaoh mocked the Israelites when he told Moses in , "for that is what you desire." The Mishnat Rabbi Eliezer taught that mockery yields evil results, for God did not change the course of nature in any of the plagues until Pharaoh mocked the Israelites. Pharaoh jeered at the Israelites, telling Moses "You tell me, ‘The men, the women, and the children are to go'; yet you really need only the men." And since Pharaoh mocked the Israelites, God altered the course of nature and turned light into darkenss upon Pharaoh.
A Midrash read Pharaoh's words to Moses in , "I have sinned against the Lord your God," to apply to Pharaoh's not letting the Israelites go free (as God had commanded Pharaoh through Moses). And Pharaoh's words to Moses, "I have sinned . . . against you," to apply to Pharaoh's driving Moses out from his presence, as well as to Pharaoh's intention to curse Moses when Pharaoh said in , "So be the Lord with you." Thus Pharaoh sought forgiveness in , asking Moses, "Now therefore forgive, I pray, my sin only this once."
The Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmael
The Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmael ( arc, מְכִילְתָּא דְּרַבִּי יִשְׁמָעֵאל IPA /məˈχiltɑ/, "a collection of rules of interpretation") is midrash halakha to the Book of Exodus. The Jewish Babylonian Aramaic title ' ...
called the east wind with which God brought the plague of the locusts in "the mightiest of winds." The Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmael taught that God used the east wind to punish the generation of the Flood, the people of the Tower of Babel
The Tower of Babel ( he, , ''Mīgdal Bāḇel'') narrative in Genesis 11:1–9 is an origin myth meant to explain why the world's peoples speak different languages.
According to the story, a united human race speaking a single language and mi ...
, the people of Sodom
Sodom may refer to:
Places Historic
* Sodom and Gomorrah, cities mentioned in the Book of Genesis
United States
* Sodom, Kentucky, a ghost town
* Sodom, New York, a hamlet
* Sodom, Ohio, an unincorporated community
* Sodom, West Virginia, ...
, the Egyptians in , the Tribes of Judah and Benjamin
Benjamin ( he, ''Bīnyāmīn''; "Son of (the) right") blue letter bible: https://www.blueletterbible.org/lexicon/h3225/kjv/wlc/0-1/ H3225 - yāmîn - Strong's Hebrew Lexicon (kjv) was the last of the two sons of Jacob and Rachel (Jacob's thi ...
, the Ten Tribes, Tyre, a wanton empire, and the wicked of Gehinnom.
Reading the words of , "there remained not one locust in all the border of Egypt," Rabbi Johanan taught that when the locusts first came, the Egyptians rejoiced and gathered them and filled barrels with them. Then God became outraged that the Egyptians would rejoice with the plagues that God had brought upon them. And immediately (as reported in ), "the Lord turned an exceeding strong west wind, which took up the locusts." And the Midrash interpreted the words of , "there remained not one locust in all the border of Egypt," to teach that the wind blew away even the locusts that the Egyptians had pickled in their pots and barrels.
A Midrash taught that God brought darkness upon the people in because some Israelite transgressors had Egyptian patrons, lived in affluence and honor, and were unwilling to leave Egypt. God reasoned that bringing a plague and killing these transgressors publicly would cause the Egyptians to conclude that the plagues punished Egyptians and Israelites alike, and thus did not come from God. Thus, God brought darkness upon the Egyptians for three days, so that the Israelites could bury the dead transgressors without the Egyptians seeing them do so.Exodus Rabbah 14:3, in, e.g., Simon Lehrman, translator, ''Midrash Rabbah: Exodus'', volume 3, page 157.
Reading the words "even darkness that could be felt" in , the Sages conjectured that it was as thick as a denar coin, for "even darkness that could be felt" implied a darkness that had substance.
Rabbi Abdimi of Haifa
Haifa ( he, חֵיפָה ' ; ar, حَيْفَا ') is the third-largest city in Israel—after Jerusalem and Tel Aviv—with a population of in . The city of Haifa forms part of the Haifa metropolitan area, the third-most populous metropol ...
interpreted the words "thick darkness" in to teach that the darkness was doubled and redoubled.
The Rabbis taught that there were seven days of darkness. During the first three days, one who wished to arise from sitting could do so, and the one who wished to sit down could do so. Concerning these days says: "And there was a thick darkness in all the land of Egypt three days; and they did not see one another." During the last three days, one who sat could not stand up, one who stood could not sit down, and one who was lying down could not rise upright. Concerning these days says: "neither rose any from his place for three days."Exodus Rabbah 14:3, in, e.g., Simon Lehrman, translator, ''Midrash Rabbah: Exodus'', volume 3, pages 157–58.
During the three days of thick darkness, God gave the Israelites favor in the eyes of the Egyptians, so that the Egyptians lent the Israelites everything. An Israelite would enter an Egyptian's house, and if the Israelite saw gold and silver vessels or garments, and when the Israelite asked for them the Egyptian replied that the Egyptian had nothing to lend, the Israelite would say where the goods were. The Egyptians would then reason that had the Israelites desired to deceive the Egyptians, they could have easily taken the goods during the darkness and the Egyptians would not have noticed. But since the Israelites did not take the goods, the Egyptians reasoned that the Israelites would not keep them. And so the Egyptians lent the Israelites their things, so as to fulfill what foretold: "Afterward shall they come out with great substance."
The Midrash noted that says: "but all the children of Israel had light in their dwellings," not, "in the land of Goshen," and concluded that light accompanied the Israelites wherever they went and illumined what was within barrels, boxes, and treasure-chests. Concerning them says: "Your word is a lamp for my feet."
The Midrash taught that the six days of darkness occurred in Egypt, while the seventh day of darkness was a day of darkness of the sea, as says: "And there was the cloud and the darkness here, yet it gave light by night there." So God sent clouds and darkness and covered the Egyptians with darkness, but gave light to the Israelites, as God had done for them in Egypt. Hence says: "The Lord is my light and my salvation." And the Midrash taught that in the Messianic Age
In Abrahamic religions, the Messianic Age is the future period of time on Earth in which the messiah will reign and bring universal peace and brotherhood, without any evil. Many believe that there will be such an age; some refer to it as the cons ...
, as well, God will bring darkness to sinners, but light to Israel, as says: "For, behold, darkness shall cover the earth, and gross darkness the peoples; but upon you the Lord will shine."
A Midrash noted that reports that "Pharaoh's heart was hardened" without God's action, and that this was so for the first five plagues. As the first five plagues did not move Pharaoh to release the Israelites, God decreed that from then on, even if Pharaoh had agreed to release the Israelites, God would not accept it. Thus starting with the sixth plague and thereafter, as reports, the text says, "the Lord hardened Pharaoh's heart."
Exodus chapter 11
A Midrash told that immediately after the exchange between Pharaoh and Moses in , in which Pharaoh told Moses, "Take heed to see my face no more," and Moses answered, "I will see your face again no more" — but before Moses left Pharaoh's presence — God thought that God still had to inform Pharaoh of one more plague. Immediately therefore God hurriedly entered the palace of Pharaoh for the sake of Moses, so that Moses would not appear untruthful for having said that Moses would see Pharaoh's face no more. The Midrash taught that this was the only occasion when God spoke with Moses in Pharaoh's house. So God rushed into Pharaoh's palace and told Moses, as reports, "Yet one plague more will I bring upon Pharaoh." When Moses heard this, he rejoiced. Moses then proclaimed, as reports, "Thus says the Lord: ‘About midnight will I go out into the midst of Egypt.'" Moses told Pharaoh that Pharaoh was right that Moses would see Pharaoh's face no more, for Moses would no longer come to Pharaoh, but Pharaoh would come to Moses. And not only would Pharaoh come, but also the chief of his hosts, his governor, and all his courtiers, imploring and prostrating themselves to Moses for the Israelites to depart from Egypt, as reports that Moses said, "And all these your servants shall come down to me." Moses did not wish to say that Pharaoh would bow down to Moses, out of respect for royalty.
The Gemara
The Gemara (also transliterated Gemarah, or in Yiddish Gemo(r)re; from Aramaic , from the Semitic root ג-מ-ר ''gamar'', to finish or complete) is the component of the Talmud comprising rabbinical analysis of and commentary on the Mishnah ...
deduced from the words, "About midnight I will go out into the midst of Egypt," in that even Moses did not know exactly when midnight fell. The Gemara reasoned that could not say "about midnight" because God told Moses "about midnight," for God cannot have any doubt about when midnight falls. Thus the Gemara concluded that God told Moses "at midnight," and then Moses told Pharaoh "about midnight" because Moses was in doubt as to the exact moment of midnight. But Rav Zeira
Rabbi Zeira ( he, רבי זירא), known before his semicha as Rav Zeira ( he, רב זירא) and known in the Jerusalem Talmud as Rabbi Ze'era ( he, רבי זעירא), was a Jewish Talmudist, of the third generation of amoraim, who lived in the ...
argued that Moses certainly knew the exact time of midnight, but said "about midnight" because he thought that Pharaoh's astrologers might make a mistake as to the exact moment of midnight and then accuse Moses of being a liar. And Rav Ashi
Rav Ashi ( he, רב אשי) ("Rabbi Ashi") (352–427) was a Babylonian Jewish rabbi, of the sixth generation of amoraim. He reestablished the Academy at Sura and was the first editor of the Babylonian Talmud.
Biography
According to a trad ...
argued that in , Moses spoke at midnight of the night of the thirteenth of Nisan as it became the fourteenth of Nisan, and thus Moses said: "God said: ‘Tomorrow at the hour like the midnight of tonight, I will go out into the midst of Egypt.'"
Rabbi Johanan taught that Song of Songs speaks of Moses when it says, "The voice of the turtle (''tor'') is heard in our land," reading the verse to mean, "The voice of the good explorer (''tayyar'') is heard in our land." Rabbi Johanan taught that thus speaks of Moses at the time of which reports: "And Moses said: ‘Thus says the Lord: "About midnight will I go out into the midst of Egypt . . . ."'"
The Gemara advised that because of the principle that a dream's realization follows its interpretation, one who dreams of a dog should rise early and say the fortunate words of , "But against any of the children of Israel shall not a dog whet his tongue," before thinking of the unfortunate words of (regarding Israel's corrupt aristocracy), "Yea, the dogs are greedy," so as to attribute to the dream the more favorable meaning and thus the more fortunate realization.
Rabbi Jannai taught that one should always show respect to a ruler, following the example of Moses, who in , told Pharaoh that "all your servants shall . . . bow down to me," but out of respect for royalty did not say that Pharaoh himself would seek favors of Moses, as reported in . Similarly, a Midrash interpreted God's instructions to Moses and Aaron in , "and to Pharaoh, King of Egypt," to convey that God told Moses and Aaron that although God really ought to punish Pharaoh, God wanted Moses and Aaron to show Pharaoh the respect due to his regal position. And Moses did so, as reports that Moses told Pharaoh that God said, "And all these your servants shall come down to Me." Moses did not say that Pharaoh would come down, only that Pharaoh's servants would do so. But Moses could well have said that Pharaoh himself would come down, for reports, "Pharaoh arose at midnight." But Moses did not mention Pharaoh specifically so as to pay him respect.
Rabbi Joshua ben Karhah taught that a lasting effect resulted from every instance of "fierce anger" in the Torah. The Gemara questioned whether this principle held true in the case of , which reports that Moses "went out from Pharaoh in hot anger," but does not report Moses saying anything to Pharaoh as a result of his anger. In response, the Gemara reported that Resh Lakish taught that Moses slapped Pharaoh before he left Pharaoh's presence.
Exodus chapter 12
The Mishnah reported that on the fourth Sabbath of the month ofAdar
Adar ( he, אֲדָר ; from Akkadian ''adaru'') is the sixth month of the civil year and the twelfth month of the religious year on the Hebrew calendar, roughly corresponding to the month of March in the Gregorian calendar. It is a month of 29 ...
(''Shabbat HaChodesh''), congregations read .
The Mishnah taught that the first of Nisan is new year for kings and festivals. And the Tosefta
The Tosefta ( Jewish Babylonian Aramaic: תוספתא "supplement, addition") is a compilation of the Jewish oral law from the late 2nd century, the period of the Mishnah.
Overview
In many ways, the Tosefta acts as a supplement to the Mishnah ( ...
and a Baraita deduced from , "This month shall be to you the beginning of months; it shall be the first month of the year to you," that Nisan is the new year for months, and they begin to count months from Nisan.
The Pirke De-Rabbi Eliezer taught that God created the sun and the moon on the 28th of Elul
Elul ( he, אֱלוּל, Standard ''ʾElūl'', Tiberian ''ʾĔlūl'') is the twelfth month of the Jewish civil year and the sixth month of the ecclesiastical year on the Hebrew calendar. It is a month of 29 days. Elul usually occurs in August� ...
. The entire Hebrew calendar — years, months, days, nights, seasons, and intercalation — were before God, and God intercalated the years and delivered the calculations to Adam
Adam; el, Ἀδάμ, Adám; la, Adam is the name given in Genesis 1-5 to the first human. Beyond its use as the name of the first man, ''adam'' is also used in the Bible as a pronoun, individually as "a human" and in a collective sense as " ...
in the Garden of Eden
In Abrahamic religions, the Garden of Eden ( he, גַּן־עֵדֶן, ) or Garden of God (, and גַן־אֱלֹהִים ''gan- Elohim''), also called the Terrestrial Paradise, is the biblical paradise described in Genesis 2-3 and Ezekiel 28 ...
, as can be read, "This is the calculation for the generations of Adam." Adam handed on the tradition to Enoch
Enoch () ''Henṓkh''; ar, أَخْنُوخ ', Qur'ān.html"_;"title="ommonly_in_Qur'ān">ommonly_in_Qur'ānic_literature__'_is_a_biblical_figure_and_Patriarchs_(Bible).html" "title="Qur'ānic_literature.html" ;"title="Qur'ān.html" ;"title="o ...
, who was initiated in the principle of intercalation, as says, "And Enoch walked with God." Enoch passed the principle of intercalation to Noah
Noah ''Nukh''; am, ኖህ, ''Noḥ''; ar, نُوح '; grc, Νῶε ''Nôe'' () is the tenth and last of the pre-Flood patriarchs in the traditions of Abrahamic religions. His story appears in the Hebrew Bible (Book of Genesis, chapters 5� ...
, who conveyed the tradition to Shem
Shem (; he, שֵׁם ''Šēm''; ar, سَام, Sām) ''Sḗm''; Ge'ez: ሴም, ''Sēm'' was one of the sons of Noah in the book of Genesis and in the book of Chronicles, and the Quran.
The children of Shem were Elam, Ashur, Arphaxad, Lu ...
, who conveyed it to Abraham
Abraham, ; ar, , , name=, group= (originally Abram) is the common Hebrew patriarch of the Abrahamic religions, including Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. In Judaism, he is the founding father of the special relationship between the Je ...
, who conveyed it to Isaac
Isaac; grc, Ἰσαάκ, Isaák; ar, إسحٰق/إسحاق, Isḥāq; am, ይስሐቅ is one of the three patriarchs of the Israelites and an important figure in the Abrahamic religions, including Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. He was ...
, who conveyed it to Jacob
Jacob (; ; ar, يَعْقُوب, Yaʿqūb; gr, Ἰακώβ, Iakṓb), later given the name Israel, is regarded as a patriarch of the Israelites and is an important figure in Abrahamic religions, such as Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. ...
, who conveyed it to Joseph
Joseph is a common male given name, derived from the Hebrew Yosef (יוֹסֵף). "Joseph" is used, along with "Josef", mostly in English, French and partially German languages. This spelling is also found as a variant in the languages of the m ...
and his brothers. When Joseph and his brothers died, the Israelites ceased to intercalate, as reports, "And Joseph died, and all his brethren, and all that generation." God then revealed the principles of the Hebrew calendar to Moses and Aaron in Egypt, as reports, "And the Lord spoke to Moses and Aaron in the land of Egypt saying, ‘This month shall be to you the beginning of months.'" The Pirke De-Rabbi Eliezer deduced from the word "saying" in that God said to Moses and Aaron that until then, the principle of intercalation had been with God, but from then on it was their right to intercalate the year. Thus the Israelites intercalated the year and will until Elijah
Elijah ( ; he, אֵלִיָּהוּ, ʾĒlīyyāhū, meaning "My El (deity), God is Yahweh/YHWH"; Greek form: Elias, ''Elías''; syr, ܐܸܠܝܼܵܐ, ''Elyāe''; Arabic language, Arabic: إلياس or إليا, ''Ilyās'' or ''Ilyā''. ) w ...
returns to herald in the Messianic Age.
Rav Assi (or others say Rav Havivi) of Hozna'ah deduced from the words, "And it came to pass in the first month of the second year, on the first day of the month," in that the Tabernacle was erected on the first of Nisan. With reference to this, a Tanna taught that the first of Nisan took ten crowns of distinction by virtue of the ten momentous events that occurred on that day. The first of Nisan was: (1) the first day of the Creation (as reported in ), (2) the first day of the princes' offerings (as reported in ), (3) the first day for the priesthood to make the sacrificial offerings (as reported in ), (4) the first day for public sacrifice, (5) the first day for the descent of fire from Heaven (as reported in ), (6) the first for the priests' eating of sacred food in the sacred area, (7) the first for the dwelling of the Shechinah in Israel (as implied by ), (8) the first for the Priestly Blessing
The Priestly Blessing or priestly benediction, ( he, ברכת כהנים; translit. ''birkat kohanim''), also known in rabbinic literature as raising of the hands (Hebrew ''nesiat kapayim'') or rising to the platform (Hebrew ''aliyah ledukhan'') ...
of Israel (as reported in , employing the blessing prescribed by ), (9) the first for the prohibition of the high places (as stated in ), and (10) the first of the months of the year (as instructed in ).
Midrash Tanḥuma explained that before the Israelites erected the Tabernacle, God spoke to Moses from the burning bush
The burning bush (or the unburnt bush) refers to an event recorded in the Jewish Torah (as also in the biblical Old Testament). It is described in the third chapter of the Book of Exodus as having occurred on Mount Horeb. According to the ...
, as says, "God called to him out of the bush." After that, God spoke to Moses in Midian
Midian (; he, מִדְיָן ''Mīḏyān'' ; ar, مَدْيَن, Madyan; grc-gre, Μαδιάμ, ''Madiam'') is a geographical place mentioned in the Hebrew Bible and Quran. William G. Dever states that biblical Midian was in the "northwest Ar ...
, as says, "The Lord said to Moses in Midian." After that, God spoke to Moses in Egypt, as says, "The Lord said to Moses and Aaron in the land of Egypt." After that, God spoke to Moses at Sinai, as says, "The Lord spoke to Moses in the wilderness of Sinai." Once the Israelites erected the Tabernacle, God said, "modesty is beautiful," as says, "and to walk humbly with your God,” and God began talking with Moses in the Tent of Meeting.
Tractate Beitzah
Beitza ( he, ביצה) or Bei'a ( Aramaic: ביעה) (literally "egg", named after the first word) is a tractate in the Order of Moed, dealing with the laws of Yom Tov (holidays). It is Moed's seventh tractate in the Mishna, but the eighth in the ...
in the Mishnah, Tosefta, Jerusalem Talmud
The Jerusalem Talmud ( he, תַּלְמוּד יְרוּשַׁלְמִי, translit=Talmud Yerushalmi, often for short), also known as the Palestinian Talmud or Talmud of the Land of Israel, is a collection of rabbinic notes on the second-century ...
, and Babylonian Talmud interpreted the laws common to all of the Festivals
A festival is an event ordinarily celebrated by a community and centering on some characteristic aspect or aspects of that community and its religion or cultures. It is often marked as a local or national holiday, mela, or eid. A festival ...
in 43–49
; ; ; ; ; ; ; and ; .
Tractate Pesachim
Pesachim ( he, פְּסָחִים, lit. "Paschal lambs" or "Passovers"), also spelled Pesahim, is the third tractate of ''Seder Moed'' ("Order of Festivals") of the Mishnah and of the Talmud. The tractate discusses the topics related to the J ...
in the Mishnah, Tosefta, Jerusalem Talmud, and Babylonian Talmud interpreted the laws of the Passover in 43–49
; ; ; ;
and . And elsewhere, the Mishnah taught that intent to eat the Passover offering raw (violating the commandment of ) or to break the bones of the offering (violating the commandment of ) did not invalidate the offering itself. The Mishnah in tractate Challah taught that anyone who eats an olive's bulk of unleavened bread (, ''matzah'') on Passover has fulfilled the obligation of , and interpreted to teach that anyone who eats an olive's bulk of leavened bread (, ''
chametz
''Chametz'' (also ''chometz'', ', ''ḥameṣ'', ''ḥameç'' and other spellings transliterated from he, חָמֵץ / חמץ; ) are foods with leavening agents that are forbidden on the Jewish holiday of Passover. According to halakha, Jews ...
'') on Passover is liable to being cut off from the Jewish people. Similarly, the Mishnah in tractate Beitzah reported that the House of Shammai
The House of Hillel (Beit Hillel) and House of Shammai (Beit Shammai) were, among Jewish scholars, two schools of thought during the period of tannaim, named after the sages Hillel and Shammai (of the last century BCE and the early 1st century C ...
held that an olive's bulk of leavening or a date's bulk (which is more than an olive's bulk) of leavened bread in one's house made one liable, but the House of Hillel held that an olive's bulk of either made one liable. The Gemara noted that the command in to eat unleavened bread on the first night of Passover applies to women (as did the command in for all Israelites to assemble), even though the general rule is that women are exempt from time-bound positive commandments. The Gemara cited these exceptions to support Rabbi Johanan's assertion that one may not draw inferences from general rules, for they often have exceptions.
The Mishnah taught that on the evening of the 14th of Nisan, Jews searched for leavened food in the house by candlelight. Any place into which one did not bring leavened food did not require checking. The Sages taught that one needed to check two rows in a wine cellar, as it was a place into which one brought leavened food. The House of Shammai taught that one needed to check the two front rows of the entire wine cellar, but the House of Hillel taught that one needed to check only the two outer rows that were uppermost. They did not worry that perhaps a weasel had dragged leavened bread from house to house, or from place to place, for if they had, they would have had to worry that the weasel had dragged leavened bread from courtyard to courtyard and from city to city, and there would have been no end to the matter. Rabbi Judah taught that they searched for leavened foods on the evening of the 14th, and on the morning of the 14th, and at the time that they destroyed the leavened foods (in the sixth hour — between 11 a.m. and noon). But the Sages maintained that if they did not search on the evening of the 14th, they needed to search on the 14th; if they did not search in the morning of the 14th, they needed to search at the time that they destroyed the leavened foods; if they did not search at that time, they needed to search after that time. And what they left over for the last morning meal before the Festival, they needed to put away in a hidden place, so that they should not need to search after it. Rabbi Meir taught that they could eat leavened foods through the fifth hour of the morning, and needed to burn it at the beginning of the sixth hour. Rabbi Judah taught that they could eat it through the fourth hour of the morning, needed to keep it in suspense during the fifth hour, and needed to burn it at the beginning of the sixth hour. Rabbi Judah also told that they used to put two unfit loaves of the thank offering on the roof of the Temple portico, and as long as the loaves lay there, all the people would eat leavened foods. When they would remove one loaf, the people would keep leavened foods in suspense, neither eating nor burning it. And when they removed both loaves, the people began burning their leavened foods. Rabban Gamaliel
Gamaliel the Elder (; also spelled Gamliel; he, רַבַּן גַּמְלִיאֵל הַזָּקֵן ''Rabban Gamlīʾēl hazZāqēn''; grc-koi, Γαμαλιὴλ ὁ Πρεσβύτερος ''Gamaliēl ho Presbýteros''), or Rabban Gamaliel I, ...
taught that unconsecrated leavened bread (, ''chullin'') could be eaten through the fourth hour of the morning, and leavened bread that was a heave-offering (, ''terumah'') could be eaten through the fifth hour, and they burned them at the beginning of the sixth hour. The Mishnah taught that during the entire time that one was permitted to eat leavened food, one was allowed to feed it to cattle, beasts, and birds; sell it to a gentile; and otherwise to benefit from it. When its period had passed, benefit from it was forbidden, and one was not even allowed to fire an oven or a pot range with it. Rabbi Judah taught that there was no destruction of leavened food except by burning. But the Sages maintained that one could also crumble it and throw it to the wind or casts it into the sea.
The Mishnah lists eating unleavened bread on Passover among 36 transgressions for which one may be liable to excision (, '' karet'').
The Mishnah taught that the grains with which one could discharge one's obligation (pursuant to ) to eat unleavened bread (, ''matzah'') on Passover included wheat, barley, spelt
Spelt (''Triticum spelta''), also known as dinkel wheat or hulled wheat, is a species of wheat that has been cultivated since approximately 5000 BC.
Spelt was an important staple food in parts of Europe from the Bronze Age to medieval times. N ...
, rye, and oats. And the Mishnah taught that they discharged their obligation even with unleavened bread made from agricultural produce for which it was uncertain whether tithes had been separated (, ''demai''), with first tithe whose heave-offering had been separated, and with second tithe or consecrated materials that had been redeemed. And priests could discharge their obligation with unleavened bread made from the portion of dough that was given to priests (''challah'') and heave-offering (, terumah). But one could not discharge the obligation with unleavened bread made from grain that was mixed or untithed (''tevel''), nor with first tithe whose heave-offering had not been separated, nor with second tithe or consecrated materials that had not been redeemed. As to the unleavened loaves of the thank offering and the wafers brought by a nazirite
In the Hebrew Bible, a nazirite or a nazarite ( he, נָזִיר ''Nāzīr'') is one who voluntarily took a vow which is described in . "Nazarite" comes from the Hebrew word ''nazir'' meaning "consecrated" or "separated". Those who put themselves ...
(, ''nazir''), the Sages made this distinction: If one made them for oneself, one could not discharge the obligation with them. But if one made them to sell in the market to those who required such products, one could discharge the obligation with them.
The Mishnah reported that if the 14th of Nisan falls on the Sabbath, Rabbi Meir taught that one must destroy leaven before the Sabbath (except for that required for the beginning of the Sabbath itself). But the Sages maintained that one destroys the leaven at its usual time (on the morning of the 14th). Rabbi Eleazar bar Zadok taught that one had to destroy consecrated meat before the Sabbath (because if any was left, none could eat it), and unconsecrated food at its usual time (because one could easily find eaters for it). The Mishnah taught that those on the way to perform religious duties who recollect leaven at home, if they are able to go back, destroy it, and then return to the religious duty, must go back and destroy it. But if they cannot, then they annul it in their heart. Similarly, those on the way to save people from an emergency annul it in their heart. But those on their way to appoint a Sabbath station to set the limits of where they may travel on the Sabbath must return immediately to destroy the leaven. Similarly, those who left Jerusalem and recollected that they had consecrated meat with them, if they had passed Mount Scopus, they burned it where they were. But if they had not traveled that far, they returned and burned it in front of the Temple with the wood arranged for use in the altar. The Mishnah then discussed for what quantity they had to return. Rabbi Meir said for both leaven and consecrated meat, they had to return for a quantity as much as an egg. Rabbi Judah said when there was as much as an olive. But the Sages ruled that for consecrated meat, they had to return for as much as an olive; while for leaven, they had to return for as much as an egg.
The Mishnah taught that where inhabitants customarily worked on the eve of Passover until noon, one could do so, while in a place where inhabitants customarily did not work, one could not. One who traveled from a place where they did work to a place where they did not work, or from a place where they did not work to a place where they did work, was bound by the stringencies of either. The Mishnah taught that a person should not deviate from the established customs of a place because of the disagreement to which such conduct could lead.
Rabbi Ḥanina, the adjunct head of the priests, taught that during all the days of the priests, they never refrained from burning sacrificial meat (''terumah'') that had become impure by a secondary source of impurity along with sacrificial meat that had become impure by a primary source of impurity, even though it would add impurity to impurity. Rabbi Akiva added that during all the days of the priests, they never refrained from lighting oil that had become unfit by contact with a person who had immersed that day for purification but who still needed to wait for nightfall to become fully pure (a ''tevul yom'') in a lamp that had become impure by one who had become impure by a corpse, even though by so doing they would add impurity to impurity. Based on those teachings, Rabbi Meir argued that on Passover, priests could burn sacrificial meat that was pure but included leavening (''chamets''), together with sacrificial meat that was impure. Rabbi Jose replied that such a case was not analogous. Even Rabbi Eliezer and Rabbi Joshua conceded that each was burned separately. They did disagree, however, about sacrificial meat whose status of purity was in question and impure sacrificial meat, where Rabbi Eliezer taught that each had to be burned separately, whereas Rabbi Joshua taught that both of them could be burned together.
The Sages reported that in Judah, they would work on the eve of Passover until noon, while in the Galilee they did not work at all that day. On the evening of the fourteenth of Nisan in places like the Galilee, the School of Shammai forbad work, but the School of Hillel allowed it until sunrise. Rabbi Meir taught that on the fourteenth, one could finish work that one had started before the fourteenth, but one could not start work on the fourteenth even if one could finish it that day. The Sages taught that tailors, barbers, and launderers could work on the eve of Passover until noon, and Rabbi Jose ben Judah taught that even shoe strap-makers could do so. The Mishnah taught that one could place chickens in hatching-coops on the fourteenth, could place a hen that had run away back in its place, and could place another hen in the place of a hen that died. On the fourteenth, one could rake out the stable-dung from under the feet of domesticated animals, but only to remove it to the sides of the stable during the days of the festival. One could carry vessels and other articles to and from the house of a craftsperson, even if they were not needed during the festival. The Mishnah taught that the men of Jericho would graft palm trees the entire day of the fourteenth, and the Sages did not protest.
The Mishnah reported that whereas priests usually slaughtered the daily offering half an hour after the eighth hour and sacrificed it an hour later, on the eve of Passover, priests slaughtered the daily offering half an hour after the seventh hour and sacrificed it an hour later, whether the eve of Passover fell on a weekday or the Sabbath. But if the eve of Passover fell on Friday, priests slaughtered the daily offering half an hour after the sixth hour and sacrificed it an hour later, and then sacrificed the Passover sacrifice after it.
The Mishnah taught that a Passover sacrifice was disqualified if it was slaughtered without specific intent for it, or if its blood was received or brought to the altar or sprinkled without specific intent for it, or if any sacrificial act was done without specific intent for it. A sacrificial act was done without specific intent for a Passover sacrifice if it was done with the intention that it be a peace offering (''shelamim''). The Mishnah taught that a Passover sacrifice was disqualified if it was slaughtered for people who were not qualified to eat it, such as uncircumcised men or people in a state of impurity. But it was fit if it was slaughtered for people who able to eat it ''and'' people who were not able to eat it, or for people who were designated for it and people who were not designated for it, or for men circumcised and men uncircumcised, or for people in a state of impurity and people in a state of purity. It was disqualified if it was slaughtered before noon, as says, “Between the evenings.” It was fit if it was slaughtered before the daily offering of the afternoon, but only if someone had been stirring the blood until the blood of the daily offering had been sprinkled. And if that blood had already been sprinkled, the Passover sacrifice was still fit.
The Mishnah taught that one transgressed a negative commandment if one slaughtered a Passover sacrifice while in the possession of leavened grain products (''chamets''). Rabbi Judah taught that this also applied to the daily offering. Rabbi Simeon taught that if one slaughtered a Passover sacrifice on the fourteenth with specific intent for it, one was guilty, but if one slaughtered it without specific intent, one was exempt. For all other sacrifices, however, whether they were with or without specific intent, one was exempt. If one slaughtered a Passover sacrifice on the festival of Passover itself with specific intent, one was exempt; if without specific intent, one was guilty. With respect to all other sacrifices, one was guilty if one sacrificed them during the festival with or without specific intent, except for offerings brought to expiate sin (''chatat'') slaughtered without specific intent.
The Mishnah reported that they slaughtered the Passover sacrifice in three groups — assembly, congregation, and Israel — as says, “The whole assembly of the congregation of Israel shall slaughter it.” The first group entered until they filled the Temple courtyard, and then they closed the courtyard gates. Then they sounded Tekiah (a long uninterrupted call), Teruah (a long staccato call), and Tekiah. The priests would stand in double rows holding beakers of silver and beakers of gold, one row completely silver, and one row completely gold. None of the beakers had flat bottoms, so that the priests could not put them down and allow the blood coagulate.
A common Israelite would slaughter the Passover sacrifice, and a priest would receive the blood and give it to a fellow priest, who would give it to a fellow priest, and so on until the priest nearest to the altar would sprinkle it in one sprinkling at the base of the altar. That priest would then return an empty beaker to the priest next to him, who would give it to a fellow priest, and so on, each priest both receiving full beakers and also returning empty beakers.
When the first group went out, the second group entered; when the second went out, the third entered. Each group proceeded alike. Each group would recite the Hallel (). If they finished it, they would repeat it, but during all their days, they never recited it a third time. Rabbi Judah told that during all the days of the third group, they never got as far as , “I love that the Lord should hear (''ahavti ki yishma Adonai''),” because that group was small.
The Mishnah taught that where inhabitants customarily ate roasted meat on Passover night, one could eat it, while where inhabitants customarily did not to eat it, one could not eat it.
Chapter 10 of Mishnah Pesachim taught the procedure for the Passover Seder
The Passover Seder (; he, סדר פסח , 'Passover order/arrangement'; yi, סדר ) is a ritual feast at the beginning of the Jewish holiday of Passover. It is conducted throughout the world on the eve of the 15th day of Minhah_offering_(about_3:00_pm)_until_nightfall._That_night,_even_the_poorest_people_in_Israel_were_not_to_eat_until_they_reclined_in_the_fashion_of_free_people._Every_person_was_to_drink_not_less_than_four_cups_of_wine,_even_if_the_public_charities_had_to_provide_it.
But_one_was_not_to_eat_unleavened_bread_(,_''matzah'')_during_the_day_before_the_Seder._Rabbi_Levi_said_that_those_who_eat_unleavened_bread_on_the_day_before_Passover_are_like_those_who_cohabit_with_their_betrothed_before_they_are_fully_married._Rava_(amora).html" ;"title="Jewish_services.html" ;"title="isan in the Hebrew ...
. On the eve of Passover, no one was to eat from before the Jewish services">Minhah offering (about 3:00 pm) until nightfall. That night, even the poorest people in Israel were not to eat until they reclined in the fashion of free people. Every person was to drink not less than four cups of wine, even if the public charities had to provide it.
But one was not to eat unleavened bread (, ''matzah'') during the day before the Seder. Rabbi Levi said that those who eat unleavened bread on the day before Passover are like those who cohabit with their betrothed before they are fully married. Rava (amora)">Rava used to drink wine all day before the Seder so as to whet his appetite to eat more unleavened bread in the evening.
The Gemara taught that one needed to recline for the eating of the unleavened bread (, ''matzah'') and for the drinking of the wine, but not for the bitter herbs.
A Baraita taught that each of the four cups of wine needed to contain at least a ''reviis'' of wine (the volume of one and a half eggs, or roughly 4 to 5 ounces). And Rav Nachman bar Yitzchak taught that one must drink most of each cup.
The Tosefta taught that it is a religious duty for one to bring joy to one's children and dependents on Passover. The Tosefta taught that one brings them joy with wine, as says, “wine . . . makes glad the heart of man.” Rabbi Judah taught that one gives to women what is suitable to bring them joy and to children what is suitable to bring them joy. Similarly, in the Babylonian Talmud, the Rabbis taught that Jews are duty bound to make their children and their household rejoice on a Festival, for says, "And you shall rejoice it, your feast, you and your son and your daughter." The Gemara taught that one makes them rejoice with wine. Rabbi Judah taught that men gladden with what is suitable for them, and women with what is suitable for them. The Gemara explained that what is suitable for men is wine. And Rav Joseph taught that in Babylonia, they gladdened women with colored garments, while in the Land of Israel, they gladdened women with pressed linen garments. Rabbi Judah ben Bathyra
Judah ben Bathyra or simply Judah Bathyra (also Beseira, Hebrew: יהודה בן בתירא) was an eminent tanna. The Mishnah quotes 17 laws by R. Judah, and the Baraita about 40; he was also a prolific aggadist. He was a member of the Bnei Ba ...
taught that in the days of the Temple in Jerusalem
The Temple in Jerusalem, or alternatively the Holy Temple (; , ), refers to the two now-destroyed religious structures that served as the central places of worship for Israelites and Jews on the modern-day Temple Mount in the Old City of Jeru ...
, Jews could not rejoice without meat (from an offering), as says, "And you shall sacrifice peace-offerings, and shall eat there; and you shall rejoice before the Lord your God." But now that the Temple no longer exists, Jews cannot rejoice without wine, as says, "And wine gladdens the heart of man."
The Mishnah continued that they mixed the first cup of wine for the leader of the Seder. The House of Shammai taught that the leader first recited a blessing for the day, and then a blessing over the wine, while the House of Hillel ruled that the leader first recited a blessing over the wine, and then recited a blessing for the day.
Then they set food before the leader. The leader dipped and ate lettuce (which was ''karpas
Karpas ( he, כַּרְפַּס) is one of the traditional rituals in the Passover Seder._It_refers_to_the_vegetable,_usually_parsley.html" ;"title="isan in the Hebrew .... It refers to the vegetable, usually parsley">isan in the Hebrew .... I ...
'') before the bread. They set before the leader unleavened bread (, ''matzah''), lettuce (''hazeret''), '' charoset'', and two cooked dishes. The ''charoset'' was not mandatory, although Rabbi Eleazar son of Rabbi Zadok said that it was. In the days of the Temple in Jerusalem, they would bring the body of the Passover lamb before the leader.
The Mishnah listed several vegetables that could fulfill the requirement to have a bitter herb (''maror
''Maror'' ( he, מָרוֹר ''mārôr'') refers to the bitter herbs eaten at the Passover Seder_in_keeping_with_the_biblical_commandment__"with_bitter_herbs_they_shall_eat_it."_(Book_of_Exodus.html" "title="mitzvah.html" "title="isan in the H ...
''). They have been translated as lettuce, chicory, pepperwort, endives, and dandelion.
They filled a second cup of wine for the leader. Then a child asked questions. If the child was not intelligent, the parent would instruct the child to ask why this night was different from all other nights. On all other nights they ate leavened and unleavened bread, while on this night they ate only unleavened bread (, ''matzah''). On all other nights, they ate all kinds of herbs, while on this night they ate only bitter herbs. (Early editions of the Mishnah and some editions of the Jerusalem Talmud did not include this item.) On all other nights, they ate meat roasted, stewed, or boiled, while on this night they ate only roasted meat. On all other nights, they dipped once, while on this night they dipped twice. (While the Jerusalem Talmud preserved this reading, some editions of the Babylonian Talmud emended this item to read, “On all other nights we do not have to dip even one time . . . .”) And the parent instructed according to the child's intelligence. The parent began to answer the questions by recounting the people's humble beginnings, and concluded with the people's praise. The parent recounted the credo of , "My father was a wandering Aramean . . . ."
The Rabbis taught in a Baraita that if a child is intelligent enough to ask the four questions, the child asks them. If the child is not intelligent enough, the wife asks them. If the wife does not ask the questions, the leader of the seder asks them. And even two scholars who know the laws of Passover must ask one another (if no one else can ask).
The Mishnah stated that one answer to the questions of why this night is different from all other nights is that on all other nights we dip once; however, on this night we dip twice. Mishnah Pesachim 10:4, in, e.g., Jacob Neusner, translator, ''Mishnah'', page 250Babylonian Talmud Pesachim 116a
in, e.g., ''Talmud Bavli'', elucidated by Eliezer Herzka, Dovid Kamenetsky, Eli Shulman, Feivel Wahl, and Mendy Wachsman, edited by Yisroel Simcha Schorr and Chaim Malinowitz, volume 11, page 116a2. In the Babylonian Talmud, Rava objected to this statement, questioning whether on every other day there was a requirement to dip once. Rather, Rava said that the Mishnah taught that on all other nights we are ''not obligated'' to dip even once; however, on this night we are obligated to dip twice. Rav Safra objected to this explanation, questioning whether one could deduce this from what we do simply to arouse children's curiosity. Rather, Rav Safra said that the Mishnah taught that ''normally'' we do not dip even once; however, on this night we dip twice.Babylonian Talmud Pesachim 116a
in, e.g., ''Talmud Bavli'', elucidated by Eliezer Herzka, Dovid Kamenetsky, Eli Shulman, Feivel Wahl, and Mendy Wachsman, edited by Yisroel Simcha Schorr and Chaim Malinowitz, volume 11, page 116a3. The Mishnah taught that the parent begins the answer with disgrace and concludes with glory. The Gemara asked what the Mishnah meant by “with disgrace.” In the Babylonian Talmud, Rav (
Abba Arika
Abba Arikha (175–247 CE; Jewish Babylonian Aramaic: ; born: ''Rav Abba bar Aybo'', ), commonly known as Rav (), was a Jewish amora of the 3rd century. He was born and lived in Kafri, Asoristan, in the Sasanian Empire.
Abba Arikha establis ...
) taught that the disgrace was that at first our forefathers were idol worshippers, while Samuel of Nehardea
Samuel of Nehardea or Samuel bar Abba, often simply called Samuel (Hebrew: שמואל) and occasionally Mar Samuel, was a Jewish Amora of the first generation; son of Abba bar Abba and head of the Yeshiva at Nehardea, Babylonia. He was a teacher ...
taught that the disgrace was that we were slaves. In the Jerusalem Talmud, Rav taught one must begin with Joshua's words in (explaining that Terah
Terah or Terach ( he, תֶּרַח ''Teraḥ'') is a biblical figure in the Book of Genesis. He is listed as the son of Nahor and father of the patriarch Abraham. As such, he is a descendant of Shem's son Arpachshad. Terah is mentioned in Gen ...
worshipped idols), “Your fathers dwelt of old time beyond the River, even Terah, the father of Abraham, and the father of Nahor; and they served other gods.” (Jews therefore follow Joshua's model, tracing their ignoble origins to the idolatrous background of their ancestors.)
Rabbi Akiva
Akiva ben Yosef (Mishnaic Hebrew: ''ʿĂqīvāʾ ben Yōsēf''; – 28 September 135 CE), also known as Rabbi Akiva (), was a leading Jewish scholar and sage, a '' tanna'' of the latter part of the first century and the beginning of the second c ...
would distribute popcorn and nuts to children on the eve of Passover, so that they might not fall asleep but ask the four questions. Rabbi Eliezer taught that the unleavened bread (, ''matzah'') was eaten hastily on the night of Passover, on account of the children, so that they should not fall asleep. Rabbi Akiva never said in the house of study that it was time to stop studying, except on the eve of Passover and the eve of the Day of Atonement. On the eve of Passover, it was because of the children, so that they might not fall asleep, and on the eve of the Day of Atonement, it was so that they should feed their children before the fast.
The Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmael taught that there are four types of children (as evinced by the four times — in ; ; ; and — that Scripture reports telling a child) — the wise, the simple, the wicked, and the type who does not know how to ask. The wise child asks, in the words of “What mean the testimonies, and the statutes, and the ordinances, that the Lord our God has commanded you?” The Mekhilta taught that we explain to this child all the laws of Passover. The simple child asks, in the words of “What is this?” The Mekhilta taught that we respond simply with the words of “By strength of hand the Lord brought us out from Egypt, from the house of bondage.” The wicked child asks, in the words of “What do ''you'' mean by this service?” The Mekhilta taught that because wicked children exclude themselves, we should also exclude this child in answering and say, in the words of “It is because of what the Lord did for ''me'' when I came forth out of Egypt” — for me but not for you; had you been there, you would not have been saved. As for the child who does not know how to ask, the Mekhilta taught that we take the initiative, as says (without having reported that the child asked), “You shall tell your child on that day.”
Rabban Gamaliel said that one needed to mention three things on Passover to discharge one's duty: the Passover offering, unleavened bread (, ''matzah''), and bitter herbs (''maror''). The Passover offering was sacrificed because God passed over the Israelites' houses in Egypt. They ate unleavened bread because the Israelites were redeemed from Egypt. And they ate bitter herbs because the Egyptians embittered the lives of the Israelites in Egypt. In every generation, all were bound to regard themselves as though they personally had gone out of Egypt, because says, "You shall tell your child in that day: ‘It is because of what the Lord did for ''me'' when ''I'' came out of Egypt.'" Therefore, it was everyone's duty to thank and praise God for performing those miracles for the Israelites and their descendants. God brought them forth from bondage into freedom, from sorrow into joy, from mourning into festivity, from darkness into light, and from servitude into redemption. Therefore, they were to say hallelujah!
In the Mishnah, the House of Shammai and the House of Hillel disagreed about how far one should recite into the Hallel
Hallel ( he, הַלֵּל, "Praise") is a Jewish prayer, a verbatim recitation from Psalms which is recited by observant Jews on Jewish holidays as an act of praise and thanksgiving.
Holy days
Hallel consists of six Psalms (113–118), which ...
, . The House of Shammai maintained that one recited until the words "as a joyous mother of children" in , while the House of Hillel said that one recited until the words "the flint into a fountain of waters" in .Mishnah Pesachim 10:6in, e.g., Jacob Neusner, translator, ''Mishnah'', page 250
Babylonian Talmud Pesachim 116b
in, e.g., ''Talmud Bavli'', elucidated by Eliezer Herzka, Dovid Kamenetsky, Eli Shulman, Feivel Wahl, and Mendy Wachsman, edited by Yisroel Simcha Schorr and Chaim Malinowitz, volume 11, page 116b2. The Tosefta and the Jerusalem Talmud reported that the House of Shammai argued to the House of Hillel that since the original Passover meal in Egypt preceded the Exodus, it would be inappropriate at a Passover seder to give thanks for the Exodus. The House of Hillel argued to the House of Shammai that since the Israelites only left Egypt at midday (for which the Jerusalem Talmud cited , which it read to say, “And it came to pass in the middle of that day”), it would still be inappropriate to mention the Exodus on the morning after the seder. The Jerusalem Talmud reported that the House of Hillel concluded that once one has started a religious duty, one should finish it. And Rabbi Abuna bar Sehorah questioned the argument of the House of Shammai, as one will already have mentioned the Exodus from Egypt in the Sanctification blessing said over a cup at the seder's beginning. The Mishnah taught that one concluded with a blessing of redemption. Rabbi
Tarfon
Rabbi Tarfon or Tarphon ( he, רבי טרפון, from the Greek Τρύφων ''Tryphon''), a Kohen, was a member of the third generation of the Mishnah sages, who lived in the period between the destruction of the Second Temple (70 CE) and t ...
used to say (that the blessing included), "who redeemed us and redeemed our fathers from Egypt," but one did not conclude with a blessing. Rabbi Akiva said (that one added to Rabbi Tarfon's version the following), "So may the Lord our God and the God of our fathers allow us to reach other seasons and festivals in peace, rejoicing in the rebuilding of Your city and glad in Your service, and there we will eat the sacrifices and the Passover-offerings . . . ," (and one proceeded) as far as, "Blessed are You, o Lord, who have redeemed Israel."
The Mishnah continued that they filled the third cup of wine. The leader then recited the Grace After Meals. Over the fourth cup, the leader concluded the Hallel, and recited the grace of song. Between the first, second, and third cups, one could drink if one wished, but between the third and the fourth cups one was not permitted to drink.
One may not conclude the Passover meal with dainties. If some of the party fell asleep, they could eat when they awoke, but if all fell asleep, they were not permitted to eat. Rabbi Jose said that if they slept only lightly, they could eat, but if they fell fast asleep, they were not permitted to eat.
Rabban Gamaliel
Gamaliel the Elder (; also spelled Gamliel; he, רַבַּן גַּמְלִיאֵל הַזָּקֵן ''Rabban Gamlīʾēl hazZāqēn''; grc-koi, Γαμαλιὴλ ὁ Πρεσβύτερος ''Gamaliēl ho Presbýteros''), or Rabban Gamaliel I, ...
once reclined at a Passover seder at the house of Boethus ben Zeno in Lud, and they discussed the laws of the Passover all night until the cock crowed. Then they raised the table, stretched, and went to the house of study.
The Mishnah noted differences between the first Passover in 43–49
; ; ; ;
and . and the second Passover in . The Mishnah taught that the prohibitions of that "seven days shall there be no leaven found in your houses" and of that "no leaven shall be seen in all your territory" applied to the first Passover; while at the second Passover, one could have both leavened and unleavened bread in one's house. And the Mishnah taught that for the first Passover, one was required to recite the Hallel () when the Passover lamb was eaten; while the second Passover did not require the reciting of Hallel when the Passover lamb was eaten. But both the first and second Passovers required the reciting of Hallel when the Passover lambs were offered, and both Passover lambs were eaten roasted with unleavened bread (, ''matzah'') and bitter herbs. And both the first and second Passovers took precedence over the Sabbath.
A Midrash interpreted the words of , "Lo, if we sacrifice the abomination of the Egyptians before their eyes, will they not stone us?" to teach that the Egyptians saw the lamb as a god. Thus, when God told Moses to slay the paschal lamb (as reflected in ), Moses asked God how he could possibly do so, when the lamb was as Egyptian god. God replied that the Israelites would not depart from Egypt until they slaughtered the Egyptian gods before the Egyptians' eyes, so that God might teach them that their gods were really nothing at all. And thus God did so, for on the same night that God slew the Egyptian firstborn, the Israelites slaughtered their paschal lambs and ate them. When the Egyptians saw their firstborn slain and their gods slaughtered, they could do nothing, as reports, "While the Egyptians were burying them whom the Lord had smitten among them, even all their firstborn; upon their gods also the Lord executed judgment."
A Midrash noted that God commanded the Israelites to perform certain precepts with similar material from trees: God commanded that the Israelites throw cedar wood and hyssop into the Red Heifer mixture of and use hyssop to sprinkle the resulting waters of lustration in ; God commanded that the Israelites use cedar wood and hyssop to purify those stricken with skin disease in ; and in Egypt God commanded the Israelites to use the bunch of hyssop to strike the lintel and the two side-posts with blood in .
The Midrash noted that many things appear lowly, but God commanded many precepts to be performed with them. The hyssop, for instance, appears to be of no worth to people, yet its power is great in the eyes of God, who put it on a level with cedar in the purification of the leper in and the burning of the Red Cow in and employed it in the Exodus from Egypt in . A Midrash taught that the words of , "The fig-trees put forth her green figs," refer to the sinners of Israel who died in the three days of darkness, as says, "And there was a thick darkness . . . they saw not one another." The Mishnah described the appropriate hyssop for ceremonial use as a bunch containing three stalks bearing three buds. Rabbi Judah said three stalks bearing three buds each. Reading , regarding the Hebrew servant who chose not to go free and whose master brought him to the doorpost and bore his ear through with an awl, Rabbi Simeon bar Rabbi explained that God singled out the doorpost from all other parts of the house because the doorpost was witness in Egypt when God passed over the lintel and the doorposts (as reported in ) and proclaimed (in the words of ), “For to me the children of Israel are servants, they are my servants,” and not servants of servants, and so God brought them forth from bondage to freedom, yet this servant acquired a master for himself. Rav Joseph interpreted the words of , “And none of you shall go out at the door of his house until the morning,” to teach that once God has granted permission to the Destroyer, he does not distinguish between righteous and wicked. Moreover, he even begins with the righteous at the outset, as says, “And I will cut off from you the righteous and the wicked” (mentioning the righteous first). Rav Joseph wept at this, but
Abaye
Abaye ( he, אַבַּיֵי) was a rabbi of the Jewish Talmud who lived in Babylonia, known as an amora of the fourth generation. He was born about the close of the third century, and died 337 CE.
Biography
His father, Kaylil, was the brother ...
consoled him, saying that this is for their advantage, as says, “That the righteous is taken away from the evil to come.”
Reading , "For the Lord will pass through to smite the Egyptians," a Midrash observed that some say that God acted through the medium of an angel ("the Destroyer," , ''ha-mashchit''), while others said that God acted on God's own.
A Midrash deduced from , “And the Lord will pass over the door,” that God was at the door at that time. The Midrash thus questioned why says, “And when He sees the blood upon the lintel.” The Midrash explained that this followed the usual practice, just as a butcher marks with red paint those sheep destined for slaughter to distinguish them from those that the butcher wishes to keep alive. So the Midrash told that God stood at the door and thrust away the Destroyer so that he should not smite the Israelites.
The Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmael interpreted the words "the firstborn of Pharaoh who sat on his throne" in to teach that Pharaoh himself was a firstborn, as well. And the Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmael taught that God preserved him as the only firstborn of Egypt to survive the plague.
The Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmael asked how the captives had sinned that God struck their firstborn, as reports. The Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmael explained that God struck them so that they should not say that their god brought this punishment on the Egyptians but not on them. Alternatively, the Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmael told that God struck them because the captives used to rejoice over every decree that Pharaoh decreed against the Israelites. And the Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmael taught that the Egyptian servants did so, as well, thus explaining why God said in that God would strike the firstborn of the maidservant who was behind the mill.
Reading the report of that "there was not a house where there was not one dead," Rabbi Nathan asked whether there were no houses without firstborn. The Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmael explained that when an Egyptian firstborn would die, the parents would set up a statue of the firstborn in the house. The Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmael further taught that on the night of the plague of the firstborn, God crushed, ground, and scattered those statues as well, and the parents grieved anew as though they had just buried their firstborn.Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmael, Tractate Pisha, chapter 13, in, e.g., Jacob Lauterbach, translator, ''Mekhilta de-Rabbi Ishmael'', volume 1, page 69.
The Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmael interpreted the words "and he called for Moses and Aaron" in to teach that Pharaoh went around the land of Egypt asking everyone where Moses and Aaron lived.
The Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmael explained that the Egyptians said, "We are all dead men," in because in many families, many sons died. The Egyptian men had thought that a man who had four or five sons would have lost only the eldest, in accord with the warning of Moses in that "the ''firstborn'' in the land of Egypt shall die." But they did not know, told the Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmael, that all their sons were the firstborn sons of different bachelors with whom their wives had committed adultery. God exposed the women's adultery, and all of the sons died. The Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmael taught that if God makes public evil, which is of lesser importance, how much more will God reward good, which is of greater importance.
Rabbi Ammi
Rabbi Ammi, Aimi, Immi (Hebrew: רבי אמי) is the name of several Jewish Talmudists, known as amoraim, who lived in the Land of Israel and Babylonia. In the Babylonian Talmud the first form only is used; in the Jerusalem Talmud all three ...
read the words of , “And they let them have what they asked,” to teach that the Egyptians let the Israelites have their goods against their will. Some said that it was against the Egyptians' will, while others said that it was against the Israelites' will. Those who said that it was against the Egyptians' will cite , “And she who waits at home divides the spoil.” Those who said that it was against the Israelites' will said that it was because of the burden of carrying the Egyptians' goods. Rabbi Ammi read the words of , “And they despoiled Egypt,” to teach that they made Egypt like a trap for birds without any grain (as a lure). Resh Lakish said that they made Egypt it like a pond without fish.
Rav Judah in the name of Samuel of Nehardea deduced from that Joseph gathered in and brought to Egypt all the gold and silver in the world. The Gemara noted that says: "And Joseph gathered up all the money that was found in the land of Egypt, and in the land of Canaan," and thus spoke about the wealth of only Egypt and Canaan. The Gemara found support for the proposition that Joseph collected the wealth of other countries from , which states: "And all the countries came to Egypt to Joseph to buy corn." The Gemara deduced from the words "and they despoiled the Egyptians" in that when the Israelites left Egypt, they carried that wealth away with them. The Gemara then taught that the wealth lay in Israel until the time of King Rehoboam
Rehoboam (; , ; , ; la, Roboam, ) was, according to the Hebrew Bible, the last monarch of the United Kingdom of Israel and the first monarch of the Kingdom of Judah after the former's split. He was a son of and the successor to Solomon and a g ...
, when King Shishak
Shishak, Shishaq or Susac (, Tiberian: , ) was, according to the Hebrew Bible, an Egyptian pharaoh who sacked Jerusalem in the 10th century BCE. He is usually identified with the pharaoh Shoshenq I.Troy Leiland Sagrillo. 2015.Shoshenq I and bib ...
of Egypt seized it from Rehoboam, as reports: "And it came to pass in the fifth year of king Rehoboam, that Shishak king of Egypt came up against Jerusalem; and he took away the treasures of the house of the Lord, and the treasures of the king's house."
Similarly, reading God's words in , "accept gifts for Me from ''every person'' whose heart so moves him," the Mekhilta of Rabbi Simeon deduced that each and every Israelite was so rich from having stripped the Egyptians — as reported in — that each Israelite had the wherewithal to erect the Tent of Meeting, with all its vessels, all of its golden hooks, boards, wooden bars, columns, and pedestals.
A Baraita taught that in the time of Alexander the Great
Alexander III of Macedon ( grc, Ἀλέξανδρος, Alexandros; 20/21 July 356 BC – 10/11 June 323 BC), commonly known as Alexander the Great, was a king of the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon. He succeeded his father Philip II to ...
, the Egyptians summoned the Israelites before Alexander, demanding from them the gold and silver that reported that the Israelites had borrowed from the Egyptians. The sages granted Gebiah ben Pesisa permission to be Israel's advocate. Gebiah asked the Egyptians what the evidence was for their claim, and the Egyptians answered that the Torah provided their evidence. Then Gebiah said that he would also bring evidence from the Torah in Israel's defense. He quoted and demanded back wages from the Egyptians for the labor of 600,000 Israelite men whom the Egyptians had compelled to work for them for 430 years. Alexander turned to the Egyptians for a proper answer. The Egyptians requested three days' time, but could not find a satisfactory answer, and they fled.
Rabbi Eliezer interpreted the words "the children of Israel journeyed from Rameses to sukkot" in to mean that the Israelites went to a place where they put up booths, ''sukkot
or ("Booths, Tabernacles")
, observedby = Jews, Samaritans, a few Protestant denominations, Messianic Jews, Semitic Neopagans
, type = Jewish, Samaritan
, begins = 15th day of Tishrei
, ends = 21st day of Tis ...
''. Other Sages said that Succot was simply the name of a place, as in . Rabbi Akiva taught that Succot in means the clouds of glory, as in .
A Midrash taught that the Israelites were counted on ten occasions: (1) when they went down to Egypt (); (2) when they went up out of Egypt (); (3) at the first census in Numbers (); (4) at the second census in Numbers (); (5) once for the banners; (6) once in the time of Joshua for the division of the Land of Israel; (7) once by Saul
Saul (; he, , ; , ; ) was, according to the Hebrew Bible, the first monarch of the United Kingdom of Israel. His reign, traditionally placed in the late 11th century BCE, supposedly marked the transition of Israel and Judah from a scattered tri ...
(1 Samuel
The Book of Samuel (, ''Sefer Shmuel'') is a book in the Hebrew Bible, found as two books (1–2 Samuel) in the Old Testament. The book is part of the narrative history of Ancient Israel called the Deuteronomistic history, a series of books ( Jo ...
); (8) a second time by Saul (); (9) once by David
David (; , "beloved one") (traditional spelling), , ''Dāwūd''; grc-koi, Δαυΐδ, Dauíd; la, Davidus, David; gez , ዳዊት, ''Dawit''; xcl, Դաւիթ, ''Dawitʿ''; cu, Давíдъ, ''Davidŭ''; possibly meaning "beloved one". w ...
(); and once in the time of Ezra
Ezra (; he, עֶזְרָא, '; fl. 480–440 BCE), also called Ezra the Scribe (, ') and Ezra the Priest in the Book of Ezra, was a Jewish scribe ('' sofer'') and priest ('' kohen''). In Greco-Latin Ezra is called Esdras ( grc-gre, Ἔσδρ ...
().
A Midrash explained that Moses numbered the Israelites like a shepherd to whom an owner entrusted a flock by number. When the shepherd came to the end of the shepherd's time, on returning them, the shepherd had to count them again. When Israel left Egypt, God entrusted the Israelites to Moses by number, as reports, “And the Lord spoke to Moses in the wilderness of Sinai . . . ‘Take the sum of all the congregation of the children of Israel.’” And records that “the children of Israel journeyed from Rameses to Succoth, about 600,000 men on foot,” demonstrating that Moses took responsibility for the Israelites in Egypt by number. When, therefore, Moses was about to depart from the world in the plain of Moab, he returned them to God by number after having them counted in the census reported at .
The Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmael interpreted the account of unleavened cakes of dough in to teach that the Israelites had kneaded the dough but did not have sufficient time to let it leaven before they were redeemed.
A Baraita taught that King Ptolemy brought together 72 elders and placed them in 72 separate rooms, without telling them why he had brought them together, and asked each of them to translate the Torah. God then prompted each of the elders to conceive the same idea and not to follow the Masoretic Text in their translation in a number of cases, including , “And the abode of the children of Israel which they stayed in Egypt ''and in other lands'' was 400 years.” The translation of the 72 elders inserted the words “and in other lands,” because, according to the Biblical record, the Israelites were in Egypt at most 210 years.
A Baraita taught that when Moses broke the stone tablets in , it was one of three actions that Moses took based on his own understanding with which God then agreed. The Gemara explained that Moses reasoned that if the Passover lamb, which was just one of the 613 commandments, was prohibited by to aliens, then certainly the whole Torah should be prohibited to the Israelites, who had acted as apostates with the Golden Calf
According to the Bible, the golden calf (עֵגֶל הַזָּהָב '' ‘ēgel hazzāhāv'') was an idol (a cult image) made by the Israelites when Moses went up to Mount Sinai. In Hebrew, the incident is known as ''ḥēṭə’ hā‘ēgel'' ...
. The Gemara deduced God's approval from God's mention of Moses' breaking the tablets in . Resh Lakish interpreted this to mean that God gave Moses strength because he broke the tablets.
Reading the prohibition of non-Jews eating the Passover sacrifice in an48
the Gemara told the tale of a certain Syrian non-Jew who used to eat of the Passover sacrifices in Jerusalem, boasting that says, “There shall no alien eat thereof,” and says, “No uncircumcised person shall eat thereof,” yet he ate of the very best. Rabbi Judah ben Bathyra asked him whether he had ever eaten of the fat tail, and the Syrian replied that he had not. So Rabbi Judah ben Bathyra told the Syrian that the next time he went to Jerusalem for Passover, he should ask them to give him the fat tail. So when the Syrian went up, he asked them for the fat-tail. They answered him that the fat-tail belongs to God (and is burnt on the altar) and asked him who told him to ask for it. The Syrian told them that Rabbi Judah ben Bathyra had done so. Their suspicions aroused, they investigated who the Syrian was, discovered that he was not a Jew, and killed him. Then they sent a message to Rabbi Judah ben Bathyra saying that he was in
Nisibis
Nusaybin (; '; ar, نُصَيْبِيْن, translit=Nuṣaybīn; syr, ܢܨܝܒܝܢ, translit=Nṣībīn), historically known as Nisibis () or Nesbin, is a city in Mardin Province, Turkey. The population of the city is 83,832 as of 2009 and is ...
(in northern Mesopotamia), yet his net was spread in Jerusalem.
A Midrash asked how to reconcile the command of , “And the Lord said to Moses and Aaron: ‘This is the ordinance of the Passover: No alien shall eat thereof,” with the admonition of , “Neither let the alien who has joined himself to the Lord speak, saying: ‘The Lord will surely separate me from his people.’” (Isaiah enjoins us to treat the convert the same as a native Israelite.) The Midrash quoted , in which Job said, “The stranger did not lodge in the street” (that is, none were denied hospitality), to show that God disqualifies no one, but receives all; the city gates were open all the time and anyone could enter them. The Midrash equated , “The stranger did not lodge in the street,” with the words of (20:10 in the NJPS), (5:14 in the NJPS), and , “And your stranger who is within your gates,” which imply that strangers were integrated into the community. Thus these verses reflect the Divine example of accepting all. Rabbi Berekiah explained that in , Job said, “The stranger did not lodge in the street,” because strangers will one day be ministering priests in the Temple, as says: “And the stranger shall join himself with them, and they shall cleave (, ''venispechu'') to the house of Jacob,” and the word “cleave” (, ''venispechu'') always refers to priesthood, as says, “Put me (, ''sefacheini''), I pray you, into one of the priests’ offices.” The Midrash taught that strangers will one day partake of the showbread, because their daughters will be married into the priesthood. The Midrash reported another interpretation of , “Neither let the alien, who has joined himself to the Lord, speak, saying: ‘The Lord will surely separate me from his people’”: In this interpretation, God addressed converts to Judaism, assuring them that they are not barred from Passover celebrations, noting that converts might have misgivings, because God disqualified aliens from the Passover celebration by commanding in , “No alien shall eat thereof.” The Midrash taught that God admonished converts to mark how kindly God treated the Gibeonites, even though they deceived the Israelites into swearing to preserve them in . The Midrash taught that if God allowed them satisfaction for their wrongs in , how much more would God receive favorably and promote the proselytes who come to serve God out of sheer love. Hence , says: “Neither let the alien, who has joined himself to the Lord, speak, saying: ‘The Lord will surely separate me from his people.’” And converts can certainly celebrate the Paschal offering.
Noting that , “This is the ordinance (, ''chukat'') of the Passover,” uses the same term as , “This is the statute (, ''chukat'') of the Law,” a Midrash found the statute of the Passover and the statute of the Red Heifer similar to one another. The Midrash taught that , “Let my heart be undivided in your statutes,” refers to this similarity, and asked which statute is greater than the other. The Midrash likened this to the case of two ladies who were walking side by side together apparently on an equal footing; who then is the greater? She whom her friend accompanies to her house and so is really being followed by the friend. The Midrash concluded that the law of the Red Cow is the greater, for those who eat the Passover need the Red Cow's purifying ashes, as says, “And for the unclean they shall take of the ashes of the burning of the purification from sin.”
The Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmael asked why directed that there be one law for both the native and the stranger who sojourns among us when had just enjoined that the stranger be treated as one who is born in the land. The Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmael concluded that comes to declare that the convert
Conversion or convert may refer to:
Arts, entertainment, and media
* "Conversion" (''Doctor Who'' audio), an episode of the audio drama ''Cyberman''
* "Conversion" (''Stargate Atlantis''), an episode of the television series
* "The Conversion" ...
is equal to the born Jew with respect to all the Torah's commandments.
The Pirke de-Rabbi Eliezer read to say, “And it came to pass ''at the essential part of the day,'' that the Lord did bring the children of Israel out of the land of Egypt by their hosts." The Pirke de-Rabbi Eliezer taught that God thought that if God brought the Israelites out by night, the Egyptians would say that God acted like a thief. Therefore, God decided to bring the Israelites out when the sun was at its zenith at midday.
Exodus chapter 13
The Mishnah taught that the absence of one of the four portions of scripture in theTefillin
Tefillin (; Modern Hebrew language, Israeli Hebrew: / ; Ashkenazim, Ashkenazic pronunciation: ), or phylacteries, are a set of small black leather boxes with leather straps containing scrolls of parchment inscribed with verses from the Torah. Te ...
— an11–16
and and — invalidates the others, and indeed even one imperfect letter can invalidate the whole. Tractate
Bekhorot
150px, Pidyon haben
Bekorot (Hebrew: בכורות, "First-borns") is the name of a tractate of the Mishnah and Talmud which discusses the laws of first-born animals and humans. It is one of the tractates forming ''Seder Kodashim'' (Hebrew סד� ...
in the Mishnah, Tosefta, and Talmud interpreted the laws of the firstborn in 12–13
; and ; and and . Elsewhere, the Mishnah drew from that money in exchange for a firstborn donkey could be given to any
Kohen
Kohen ( he, , ''kōhēn'', , "priest", pl. , ''kōhănīm'', , "priests") is the Hebrew word for " priest", used in reference to the Aaronic priesthood, also called Aaronites or Aaronides. Levitical priests or ''kohanim'' are traditionally ...
; that if a person weaves the hair of a firstborn donkey into a sack, the sack must be burned; that they did not redeem with the firstborn of a donkey an animal that falls within both wild and domestic categories (a ''koy''); and that one was prohibited to derive benefit in any quantity at all from an unredeemed firstborn donkey. And elsewhere, the Mishnah taught that before the Israelites constructed the Tabernacle, the firstborns performed sacrificial services, but after the Israelites constructed the Tabernacle, the priests (, ''Kohanim'') performed the services.
The Gemara reported a number of Rabbis' reports of how the Land of Israel did indeed flow with "milk and honey," as described in an17
, and , , an
and
an
an
Once when Rami bar Ezekiel visited
Bnei Brak
Bnei Brak or Bene Beraq ( he, בְּנֵי בְּרַק ) is a city located on the central Mediterranean coastal plain in Israel, just east of Tel Aviv. A center of Haredi Judaism, Bnei Brak covers an area of 709 hectares (1752 acres, or 2.7 ...
, he saw goats grazing under fig trees while honey was flowing from the figs, and milk dripped from the goats mingling with the fig honey, causing him to remark that it was indeed a land flowing with milk and honey. Rabbi Jacob ben Dostai said that it is about three miles from Lod to Ono
ONO, Ono or Ōno may refer to:
Places Fiji
* Ono Island (Fiji)
Israel
* Kiryat Ono
* Ono, Benjamin, ancient site
Italy
* Ono San Pietro
Ivory Coast
* Ono, Ivory Coast, a village in Comoé District
Japan
* Ōno Castle, Fukuoka
* ...
, and once he rose up early in the morning and waded all that way up to his ankles in fig honey. Resh Lakish said that he saw the flow of the milk and honey of Sepphoris extend over an area of sixteen miles by sixteen miles. Rabbah bar Bar Hana said that he saw the flow of the milk and honey in all the Land of Israel and the total area was equal to an area of twenty-two parasang
The parasang is a historical Iranian unit of walking distance, the length of which varied according to terrain and speed of travel. The European equivalent is the league. In modern terms the distance is about 3 or 3½ miles (4.8 or 5.6 km).
His ...
s by six parasangs.
Rabban Gamaliel taught that in every generation, all are duty bound to regard it as if they personally had gone forth from Egypt, as says, "And you shall tell your son in that day saying, it is because of that which the Lord did for me when I came forth out of Egypt."
Reading , "And every firstborn of a donkey you shall redeem with a lamb," and , "and the firstborn of a donkey you shall redeem with a lamb," the Mishnah noted that the Torah states this law twice, and deduced that one is therefore not obligated under this law unless both the animal that gives birth is a donkey and the animal born is a donkey. The Mishnah thus concluded that a cow that gave birth to a calf like a donkey and a donkey that gave birth to a foal like a horse are exempt from their offspring being considered a firstborn.
In medieval Jewish interpretation
The parashah is discussed in thesemedieval
In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the late 5th to the late 15th centuries, similar to the post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire a ...
Jewish sources:
Exodus chapter 10
Reading God's command to Moses in , "Go in to Pharaoh; for I have hardened his heart, and the heart of his servants," and similar statements in ; ,27
; and
an
Maimonides
Musa ibn Maimon (1138–1204), commonly known as Maimonides (); la, Moses Maimonides and also referred to by the acronym Rambam ( he, רמב״ם), was a Sephardic Jewish philosopher who became one of the most prolific and influential Torah ...
concluded that it is possible for a person to commit such a great sin, or so many sins, that God decrees that the punishment for these willing and knowing acts is the removal of the privilege of repentance
Repentance is reviewing one's actions and feeling contrition or regret for past wrongs, which is accompanied by commitment to and actual actions that show and prove a change for the better.
In modern times, it is generally seen as involving a co ...
(''teshuvah''). The offender would thus be prevented from doing repentance, and would not have the power to return from the offense, and the offender would die and be lost because of the offense. Maimonides read this to be what God said in , "Make the heart of this people fat, and make their ears heavy, and their eyes weak, lest they see with their eyes and hear with their ears, and their hearts will understand, do repentance and be healed." Similarly reports, "They ridiculed the messengers of God, disdained His words and insulted His prophets until the anger of God rose upon the people, without possibility of healing." Maimonides interpreted these verses to teach that they sinned willingly and to such an egregious extent that they deserved to have repentance withheld from them. Because Pharaoh sinned on his own at the beginning, harming the Jews who lived in his land, as reports him scheming, "Let us deal craftily with them," God issued the judgment that repentance would be withheld from Pharaoh until he received his punishment. Therefore, God said in , "I will harden the heart of Pharaoh." Maimonides explained that God sent Moses to tell Pharaoh to send out the Jews and do repentance, when God had already told Moses that Pharaoh would refuse, because God sought to inform humanity that when God withholds repentance from a sinner, the sinner will not be able to repent. Maimonides made clear that God did not decree that Pharaoh harm the Jewish people; rather, Pharaoh sinned willfully on his own, and he thus deserved to have the privilege of repentance withheld from him.
According to Hezekiah ben Manoah Hezekiah ben Manoah, or Hezekiah bar Manoah, was a French rabbi and Bible commentator of the 13th century. He is generally known by the title of his commentary, Chizkuni ( he, חזקוני).
In memory of his father, who lost his right hand through ...
(Hizkuni), Pharaoh's courtiers in "questioned Pharaoh's judgment by asking him if he wanted to wait until the whole of Egypt was ruined? They implied that if Egypt were to be ruined, in the end Pharaoh would have no option but to give in to the Israelites' demands. Why not give in while Egypt was still a functioning nation?"
Reading , "Moses said: ‘We will go with our young and with our old,'" the Lekach Tov
Tobiah ben Eliezer ( he, טוביה בן אליעזר) was a Talmudist and poet of the 11th century, author of ''Lekach Tov'' or ''Pesikta Zutarta'', a midrashic commentary on the Pentateuch and the Five Megillot.
Biography
Zunz inferred from Tob ...
taught that Moses told Pharaoh that just as ''all'' had been in Pharaoh's service, so would ''all'' be in God's service.
Exodus chapter 12
Maimonides taught that the prerogative to sanctify the New Moon at its sighting and to set a leap year to reconcile the calendar applied to theSanhedrin
The Sanhedrin ( Hebrew and Aramaic: סַנְהֶדְרִין; Greek: , '' synedrion'', 'sitting together,' hence ' assembly' or 'council') was an assembly of either 23 or 71 elders (known as " rabbis" after the destruction of the Second Temp ...
in the Land of Israel. Maimonides taught that this was derived from the command given Moses and Aaron in , "This month shall be for you the first of months," which Maimonides reported the Oral Tradition interpreted to mean that this testimony was entrusted to Moses and Aaron and those sages who arose after them who functioned in their position. When the Sanhedrin ended in the Land of Israel, Jews established the monthly calendar and instituted leap years solely according to the fixed calendar that is followed now. So the sighting of the moon is no longer of any consequence.
According to Maimonides, Passover is kept seven days, because a week is the intermediate unit of time between a day and a month. Passover teaches people to remember the miracles that God performed in Egypt, encouraging people to thank God repeatedly and to lead a modest and humble life. Jews therefore eat unleavened bread and bitter herbs on Passover in memory of what happened to the Israelites. And they eat unleavened bread for a week because if the eating were only for one day, Jews might not notice it.
The ''Zohar
The ''Zohar'' ( he, , ''Zōhar'', lit. "Splendor" or "Radiance") is a foundational work in the literature of Jewish mystical thought known as Kabbalah. It is a group of books including commentary on the mystical aspects of the Torah (the five ...
'' taught that on the night of the Exodus, there were three slayings in Egypt. First, the firstborn killed whomever they could lay hands on. Then, God executed judgment at midnight. And lastly, Pharaoh, on seeing the havoc wrought upon his own household, arose, as says, “He rose up at midnight,” and with bitterness and fury he killed the princes and nobles who had advised him to persecute Israel, just as a dog, if hit with a stone, goes and bites another dog.
Reading , "And the people took their dough before it was leavened," the ''Zohar'' taught that "leaven" and "unleaven" symbolize the evil inclination (, '' yeitzer ra'') and the good inclination in people. The ''Zohar'' taught that one who fervently and joyously relates the story of the Exodus on Passover, telling the story with a high heart, shall be found worthy to rejoice in the Divine Presence ('' Shekhinah'') in the World To Come
The world to come, age to come, heaven on Earth, and the Kingdom of God are eschatological phrases reflecting the belief that the current world or current age is flawed or cursed and will be replaced in the future by a better world, age, or ...
. The ''Zohar'' taught that the joy of Israel causes God to be glad, so that God calls together all the family above and to hear the praises that God's children bring to God. Then all the angels and supernal beings gather around and observe Israel singing and rejoicing because of God's Redemption and the supernal beings also break into jubilation because God possesses on earth a people so holy, whose joy in God's Redemption is so great and so powerful. And the ''Zohar'' taught that the rejoicing on Earth below increases the power of God and God's hosts in the regions above, just as an earthly king gains strength from the praises of his subjects and the renown of his glory being spread through the world.
Reading “The Lord spoke . . . in the Sinai Desert . . . on the first of the month . . . ‘Take a census,’” Rashi
Shlomo Yitzchaki ( he, רבי שלמה יצחקי; la, Salomon Isaacides; french: Salomon de Troyes, 22 February 1040 – 13 July 1105), today generally known by the acronym Rashi (see below), was a medieval French rabbi and author of a compre ...
taught that God counted the Israelites often because they were dear to God. When they left Egypt, God counted them in ; when many fell because of the sin of the Golden Calf, God counted them in to know the number who survived; when God came to cause the Divine Presence to rest among them, God counted them. On the first of Nisan, the Tabernacle was erected, and on the first of Iyar
Iyar ( he, אִייָר or , Standard ''ʾĪyyar'' Tiberian ''ʾĪyyār''; from akk, 𒌗 𒄞 itiayari " rosette; blossom") is the eighth month of the civil year (which starts on 1 Tishrei) and the second month of the Jewish religious year ...
, God counted them.
The ''Zohar'' taught that the “mixed multitude” (, ''erev rav'') mentioned in consisted entirely of Egyptian sorcerers and magicians, who sought to oppose God's works, as reports, “And the magicians of Egypt, they also did in like manner with their enchantments.” When they beheld the signs and the wonders that Moses performed, they came to Moses to be converted. God advised Moses not to accept them, but Moses argued that now that they had seen God's power, they desired to accept the Israelites’ Faith, and if they saw God's power every day, they would learn that there is no God like God. So Moses accepted them. called them a “mixed multitude” because they consisted of all the grades of Egyptian magicians, at their head being Jannes and Jambres
In Jewish and Christian traditions, Jannes and Jambres (Hebrew: יניס Yoḥanai, ימבריס ''Yambres'') are the names given to magicians mentioned in the Book of Exodus. This naming tradition is well-attested in ancient and medieval literatu ...
. During the day, these wizards practiced their enchantments, and after sunset, they made observations of the heavens until the middle of the ninth hour, which was called the “great evening” (, ''erev rav'', which means both “great multitude” and “great evening”). The lesser magicians then made observation after that until midnight. The Egyptians, who had great faith in the chief wizards, thus called them the “great evening” (, ''erev rav'').
Exodus chapter 13
Noting the universal application of the laws of ''tefillin'' in16
Maimonides taught that God designed the wearing of ''tefillin'' as a more enduring form of worship than the practice of sacrifices, which Maimonides taught were a transitional step to wean the Israelites off of the worship of the times and move them toward prayer as the primary means of worship. Maimonides noted that in nature, God created animals that develop gradually. For example, when a
mammal
Mammals () are a group of vertebrate animals constituting the class Mammalia (), characterized by the presence of mammary glands which in females produce milk for feeding (nursing) their young, a neocortex (a region of the brain), fur ...
is born, it is extremely tender, and cannot eat dry food, so God provided breasts that yield milk
Milk is a white liquid food produced by the mammary glands of mammals. It is the primary source of nutrition for young mammals (including breastfed human infants) before they are able to digest solid food. Immune factors and immune-modulat ...
to feed the young animal, until it can eat dry food. Similarly, Maimonides taught, God instituted many laws as temporary measures, as it would have been impossible for the Israelites suddenly to discontinue everything to which they had become accustomed. So God sent Moses to make the Israelites (in the words of ) “a kingdom of priests and a holy nation.” But the general custom of worship in those days was sacrificing animals in temples that contained idols. So God did not command the Israelites to give up those manners of service, but allowed them to continue. God changed the service of idol worship to the service of the Sanctuary (), to erect the altar to God's name (), to offer sacrifices to God (), to bow down to God, and to burn incense before God. God forbad doing any of these things to any other being and selected priests for the service in the temple in . By this Divine plan, God blotted out the traces of idolatry, and established the great principle of the Existence and Unity of God. But the sacrificial service, Maimonides taught, was not the primary object of God's commandments about sacrifice; rather, supplications, prayers, and similar kinds of worship are nearer to the primary object. Thus God limited sacrifice to only one temple (see ) and the priesthood to only the members of a particular family. These restrictions, Maimonides taught, served to limit sacrificial worship, and kept it within such bounds that God did not feel it necessary to abolish sacrificial service altogether. But in the Divine plan, prayer and supplication can be offered everywhere and by every person, as can be the wearing of ''tzitzit'' () and ''tefillin'' (16
and similar kinds of service. Maimonides explained the laws governing the redemption of a firstborn son ('' pidyon haben'') in . Maimonides taught that it is a positive commandment for every Jewish man to redeem his son who is the firstborn of a Jewish mother, as says, "All first issues of the womb are mine," and says, "And you shall surely redeem a firstborn man." Maimonides taught that a mother is not obligated to redeem her son. If a father fails to redeem his son, when the son comes of age, he is obligated to redeem himself. If it is necessary for a man to redeem both himself and his son, he should redeem himself first and then his son. If he only has enough money for one redemption, he should redeem himself. A person who redeems his son recites the blessing: "Blessed are You . . . who sanctified us with His commandments and commanded us concerning the redemption of a son." Afterwards, he recites the ''
shehecheyanu
The ''Shehecheyanu'' blessing ( he, ברכת שהחיינו, "Who has given us life") is a common Jewish prayer said to celebrate special occasions. It is said to express gratitude to God for new and unusual experiences or possessions. The blessing ...
'' blessing and then gives the redemption money to the Cohen. If a man redeems himself, he should recite the blessing: "Blessed . . . who commanded us to redeem the firstborn" and he should recite the ''shehecheyanu'' blessing. The father may pay the redemption in silver or in movable property that has financial worth like that of silver coins. If the Cohen desires to return the redemption to the father, he may. The father should not, however, give it to the Cohen with the intent that he return it. The father must give it to the Cohen with the resolution that he is giving him a present without any reservations. Cohens and Levites are exempt from the redemption of their firstborn, as they served as the redemption of the Israelites' firstborn in the desert. One born to a woman of a priestly or Levite family is exempt, for the matter is dependent on the mother, as indicated by and . A baby born by Caesarian section and any subsequent birth are exempt: the first because it did not emerge from the womb, and the second, because it was preceded by another birth. The obligation for redemption takes effect when the baby completes 30 days of life, as says, "And those to be redeemed should be redeemed from the age of a month."
In modern interpretation
The parashah is discussed in these modern sources:Exodus chapter 10
Greta Hort
Grethe Hjort (1903–1967) was a Danish-born professor of Danish and English literature. After graduating from the University of Copenhagen, she moved to Cambridge where she studied at Newnham College, earning a Ph.D. in 1931 and subsequently bec ...
argued that the plagues concentrated within a period of about 12 months, based on the report of that Moses was 80 years old when he first spoke with pharaoh and the report of that Moses was 120 years old when he died, after spending 40 years in the wilderness.
John J. Collins reported that some scholars have suggested that the plague stories contain a reminiscence of a mid-fourteenth century BCE epidemic referred to as “the Asiatic illness.”
Collins argued that the plague stories show that Exodus is not only the story of the liberation of Israel, but also of the defeat and humiliation of the Egyptians, and thus involved “less than edifying” nationalistic, ethnic vengeance.
Everett Fox
Everett Fox is a scholar and translator of the Hebrew Bible. A graduate of Brandeis University, he is currently the Allen M. Glick Professor of Judaic and Biblical Studies and director of the program in Jewish Studies at Clark University.
Life ...
noted that “glory” (, ''kevod'') and “stubbornness” (, ''kaved lev'') are leading words throughout the book of Exodus that give it a sense of unity. Similarly, William Propp identified the root ''kvd'' — connoting heaviness, glory, wealth, and firmness — as a recurring theme in Exodus: Moses suffered from a heavy mouth in and heavy arms in ; Pharaoh had firmness of heart in ; 28
and ; Pharaoh made Israel's labor heavy in ; God in response sent heavy plagues in ;
and , so that God might be glorified over Pharaoh in
an
and the book culminates with the descent of God's fiery Glory, described as a “heavy cloud,” first upon Sinai and later upon the Tabernacle in ; ; ;
and .
Harold Fisch argued that the command of and to hand on from one generation to another the Exodus
The Exodus (Hebrew: יציאת מצרים, ''Yeẓi’at Miẓrayim'': ) is the founding myth of the Israelites whose narrative is spread over four books of the Torah (or Pentateuch, corresponding to the first five books of the Bible), namely E ...
story provided the prototype for the ghost's admonition to Prince Hamlet
A prince is a male ruler (ranked below a king, grand prince, and grand duke) or a male member of a monarch's or former monarch's family. ''Prince'' is also a title of nobility (often highest), often hereditary, in some European states. The ...
, “Remember me,” iI, scene 5, line 98
of
William Shakespeare
William Shakespeare ( 26 April 1564 – 23 April 1616) was an English playwright, poet and actor. He is widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the world's pre-eminent dramatist. He is often called England's nation ...
’s play ''Hamlet
''The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark'', often shortened to ''Hamlet'' (), is a tragedy written by William Shakespeare sometime between 1599 and 1601. It is Shakespeare's longest play, with 29,551 words. Set in Denmark, the play depicts ...
''.
Gunther Plaut reported that scholars generally agree that the term “Hebrew” (, ''Ivri''), as in , came from the name of a group called ''Habiru
Habiru (sometimes written as Hapiru, and more accurately as ʿApiru, meaning "dusty, dirty"; Sumerian: 𒊓𒄤, ''sagaz''; Akkadian: 𒄩𒁉𒊒, ''ḫabiru'' or ''ʿaperu'') is a term used in 2nd-millennium BCE texts throughout the Fertile C ...
'' or ''Apiru'', people who had lost their status in the community from which they came, and who were not necessarily related except by common fate. Plaut wrote that the ''Habiru'' were a class of people who lived in the Fertile Crescent
The Fertile Crescent ( ar, الهلال الخصيب) is a crescent-shaped region in the Middle East, spanning modern-day Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine and Jordan, together with the northern region of Kuwait, southeastern region of ...
during the 19th to 14th centuries B.C.E. who may originally have come from Arabia
The Arabian Peninsula, (; ar, شِبْهُ الْجَزِيرَةِ الْعَرَبِيَّة, , "Arabian Peninsula" or , , "Island of the Arabs") or Arabia, is a peninsula of Western Asia, situated northeast of Africa on the Arabian Pl ...
, became prominent in Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia ''Mesopotamíā''; ar, بِلَاد ٱلرَّافِدَيْن or ; syc, ܐܪܡ ܢܗܪ̈ܝܢ, or , ) is a historical region of Western Asia situated within the Tigris–Euphrates river system, in the northern part of the ...
, and later spread to Egypt. The ''Habiru'' followed distinct occupations, particularly mercenaries
A mercenary, sometimes Pseudonym, also known as a soldier of fortune or hired gun, is a private individual, particularly a soldier, that joins a military conflict for personal profit, is otherwise an outsider to the conflict, and is not a memb ...
and administrators
Administrator or admin may refer to:
Job roles Computing and internet
* Database administrator, a person who is responsible for the environmental aspects of a database
* Forum administrator, one who oversees discussions on an Internet forum
* ...
. Although at first they were nomad
A nomad is a member of a community without fixed habitation who regularly moves to and from the same areas. Such groups include hunter-gatherers, pastoral nomads (owning livestock), tinkers and trader nomads. In the twentieth century, the po ...
s or seminomads, they later settled. They were usually considered foreigners, maintaining their group identity. The term ''Habiru'' referred not so much to an ethnic or linguistic
Linguistics is the scientific study of human language. It is called a scientific study because it entails a comprehensive, systematic, objective, and precise analysis of all aspects of language, particularly its nature and structure. Linguis ...
group as to a social or political group. Plaut reported that the words ''Habiru'' and “Hebrew” (, ''Ivri'') appear to share a common linguistic root. Plaut concluded that Israelites in Egypt likely occupied positions similar to, or because of familial ties were identified with, the ''Habiru''. When non-Israelites repeatedly applied the term to the Israelites, the Israelites themselves began to use the name ''Habiru'', which they pronounced ''Ivri''. Plaut considered it possible that for some time the term ''Ivri'' was used only when the Israelites spoke of themselves to outsiders and when outsiders referred to them. Thus calls Abram ''Ivri'' vis-a-vis an outsider, and Jonah
Jonah or Jonas, ''Yōnā'', "dove"; gr, Ἰωνᾶς ''Iōnâs''; ar, يونس ' or '; Latin: ''Ionas'' Ben (Hebrew), son of Amittai, is a prophet in the Hebrew Bible and the Quran, from Gath-hepher of the northern Kingdom of Israel (Samaria ...
says, "I am an ''Ivri'',” when asked his identity by non-Israelite sailor
A sailor, seaman, mariner, or seafarer is a person who works aboard a watercraft as part of its crew, and may work in any one of a number of different fields that are related to the operation and maintenance of a ship.
The profession of the s ...
s in , but otherwise Israelites referred to themselves by their tribes (for example, Judah or Ephraim) or by their common ancestor, Israel.
Shlomo Ephraim Luntschitz (The ''Kli Yakar'') noted that in , Moses told Pharaoh that the locusts would invade, "your houses . . . , and the houses of all your servants, and the houses of all the Egyptians," in that order. Arguing that the Pharaoh's palace was surely the most insulated, the Kli Yakar taught that the order of the locust invasion was another miracle, so that the punishment would come in the order that the sin was committed, first with Pharaoh (who was most guilty), then with his servants, and then the rest of the people.
Moritz Markus Kalisch read to indicate that Pharaoh's servants, whom Kalisch identified with Pharaoh's magicians, had become convinced of God's unlimited power.
Samson Raphael Hirsch
Samson Raphael Hirsch (; June 20, 1808 – December 31, 1888) was a German Orthodox rabbi best known as the intellectual founder of the ''Torah im Derech Eretz'' school of contemporary Orthodox Judaism. Occasionally termed ''neo-Orthodoxy'', hi ...
read to indicate that Pharaoh's servants viewed the cycle of partial plagues and respites as a “trap!”
Nahum Sarna noted that Aaron, not Moses, brought on the early signs and plagues. Sarna explained that Moses thus tacitly asserted his equal status with Pharaoh. Moses came to negotiate with Pharaoh as the representative of the people of Israel. Just as Pharaoh had his magicians, Moses had his assistant, Aaron. Sarna noted that in the narratives of the Ten Plagues, Aaron acted only as long as the Egyptian magicians appeared present. After their ingenuity failed them and they faded from the story, Moses acted personally to bring about the remaining plagues.
Exodus chapter 12
Propp identified the protecting paschal blood of as a symbolic wound.
Julius Wellhausen
Julius Wellhausen (17 May 1844 – 7 January 1918) was a German biblical scholar and orientalist. In the course of his career, he moved from Old Testament research through Islamic studies to New Testament scholarship. Wellhausen contributed to t ...
conceived of early Israelite religion as linked to nature's annual cycle and believed that Scripture only later connected the festivals to historical events like the Exodus from Egypt. James Kugel reported that modern scholars generally agreed that Passover reflects two originally separate holidays arising out of the annual harvest cycle. One Festival involved the sacrificing and eating of an animal from the flock, the ''pesa'' sacrifice, which arose among shepherds who sacrificed in the light of the full moon
The full moon is the lunar phase when the Moon appears fully illuminated from Earth's perspective. This occurs when Earth is located between the Sun and the Moon (when the ecliptic longitudes of the Sun and Moon differ by 180°). This mea ...
of the month that marked the vernal equinox and the end of winter (as directed in ) to bring Divine favor for a safe and prosperous summer for the rest of the flock. The shepherds slaughtered the animal at home, as the rite also stipulated that some of the animal's blood be daubed on the doorposts and lintel of the house (as directed in ) to ward off evil. The rite prescribed that no bone be broken (as directed in ) so as not to bring evil on the flock from which the sacrifice came. Scholars suggest that the name ''pesa'' derived from the verb that means “hop” (as in an26
, and theorize that the holiday may originally have involved some sort of ritual “hopping.” A second Festival — the Festival of Unleavened Bread — involved farmers eating unleavened barley bread for seven days when the winter's barley crop had reached maturity and was ready for harvest. Farmers observed this Festival with a trip to a local sanctuary (as in and ). Modern scholars believe that the absence of yeast in the bread indicated purity (as in ). The listing of Festivals in and appear to provide evidence for the independent existence of the Festival of Unleavened Bread. Modern scholars suggest that the farmers' Festival of Unleavened Bread and the shepherds' Passover later merged into a single festival, Passover moved from the home to the Temple, and the combined festival was explicitly connected to the Exodus (as in ). Collins reported that the Egyptians built the city of Pi-Ramesse, mentioned in , on the site of the old Hyksos capital of Avari and reoccupied it in the time of Ramesses II (1304–1237 BCE), and as a consequence, most scholars have favored a date around 1250 BCE for the Exodus. Collins argued that all we can really say is that the biblical Exodus account was written some time after the building of Pi-Ramesse and Per-Atum, and possibly that the author knew of a tradition associating Semitic laborers with those cities.
Israel Finkelstein
Israel Finkelstein ( he, ישראל פינקלשטיין, born March 29, 1949) is an Israeli archaeologist, professor emeritus at Tel Aviv University and the head of the School of Archaeology and Maritime Cultures at the University of Haifa. Fin ...
and Neil Asher Silberman
Neil Asher Silberman (born June 19, 1950 in Boston, Massachusetts) is an American archaeologist and historian with a special interest in biblical archaeology. He is the author of several books, including ''The Hidden Scrolls'', '' The Message a ...
argued that the place Sukkot
or ("Booths, Tabernacles")
, observedby = Jews, Samaritans, a few Protestant denominations, Messianic Jews, Semitic Neopagans
, type = Jewish, Samaritan
, begins = 15th day of Tishrei
, ends = 21st day of Tis ...
mentioned in and is probably the Hebrew form of the Egyptian ''Tjkw'', a name referring to a place or an area in the eastern Nile Delta
The Nile Delta ( ar, دلتا النيل, or simply , is the delta formed in Lower Egypt where the Nile River spreads out and drains into the Mediterranean Sea. It is one of the world's largest river deltas—from Alexandria in the west to ...
that appears in Egyptian texts from the time of the Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt
The Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt (notated Dynasty XIX), also known as the Ramessid dynasty, is classified as the second Dynasty of the Ancient Egyptian New Kingdom period, lasting from 1292 BC to 1189 BC. The 19th Dynasty and the 20th Dynasty fur ...
, the dynasty of Ramesses II
Ramesses II ( egy, rꜥ-ms-sw ''Rīʿa-məsī-sū'', , meaning "Ra is the one who bore him"; ), commonly known as Ramesses the Great, was the third pharaoh of the Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt. Along with Thutmose III he is often regarded a ...
. Finkelstein and Silberman reported that a late thirteenth century BCE Egyptian papyrus
Papyrus ( ) is a material similar to thick paper that was used in ancient times as a writing surface. It was made from the pith of the papyrus plant, '' Cyperus papyrus'', a wetland sedge. ''Papyrus'' (plural: ''papyri'') can also refer to ...
recorded that the commanders of the forts along the delta's eastern border closely monitored the movements of foreigners there, saying: “We have completed the entry of the tribes of the Edomite Shasu (that is, Bedouin
The Bedouin, Beduin, or Bedu (; , singular ) are nomadic Arabs, Arab tribes who have historically inhabited the desert regions in the Arabian Peninsula, North Africa, the Levant, and Mesopotamia. The Bedouin originated in the Syrian Desert ...
) through the fortress of Merneptah-Content-with-Truth, which is in ''Tjkw'', to the pools of Pr-Itm which (are) in ''Tjkw'' for the sustenance of their flocks.” And Finkelstein and Silberman reported that the abundant Egyptian sources describing the time of the New Kingdom of Egypt
The New Kingdom, also referred to as the Egyptian Empire, is the period in ancient Egyptian history between the sixteenth century BC and the eleventh century BC, covering the Eighteenth, Nineteenth, and Twentieth dynasties of Egypt. Radioca ...
in general and the thirteenth century in particular make no reference to the Israelites. Finkelstein and Silberman concluded that based on the evidence at the specific sites where says that the Israelites camped for extended periods during their wandering in the desert (and where some archaeological indication — if present — would almost certainly be found), a mass Exodus did not happen at the time and in the manner described in the Bible.
Plaut noted that while some might read the report of that the time of Israel's servitude would be 400 years to conflict with the report of that the descent into Egypt would last 430 years, the two accounts were left standing side by side, because ancient readers might have considered both traditions to have come down to them and therefore requiring treatment with reverence.
Plaut identified two addenda to the Passover story — one dealing with the eating of the paschal sacrifice in and a second relating the Exodus to the first-born in . Plaut observed that both addenda speak from a context of settled conditions, rather than wilderness wandering. Plaut concluded that the two sections read like postscripts or summations appended to the main story at a later time.
Exodus chapter 13
Reading the consecration of the firstborn in ,Umberto Cassuto
Umberto Cassuto, also known as Moshe David Cassuto (16 September 1883 – 19 December 1951), was an Italian historian, a rabbi, and a scholar of the Hebrew Bible and Ugaritic literature, in the University of Florence, then at the University ...
suggested that the obligation to transfer to God all that first opened the womb meant originally, in the tradition of the ancient East, to offer as a sacrifice, but the Torah when it accepted the custom of the neighboring peoples, introduced innovations and imbued the obligation with new significance. Thus the Torah continued the custom of offering firstborn on the altar only for clean domestic animals; for unclean animals, the Torah substituted redemption by a clean animal or the breaking of its neck; and for human firstborn, the Torah substituted only redemption. And the Torah substituted the new reason of the deliverance from Egyptian bondage.
Sarna wrote that in many ancient cultures, the miracle of new life was considered a divine gift and nature endowed the first fruits of the soil and animal and human fertility with intrinsic holiness. Sarna argued that the instruction to Moses in to consecrate the firstborn may have been a polemic against such pagan notions. The Torah dissociated the firstborns' status from the ancient ideas, teaching that firstborns belonged to God solely because of Divine decree at the time of the Exodus. Noting that and report that the Levites supplanted the firstborn in priestly functions, Sarna inferred that in , God instructed Moses to install the firstborn to fulfill priestly duties.
Nathan MacDonald
A British biblical scholar, Nathan MacDonald (born 1975) currently serves as Reader in the Interpretation of the Old Testament at Cambridge University as well as Fellow and College Lecturer in theology at St John's College, Cambridge. Much of ...
reported some dispute over the exact meaning of the description of the Land of Israel as a "land flowing with milk and honey," as in an17
an
, an
and
an
an
MacDonald wrote that the term for milk (, ''chalav'') could easily be the word for "fat" (, ''chelev''), and the word for honey (, ''devash'') could indicate not bees' honey but a sweet syrup made from fruit. The expression evoked a general sense of the bounty of the land and suggested an ecological richness exhibited in a number of ways, not just with milk and honey. MacDonald noted that the expression was always used to describe a land that the people of Israel had not yet experienced, and thus characterized it as always a future expectation. Ephraim Speiser wrote that the word “Torah” () is based on a verbal stem signifying “to teach, guide,” and the like, and the derived noun can carry a variety of meanings. Speiser argued that when the noun is applied to God in , its connotation is broadened to embrace a cherished way of life, but cannot be mistaken for the title of the Pentateuch as a whole. Jacob Milgrom taught that the verbs used in the laws of the redemption of a firstborn son (''pidyon haben'') in and and , "''natan'', ''kiddesh'', ''he‘evir'' to the Lord," as well as the use of ''padah'', "ransom," indicate that the firstborn son was considered God's property. Milgrom surmised that this may reflect an ancient rule where the firstborn was expected to care for the burial and worship of his deceased parents. Thus the Bible may preserve the memory of the firstborn bearing a sacred status, and the replacement of the firstborn by the Levites in
40–51
and may reflect the establishment of a professional priestly class. Milgrom dismissed as without support the theory that the firstborn was originally offered as a sacrifice. In April 2014, the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of
Conservative Judaism
Conservative Judaism, known as Masorti Judaism outside North America, is a Jewish religious movement which regards the authority of ''halakha'' (Jewish law) and traditions as coming primarily from its people and community through the generati ...
ruled that women are now equally responsible for observing commandments as men have been. Under this ruling, Jewish mothers are thus equally responsible for the covenantal naming of their daughters and redemption of their first-born sons and daughters (as called for in an13–15
as fathers are. Terence Fretheim argued that give a special twist to the issue of the firstborn, teaching that Israel was to be attentive to its firstborn because of the suffering of the Egyptian firstborn. Fretheim noted that does not mention the redeemed Israelite children of Passover night but the sacrificed Egyptian firstborn, followed by “Therefore.” Fretheim thus argued that the firstborn belong to God not only because Israelite children were saved but also because Egyptian children were killed. Fretheim argued that thus reminds Israel at what cost Israel's firstborn were redeemed. Fretheim nonetheless considered it doubtful that child sacrifice was in view.
Commandments
According to Sefer ha-Chinuch, there are 9 positive and 11 negativecommandments
Commandment may refer to:
* The Ten Commandments
* One of the 613 mitzvot of Judaism
* The Great Commandment
* The New Commandment
The New Commandment is a term used in Christianity to describe Jesus's commandment to "love one another" which, ac ...
in the parashah:
*Courts must calculate to determine when a new month begins.
*To slaughter the Passover lamb at the specified time
*To eat the Passover lamb with unleavened bread (, ''matzah'') and bitter herbs (''maror'') on the night of the fourteenth of Nisan
*Not to eat the Passover meat raw or boiled
*Not to leave any meat from the Passover lamb over until morning
*To destroy all leavened bread on the 14th of Nisan
*To eat unleavened bread (, ''matzah'') on the first night of Passover
*Not to find chametz in your domain seven days
*Not to eat mixtures containing ''chametz'' all seven days of Passover
*An apostate
Apostasy (; grc-gre, ἀποστασία , 'a defection or revolt') is the formal disaffiliation from, abandonment of, or renunciation of a religion by a person. It can also be defined within the broader context of embracing an opinion that ...
must not eat from the Passover lamb.
*A permanent or temporary hired worker must not eat from it.
*Not to take the paschal meat from the confines of the group.
*Not to break any bone
A bone is a rigid organ that constitutes part of the skeleton in most vertebrate animals. Bones protect the various other organs of the body, produce red and white blood cells, store minerals, provide structure and support for the body, ...
s of the Passover lamb
*An uncircumcised
Circumcision is a procedure that removes the foreskin from the human penis. In the most common form of the operation, the foreskin is extended with forceps, then a circumcision device may be placed, after which the foreskin is excised. Topic ...
male must not eat from it.
*To set aside the firstborn animals
*Not to eat chametz all seven days of Passover
*Not to see chametz in your domain seven days
* To relate the Exodus
The Exodus (Hebrew: יציאת מצרים, ''Yeẓi’at Miẓrayim'': ) is the founding myth of the Israelites whose narrative is spread over four books of the Torah (or Pentateuch, corresponding to the first five books of the Bible), namely E ...
from Egypt
Egypt ( ar, مصر , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a List of transcontinental countries, transcontinental country spanning the North Africa, northeast corner of Africa and Western Asia, southwest corner of Asia via a land bridg ...
on the first night of Passover
*To redeem the firstborn donkey
The domestic donkey is a hoofed mammal in the family Equidae, the same family as the horse. It derives from the African wild ass, ''Equus africanus'', and may be classified either as a subspecies thereof, ''Equus africanus asinus'', or as ...
by giving a lamb to a Kohen
Kohen ( he, , ''kōhēn'', , "priest", pl. , ''kōhănīm'', , "priests") is the Hebrew word for " priest", used in reference to the Aaronic priesthood, also called Aaronites or Aaronides. Levitical priests or ''kohanim'' are traditionally ...
.
*To break the neck of the donkey if the owner does not intend to redeem it
In the liturgy
Reading the PassoverHaggadah
The Haggadah ( he, הַגָּדָה, "telling"; plural: Haggadot) is a Jewish text that sets forth the order of the Passover Seder. According to Jewish practice, reading the Haggadah at the Seder table is a fulfillment of the mitzvah to each J ...
, in the ''magid'' section of the Seder, many Jews remove drops of wine from their cups for each of the ten plagues in to show their joy is lessened due to the suffering of the Egyptians.
Also in the ''magid'' section, the Haggadah quotes to elucidate the report in that "the Lord brought us forth out of Egypt with a mighty hand." The Haggadah cites for the proposition that God took the Israelites out of Egypt not through an angel
In various theistic religious traditions an angel is a supernatural spiritual being who serves God.
Abrahamic religions often depict angels as benevolent celestial intermediaries between God (or Heaven) and humanity. Other roles ...
, not through a seraph
A seraph (, "burning one"; plural seraphim ) is a type of celestial or heavenly being originating in Ancient Judaism. The term plays a role in subsequent Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.
Tradition places seraphim in the highest rank in Christ ...
, not through an agent, but on God's own.
Also in the ''magid'' section, the Haggadah quotes to provide the question of the wicked son and quotes to answer him. And shortly thereafter, the Haggadah quotes to answer the simple child and quotes again to answer the child who does not know how to ask.
Also in the ''magid'' section, the Haggadah quotes to answer the question: For what purpose did the Israelites eat the Passover offering at the time of the Temple in Jerusalem
The Temple in Jerusalem, or alternatively the Holy Temple (; , ), refers to the two now-destroyed religious structures that served as the central places of worship for Israelites and Jews on the modern-day Temple Mount in the Old City of Jeru ...
? The Haggadah quotes for the proposition that the Israelites did so because God passed over the Israelites' houses in Egypt.
In the concluding ''nirtzah'' section, the Haggadah quotes the words "it is the Passover sacrifice" from eight times as the refrain of a poem by Eleazar Kallir. Also in the ''nirtzah'' section, the Haggadah quotes the words "it was the middle of the night" from eight times as the refrain of a poem by Yannai.
Rabinnic tradition interpreted as the Psalm that the Israelites recited in Egypt on the night that God smote all the firstborn in the land of Egypt in , and thus Jews recite as the first Psalm of Hallel on Festivals and during the Passover Seder.
Also in the ''nirtzah'' section, in a reference to the Israelites' despoiling of the Egyptians in , the Haggadah recounts how the Egyptians could not find their wealth when they arose at night.
In the ''magid'' section, the Haggadah quotes to answer the question: For what purpose do Jews eat unleavened bread (, ''matzah'')? The Haggadah quotes for the proposition that Jews do so because there was not sufficient time for the Israelites' dough to become leavened before God redeemed them.
In the ''magid'' section, the Haggadah responds to a question that "one could think" that raises — that the obligation to tell the Exodus story begins on the first of the month — and clarifies that the obligation begins when Jews have their maztah and maror in front of them.
Also in the ''magid'' section, the Haggadah quotes — emphasizing the word "for me" (''li'') — for the proposition that in every generation, Jews have a duty to regard themselves as though they personally had gone out of Egypt.
Many Jews recite and two of the four texts contained in the tefillin
Tefillin (; Modern Hebrew language, Israeli Hebrew: / ; Ashkenazim, Ashkenazic pronunciation: ), or phylacteries, are a set of small black leather boxes with leather straps containing scrolls of parchment inscribed with verses from the Torah. Te ...
, either immediately after putting on the tefillin or before removing them, as Jews interpret to make reference to tefillin when it says, "and it shall be for a sign to you upon your hand, and for a memorial between your eyes," and to make reference to tefillin when it says, "and it shall be for a sign upon your hand, and for frontlets between your eyes."
Much of the language of the ''leshem yihud'' prayer before putting on tefillin
Tefillin (; Modern Hebrew language, Israeli Hebrew: / ; Ashkenazim, Ashkenazic pronunciation: ), or phylacteries, are a set of small black leather boxes with leather straps containing scrolls of parchment inscribed with verses from the Torah. Te ...
is drawn from Ramban's commentary on .
Haftarah
Thehaftarah
The ''haftara'' or (in Ashkenazic pronunciation) ''haftorah'' (alt. ''haftarah, haphtara'', he, הפטרה) "parting," "taking leave", (plural form: ''haftarot'' or ''haftoros'') is a series of selections from the books of ''Nevi'im'' ("Pro ...
for the parashah is .
Connection to the Parashah
Both the parashah and the haftarah describe God's judgment against Egypt. The parashah reports that God told Moses to go (''bo'') to Pharaoh; the haftarah reports God's word thatNebuchadrezzar
Nebuchadnezzar II (Babylonian cuneiform: ''Nabû-kudurri-uṣur'', meaning " Nabu, watch over my heir"; Biblical Hebrew: ''Nəḇūḵaḏneʾṣṣar''), also spelled Nebuchadrezzar II, was the second king of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, rulin ...
would come (''la-vo'') to Pharaoh. Both the parashah and the haftarah report a plague of locusts — literal in the parashah, figurative in the haftarah. Both the parashah and the haftarah report God's punishment of Egypt's gods. And both the parashah and the haftarah report God's ultimate deliverance of the Israelites from their captivity.; ; .
Notes
Further reading
The parashah has parallels or is discussed in these sources:Biblical
* (God's destruction employing the flood); (leaving Egypt with wealth); (God's destruction ofSodom and Gomorrah
Sodom and Gomorrah () were two legendary biblical cities destroyed by God for their wickedness. Their story parallels the Genesis flood narrative in its theme of God's anger provoked by man's sin (see Genesis 19:1–28). They are mentioned frequ ...
).
* (command to kill sons); (hardening Pharaoh's heart); (hardening Pharaoh's heart); (hardening Pharaoh's heart); (hardening Pharaoh's heart); (hardening Pharaoh's heart); (firstborn); (Passover); (Passover).
*49–52
(hyssop); (Passover). * (firstborn); (Passover); (firstborn);
(hyssop); (Passover). * (hardening of heart); (hardening of heart); (parting gifts for freed slaves); (firstborn); (Passover). * (destruction of all but those with a red mark on their dwelling); (hardening of heart). * (firstborn). * (slaying those without the mark). * (darkness). * ("Purge me with hyssop"); (plagues); (plagues); (midnight). * (midnight).
Early nonrabbinic
Elephantine
Elephantine ( ; ; arz, جزيرة الفنتين; el, Ἐλεφαντίνη ''Elephantíne''; , ) is an island on the Nile, forming part of the city of Aswan in Upper Egypt. The archaeological sites on the island were inscribed on the UNESCO ...
, 419–418 BCE. In, e.g., ''The Context of Scripture, Volume III: Archival Documents from the Biblical World'', pages 116–17. Edited by William W. Hallo
William Wolfgang Hallo (March 9, 1928 – March, 27, 2015Ezekiel the Tragedian Ezekiel the Tragedian – also known as Ezekiel the Dramatist and Ezekiel the Poet – was a Jewish dramatist who wrote in Alexandria. Naomi Yanveh has placed his work in the 3rd century BCE, while Howard Jacobson estimates the 2nd Century BCE. Ev ...
. ''Exagōgē''. Greece, 2nd century BCE. Translated by R.G. Robertson. In ''The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha: Volume 2: Expansions of the "Old Testament" and Legends, Wisdom and Philosophical Literature, Prayers, Psalms, and Odes, Fragments of Lost Judeo-Hellenistic works''. Edited by James H. Charlesworth, pages 814–17. New York: Anchor Bible
The Anchor Bible Series, which consists of a commentary series, a Bible dictionary, and a reference library, is a scholarly and commercial co-venture which was begun in 1956, with the publication of individual volumes in the commentary series. Ove ...
, 1985.
*Jubilees
The Book of Jubilees, sometimes called Lesser Genesis (Leptogenesis), is an ancient Jewish religious work of 50 chapters (1,341 verses), considered canonical by the Ethiopian Orthodox Church as well as Beta Israel (Ethiopian Jews), where it is ...
br>chapter 49Land of Israel, 2nd century BCE. In, e.g., ''The Book of Jubilees or the Little Genesis''. Translated by Robert H. Charles. London: Black, 1902. In, e.g., ''The Book of Jubilees: Translation of Early Jewish and Palestinian Texts'', pages 216–19.
Lexington, Kentucky
Lexington is a city in Kentucky, United States that is the county seat of Fayette County. By population, it is the second-largest city in Kentucky and 57th-largest city in the United States. By land area, it is the country's 28th-largest ...
: Forgotten Books, 2007. (Passover).
* Wisdom of Solomonbr>chapters 17–18Alexandria, Egypt, 2nd–1st century BCE. *
1 Corinthians
The First Epistle to the Corinthians ( grc, Α΄ ᾽Επιστολὴ πρὸς Κορινθίους) is one of the Pauline epistles, part of the New Testament of the Christian Bible. The epistle is attributed to Paul the Apostle and a co-au ...
Circa 53–54. (Passover).
* Romans 1st century. (hardening Pharaoh's heart).
*Hebrews
The terms ''Hebrews'' (Hebrew: / , Modern: ' / ', Tiberian: ' / '; ISO 259-3: ' / ') and ''Hebrew people'' are mostly considered synonymous with the Semitic-speaking Israelites, especially in the pre-monarchic period when they were still ...
(hyssop); (Passover). Late 1st century.
*Mark
Mark may refer to:
Currency
* Bosnia and Herzegovina convertible mark, the currency of Bosnia and Herzegovina
* East German mark, the currency of the German Democratic Republic
* Estonian mark, the currency of Estonia between 1918 and 1927
* Finn ...
Circa 70 CE. (Passover).
*Matthew
Matthew may refer to:
* Matthew (given name)
* Matthew (surname)
* ''Matthew'' (ship), the replica of the ship sailed by John Cabot in 1497
* ''Matthew'' (album), a 2000 album by rapper Kool Keith
* Matthew (elm cultivar), a cultivar of the Chi ...
Circa 70–100 CE. (Passover).
*Josephus
Flavius Josephus (; grc-gre, Ἰώσηπος, ; 37 – 100) was a first-century Romano-Jewish historian and military leader, best known for '' The Jewish War'', who was born in Jerusalem—then part of Roman Judea—to a father of priestly ...
. '' The Wars of the Jews'', 5:9:4. Circa 75 CE. In, e.g., ''The Works of Josephus: Complete and Unabridged, New Updated Edition''. Translated by William Whiston
William Whiston (9 December 166722 August 1752) was an English theologian, historian, natural philosopher, and mathematician, a leading figure in the popularisation of the ideas of Isaac Newton. He is now probably best known for helping to inst ...
, 716. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 1987.
* 1 Peter Circa 81 CE. (Passover).
* Luke Circa 80–150 CE. (Passover).
*Josephus, ''Antiquities of the Jews
''Antiquities of the Jews'' ( la, Antiquitates Iudaicae; el, Ἰουδαϊκὴ ἀρχαιολογία, ''Ioudaikē archaiologia'') is a 20-volume historiographical work, written in Greek, by historian Flavius Josephus in the 13th year of the ...
'2:14:4
Circa 93–94. In, e.g., ''The Works of Josephus: Complete and Unabridged, New Updated Edition''. Translated by
William Whiston
William Whiston (9 December 166722 August 1752) was an English theologian, historian, natural philosopher, and mathematician, a leading figure in the popularisation of the ideas of Isaac Newton. He is now probably best known for helping to inst ...
, pages 73–74. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 1987.
* Late 1st century. (changing hearts to God's purpose).
*John
John is a common English name and surname:
* John (given name)
* John (surname)
John may also refer to:
New Testament
Works
* Gospel of John, a title often shortened to John
* First Epistle of John, often shortened to 1 John
* Secon ...
(hyssop); Circa 90–110. ("Not one of his bones will be broken").
*Justin Martyr
Justin Martyr ( el, Ἰουστῖνος ὁ μάρτυς, Ioustinos ho martys; c. AD 100 – c. AD 165), also known as Justin the Philosopher, was an early Christian apologist and philosopher.
Most of his works are lost, but two apologies and ...
. '' Dialogue with Trypho'', chapters 40, 46. Circa 155–167. In, e.g., Justin Martyr. ''Dialogue with Trypho''. Translated by Thomas B. Falls, edited by Michael Slusser. Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America Press, revised edition, 2002. (Passover).
*Melito of Sardis
Melito of Sardis ( el, Μελίτων Σάρδεων ''Melítōn Sárdeōn''; died ) was the bishop of Sardis near Smyrna in western Anatolia, and a great authority in early Christianity. Melito held a foremost place in terms of bishops in Asia ...
. ''On Pascha''. Circa 180. In, e.g., ''On Pascha and Fragments''. Edited by Stewart George Hall. Oxford: Clarendon Press
Oxford University Press (OUP) is the university press of the University of Oxford. It is the largest university press in the world, and its printing history dates back to the 1480s. Having been officially granted the legal right to print books ...
, 1979. (Passover).
Classical rabbinic
*Mishnah
The Mishnah or the Mishna (; he, מִשְׁנָה, "study by repetition", from the verb ''shanah'' , or "to study and review", also "secondary") is the first major written collection of the Jewish oral traditions which is known as the Oral Tor ...
Challah 1:2
Pesachim 1:1–10:9; Beitzah 1:1–5:7; Rosh Hashanah 1:1
Megillah 3:4
3rd century. In, e.g., ''The Mishnah: A New Translation''. Translated by
Jacob Neusner
Jacob Neusner (July 28, 1932 – October 8, 2016) was an American academic scholar of Judaism. He was named as one of the most published authors in history, having written or edited more than 900 books.
Life and career
Neusner was born in Hartfor ...
, pages 148, 157, 165, 171, 229–51, 291–99, 320–21, 672, 705, 739, 787–800, 803, 836. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988.
*Tosefta
The Tosefta ( Jewish Babylonian Aramaic: תוספתא "supplement, addition") is a compilation of the Jewish oral law from the late 2nd century, the period of the Mishnah.
Overview
In many ways, the Tosefta acts as a supplement to the Mishnah ( ...
: Terumot 10:7; Challah 2:9; Pisha (Pesachim) 1:1–10:13; Sukkah 2:1; Yom Tov (Beitzah) 1:4–5Rosh Hashanah 1:1–3
Sotah 4:5; Makkot 4:1; Zevachim 1:1; Menachot 8:28; Bekhorot 1:1–7:15. (Land of Israel, circa 250 CE). In, e.g., ''The Tosefta: Translated from the Hebrew, with a New Introduction''. Translated by Jacob Neusner, volume 1, pages 198, 339, 471–522, 572, 585–86, 605, 645, 846; volume 2, pages 1208–09, 1308, 1445, 1469–94. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 2002. *
Jerusalem Talmud
The Jerusalem Talmud ( he, תַּלְמוּד יְרוּשַׁלְמִי, translit=Talmud Yerushalmi, often for short), also known as the Palestinian Talmud or Talmud of the Land of Israel, is a collection of rabbinic notes on the second-century ...
: Berakhot 9a, 21b, 37a, 61a; Challah 49a; Orlah 35a; Shabbat 17a, 18b, 30a, 61a–b; Eruvin 24b, 63b; Pesachim 1a–86a; Shekalim 1b; Yoma 2a; Beitzah 1a–49b; Rosh Hashanah 1b, 6a, 11a, 17b–18a; Taanit 26a; Megillah 14b, 17b, 21a–b, 29b; Chagigah 13b; Yevamot 42a–43a; Nazir 22a; Gittin 20b; Kiddushin 19b, 22a; Sanhedrin 11b, 13a, 31a–b, 51b, 69a; Horayot 10a. Tiberias
Tiberias ( ; he, טְבֶרְיָה, ; ar, طبريا, Ṭabariyyā) is an Israeli city on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee. A major Jewish center during Late Antiquity, it has been considered since the 16th century one of Judaism's F ...
, Land of Israel, circa 400 C.E. In, e.g., ''Talmud Yerushalmi''. Edited by Chaim Malinowitz, Yisroel Simcha Schorr, and Mordechai Marcus, volumes 1–2, 11–14, 16–19, 20–21, 23–27, 30, 34, 38, 40, 44–45, 49. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2005–2020. And in, e.g., ''The Jerusalem Talmud: A Translation and Commentary''. Edited by Jacob Neusner and translated by Jacob Neusner, Tzvee Zahavy, B. Barry Levy, and Edward Goldman. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 2009
*Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmael
The Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmael ( arc, מְכִילְתָּא דְּרַבִּי יִשְׁמָעֵאל IPA /məˈχiltɑ/, "a collection of rules of interpretation") is midrash halakha to the Book of Exodus. The Jewish Babylonian Aramaic title ' ...
, Tractate Pisha, chapters 1:1–18:2. Land of Israel, late 4th century. In, e.g., ''Mekhilta de-Rabbi Ishmael''. Translated by Jacob Z. Lauterbach, volume 1, pages 1–114. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1933, reissued 2004.
* Mekhilta of Rabbi Simeon, Tractate Pisha, chapters 3–19. Land of Israel, 5th century. In, e.g., ''Mekhilta de-Rabbi Shimon bar Yohai''. Translated by W. David Nelson, pages 10–79. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2006.
*Babylonian Talmud
The Talmud (; he, , Talmūḏ) is the central text of Rabbinic Judaism and the primary source of Jewish religious law ('' halakha'') and Jewish theology. Until the advent of modernity, in nearly all Jewish communities, the Talmud was the ce ...
Berakhot 3b–4a
Sasanian Empire
The Sasanian () or Sassanid Empire, officially known as the Empire of Iranians (, ) and also referred to by historians as the Neo-Persian Empire, was the last Iranian empire before the early Muslim conquests of the 7th-8th centuries AD. Named ...
, 6th century. In, e.g., ''Talmud Bavli''. Edited by Yisroel Simcha Schorr, Chaim Malinowitz, and Mordechai Marcus, 72 volumes. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2006.
* Song of Songs Rabbah. 6th–7th century. In, e.g., ''Midrash Rabbah: Song of Songs''. Translated by Maurice Simon, volume 9, pages 2, 45, 47, 80–81, 100, 117–18, 121–23, 138–39, 163, 165, 219, 238, 283. London: Soncino Press, 1939.
Medieval
*Saadia Gaon
Saʻadiah ben Yosef Gaon ( ar, سعيد بن يوسف الفيومي ''Saʻīd bin Yūsuf al-Fayyūmi''; he, סַעֲדְיָה בֶּן יוֹסֵף אַלְפַיּוּמִי גָּאוֹן ''Saʿăḏyāh ben Yōsēf al-Fayyūmī Gāʾōn''; ...
. '' The Book of Beliefs and Opinions''. Baghdad, Babylonia, 933. Translated by Samuel Rosenblatt, pages 119, 199, 254, 272, 299, 424. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1948.
*Exodus Rabbah
Exodus Rabbah (Hebrew: שמות רבה, ''Shemot Rabbah'') is the midrash to Exodus.
Contents
Exodus Rabbah is almost purely aggadic in character.
It contains 52 sections. It consists of two sections with different styles, dubbed "Exodus Rabba ...
13:1–19:8. 10th century. In, e.g., ''Midrash Rabbah: Exodus''. Translated by S. M. Lehrman. London: Soncino Press, 1939.
*Rashi
Shlomo Yitzchaki ( he, רבי שלמה יצחקי; la, Salomon Isaacides; french: Salomon de Troyes, 22 February 1040 – 13 July 1105), today generally known by the acronym Rashi (see below), was a medieval French rabbi and author of a compre ...
. ''Commentary''Exodus 10–13
Troyes
Troyes () is a commune and the capital of the department of Aube in the Grand Est region of north-central France. It is located on the Seine river about south-east of Paris. Troyes is situated within the Champagne wine region and is near ...
, France
France (), officially the French Republic ( ), is a country primarily located in Western Europe. It also comprises of Overseas France, overseas regions and territories in the Americas and the Atlantic Ocean, Atlantic, Pacific Ocean, Pac ...
, late 11th century. In, e.g., Rashi. ''The Torah: With Rashi's Commentary Translated, Annotated, and Elucidated''. Translated and annotated by Yisrael Isser Zvi Herczeg, volume 2, pages 91–141. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1994.
* Rashbam. ''Commentary on the Torah''. Troyes, early 12th century. In, e.g., ''Rashbam's Commentary on Exodus: An Annotated Translation''. Edited and translated by Martin I. Lockshin, pages 93–132. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1997.
*Judah Halevi
Judah Halevi (also Yehuda Halevi or ha-Levi; he, יהודה הלוי and Judah ben Shmuel Halevi ; ar, يهوذا اللاوي ''Yahuḏa al-Lāwī''; 1075 – 1141) was a Spanish Jewish physician, poet and philosopher. He was born in Spain, ...
. ''Kuzari
The ''Kuzari'', full title ''Book of Refutation and Proof on Behalf of the Despised Religion'' ( ar, كتاب الحجة والدليل في نصرة الدين الذليل: ''Kitâb al-ḥujja wa'l-dalîl fi naṣr al-dîn al-dhalîl''), also k ...
''. 2:80; 3:35. Toledo, Spain, 1130–1140. In, e.g., Jehuda Halevi. ''Kuzari: An Argument for the Faith of Israel.'' Introduction by Henry Slonimsky, pages 132, 166. New York: Schocken, 1964.
* Abraham ibn Ezra. ''Commentary on the Torah''. France, 1153. In, e.g., ''Ibn Ezra's Commentary on the Pentateuch: Exodus (Shemot)''. Translated and annotated by H. Norman Strickman and Arthur M. Silver, volume 2, pages 183–266. New York: Menorah Publishing Company, 1996.
*Maimonides
Musa ibn Maimon (1138–1204), commonly known as Maimonides (); la, Moses Maimonides and also referred to by the acronym Rambam ( he, רמב״ם), was a Sephardic Jewish philosopher who became one of the most prolific and influential Torah ...
. ''Mishneh Torah
The ''Mishneh Torah'' ( he, מִשְׁנֵה תּוֹרָה, , repetition of the Torah), also known as ''Sefer Yad ha-Hazaka'' ( he, ספר יד החזקה, , book of the strong hand, label=none), is a code of Rabbinic Jewish religious law ('' ...
''''Hilchot Teshuvah'', chapter 3, paragraph 3
Egypt. Circa 1170–1180. In, e.g., ''Mishneh Torah: Hilchot Teshuvah: The Laws of Repentance''. Translated by Eliyahu Touger, pages 140–48. New York: Moznaim Publishing, 1990.
*Maimonides. ''Mishneh Torah''In, e.g., ''Mishneh Torah: Hilchot Shekalim: The Laws of Shekalim: and Hilchot Kiddush HaChodesh: The Laws of Sanctification of the New Moon''. Translated by Eliyahu Touger, volume 14, pages 102–13. New York: Moznaim Publishing, 1993. *Maimonides. ''The Eight Chapters on Ethics'', chapter 8. Egypt. Late 12th century. In, e.g., ''The Eight Chapters of Maimonides on Ethics (Shemonah Perakim): A Psychological and Ethical Treatise''. Edited, annotated, and translated, with an introduction by Joseph I. Gorfinkle, pages 95–96. New York:
Columbia University Press
Columbia University Press is a university press based in New York City, and affiliated with Columbia University. It is currently directed by Jennifer Crewe (2014–present) and publishes titles in the humanities and sciences, including the fie ...
, 1912. Reprinted by Forgotten Books, 2012.
*Maimonides. ''The Guide for the Perplexed
''The Guide for the Perplexed'' ( ar, دلالة الحائرين, Dalālat al-ḥā'irīn, ; he, מורה נבוכים, Moreh Nevukhim) is a work of Jewish theology by Maimonides. It seeks to reconcile Aristotelianism with Rabbinical Jewish the ...
''. Cairo
Cairo ( ; ar, القاهرة, al-Qāhirah, ) is the capital of Egypt and its largest city, home to 10 million people. It is also part of the largest urban agglomeration in Africa, the Arab world and the Middle East: The Greater Cairo metr ...
, Egypt, 1190. In, e.g., Moses Maimonides. ''The Guide for the Perplexed''. Translated by Michael Friedländer
Michael Friedländer (29 April 1833 – 10 December 1910) was an Orientalist and principal of Jews' College, London. He is best known for his English translation of Maimonides' '' Guide to the Perplexed'', which was the most popular such transla ...
, pages 27, 30, 32, 36, 55–56, 214, 325, 340, 346, 359, 361, 370. New York: Dover Publications, 1956.
*Hezekiah ben Manoah Hezekiah ben Manoah, or Hezekiah bar Manoah, was a French rabbi and Bible commentator of the 13th century. He is generally known by the title of his commentary, Chizkuni ( he, חזקוני).
In memory of his father, who lost his right hand through ...
. ''Hizkuni''. France, circa 1240. In, e.g., Chizkiyahu ben Manoach. ''Chizkuni: Torah Commentary''. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 2, pages 400–41. Jerusalem: Ktav Publishers
KTAV Publishing House is a publishing house located in Brooklyn, New York. Ktav means "to write" in Hebrew.
Founded in 1921, it has been among the most notable publishers of Judaica and Jewish educational texts since the middle of the 20th ce ...
, 2013.
*Nachmanides
Moses ben Nachman ( he, מֹשֶׁה בֶּן־נָחְמָן ''Mōše ben-Nāḥmān'', "Moses son of Nachman"; 1194–1270), commonly known as Nachmanides (; el, Ναχμανίδης ''Nakhmanídēs''), and also referred to by the acronym Ra ...
. ''Commentary on the Torah''. Jerusalem, circa 1270. In, e.g., ''Ramban (Nachmanides): Commentary on the Torah.'' Translated by Charles B. Chavel, volume 2, pages 100–75. New York: Shilo Publishing House, 1973.
*''Zohar
The ''Zohar'' ( he, , ''Zōhar'', lit. "Splendor" or "Radiance") is a foundational work in the literature of Jewish mystical thought known as Kabbalah. It is a group of books including commentary on the mystical aspects of the Torah (the five ...
'', part 2, pages 32b–44a. Spain, late 13th century. In, e.g., ''The Zohar: Pritzker Edition''. Translation and commentary by Daniel C. Matt
Daniel Chanan Matt is a scholar of Kabbalah and a professor at the Graduate Theological Union in Berkeley. He received his Ph.D. from Brandeis University and taught at Stanford University and the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Matt is best known ...
, volume 4, pages 136–200. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2007.
*Bahya ben Asher
Bahya ben Asher ibn Halawa (, 1255–1340) was a rabbi and scholar of Judaism, best known as a commentator on the Hebrew Bible.
He is one of two scholars now referred to as Rabbeinu Behaye, the other being philosopher Bahya ibn Paquda.
Biog ...
. ''Commentary on the Torah''. Spain, early 14th century. In, e.g., ''Midrash Rabbeinu Bachya: Torah Commentary by Rabbi Bachya ben Asher''. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 855–921. Jerusalem: Lambda Publishers, 2003.
*Jacob ben Asher
Jacob ben Asher (c. 1269 - c. 1343), also known as Ba'al ha-Turim as well as Rabbi Yaakov ben Raash (Rabbeinu Asher), was an influential Medieval rabbinic authority. He is often referred to as the Ba'al ha-Turim ("Master of the Columns"), after ...
(Baal Ha-Turim). ''Commentary on the Torah''. Early 14th century. In, e.g., ''Baal Haturim Chumash: Shemos/Exodus''. Translated by Eliyahu Touger, edited and annotated by Avie Gold, volume 2, pages 609–51. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2000.
* Nissim of Gerona (The Ran). ''Derashos HaRan (Discourses of the Ran)'', discourse 3. Barcelona
Barcelona ( , , ) is a city on the coast of northeastern Spain. It is the capital and largest city of the autonomous community of Catalonia, as well as the second most populous municipality of Spain. With a population of 1.6 million within c ...
, Catalonia
Catalonia (; ca, Catalunya ; Aranese Occitan: ''Catalonha'' ; es, Cataluña ) is an autonomous community of Spain, designated as a '' nationality'' by its Statute of Autonomy.
Most of the territory (except the Val d'Aran) lies on the no ...
, 14th century. In, e.g., Yehuda Meir Keilson. ''Derashos HaRan: Discourses of the Ran, Rabbeinu Nissim ben Reuven of Gerona, Translated, Annotated, and Elucidated''. Volume 1, pages 199–275. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2019.
* Isaac ben Moses Arama. ''Akedat Yizhak (The Binding of Isaac)''. Late 15th century. In, e.g., Yitzchak Arama. ''Akeydat Yitzchak: Commentary of Rabbi Yitzchak Arama on the Torah''. Translated and condensed by Eliyahu Munk, volume 1, pages 345–67. New York, Lambda Publishers, 2001.
Modern
* Isaac Abravanel. ''Commentary on the Torah''. Italy, between 1492 and 1509. In, e.g., ''Abarbanel: Selected Commentaries on the Torah: Volume 2: Shemos/Exodus''. Translated and annotated by Israel Lazar, pages 134–72. Brooklyn: CreateSpace, 2015. *Abraham Saba Abraham Saba (1440–1508) was a preacher in Castile who became a pupil of Isaac de Leon. At the time of the expulsion of the Jews from Spain he took refuge in Portugal, where he met with further misfortune; for scarcely had he settled in Oporto w ...
. ''Ẓeror ha-Mor (Bundle of Myrrh)''. Fez, Morocco, circa 1500. In, e.g., ''Tzror Hamor: Torah Commentary by Rabbi Avraham Sabba''. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 921–67. Jerusalem, Lambda Publishers, 2008.
* Obadiah ben Jacob Sforno. ''Commentary on the Torah''. Venice
Venice ( ; it, Venezia ; vec, Venesia or ) is a city in northeastern Italy and the capital of the Veneto Regions of Italy, region. It is built on a group of 118 small islands that are separated by canals and linked by over 400 ...
, 1567. In, e.g., ''Sforno: Commentary on the Torah''. Translation and explanatory notes by Raphael Pelcovitz, pages 328–45. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1997.
*Moshe Alshich
Moshe Alshich he, משה אלשיך, also spelled Alshech, (1508–1593), known as the ''Alshich Hakadosh (the Holy)'', was a prominent rabbi, preacher, and biblical commentator in the latter part of the sixteenth century.
The Alshich was born ...
. ''Commentary on the Torah''. Safed
Safed (known in Hebrew as Tzfat; Sephardic Hebrew & Modern Hebrew: צְפַת ''Tsfat'', Ashkenazi Hebrew: ''Tzfas'', Biblical Hebrew: ''Ṣǝp̄aṯ''; ar, صفد, ''Ṣafad''), is a city in the Northern District of Israel. Located at an elev ...
, circa 1593. In, e.g., Moshe Alshich. ''Midrash of Rabbi Moshe Alshich on the Torah''. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 2, pages 401–29. New York, Lambda Publishers, 2000.
* Shlomo Ephraim Luntschitz. ''Kli Yakar''. Lublin
Lublin is the ninth-largest city in Poland and the second-largest city of historical Lesser Poland. It is the capital and the center of Lublin Voivodeship with a population of 336,339 (December 2021). Lublin is the largest Polish city east of ...
, 1602. In, e.g., ''Kli Yakar: Shemos''. Translated by Elihu Levine, volume 1, pages 131–94. Southfield, Michigan
Southfield is a city in Oakland County in the U.S. state of Michigan. As of the 2010 census, the city had a population of 76,618.
As a northern suburb of Detroit, Southfield shares part of its southern border with Detroit. The city was original ...
: Targum Press
Menucha Publishers is an Orthodox Jewish
Orthodox Judaism is the collective term for the traditionalist and theologically conservative branches of contemporary Judaism. Theologically, it is chiefly defined by regarding the Torah, both Writt ...
/Feldheim Publishers, 2002.
* Menasseh ben Israel. ''El Conciliador (The Conciliator)''. Amsterdam, 1632. In ''The Conciliator of R. Manasseh Ben Israel: A Reconcilement of the Apparent Contradictions in Holy Scripture: To Which Are Added Explanatory Notes, and Biographical Notices of the Quoted Authorities''. Translated by Elias Hiam Lindo, pages 124–36. London, 1842. Reprinted by, e.g., Nabu Press, 2010.
*Avraham Yehoshua Heschel. ''Commentaries on the Torah''. Cracow, Poland, mid 17th century. Compiled as ''Chanukat HaTorah''. Edited by Chanoch Henoch Erzohn. Piotrkow, Poland, 1900. In Avraham Yehoshua Heschel. ''Chanukas HaTorah: Mystical Insights of Rav Avraham Yehoshua Heschel on Chumash''. Translated by Avraham Peretz Friedman, pages 132–41. Southfield, Michigan
Southfield is a city in Oakland County in the U.S. state of Michigan. As of the 2010 census, the city had a population of 76,618.
As a northern suburb of Detroit, Southfield shares part of its southern border with Detroit. The city was original ...
: Targum Press
Menucha Publishers is an Orthodox Jewish
Orthodox Judaism is the collective term for the traditionalist and theologically conservative branches of contemporary Judaism. Theologically, it is chiefly defined by regarding the Torah, both Writt ...
/Feldheim Publishers
Feldheim Publishers (or Feldheim) is an American Orthodox Jewish publisher of Torah books and literature. Its extensive catalog of titles includes books on Jewish law, Torah, Talmud, Jewish lifestyle, Shabbat and Jewish holidays, Jewish history, ...
, 2004.
*Yaakov Culi Rabbi Yaakov Culi (a.k.a. Kuli or Chuli; he, יעקב כולי) was a Talmudist and biblical commentator of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries who died in Constantinople on August 9, 1732.
Biography
He belonged to an exiled Spanish family, a ...
. '' Me'am Lo'ez''. Constantinople
la, Constantinopolis ota, قسطنطينيه
, alternate_name = Byzantion (earlier Greek name), Nova Roma ("New Rome"), Miklagard/Miklagarth (Old Norse), Tsargrad ( Slavic), Qustantiniya (Arabic), Basileuousa ("Queen of Cities"), Megalopolis (" ...
, 1732. In Yaakov Culi. ''The Torah Anthology: Me'am Lo'ez''. Translated by Aryeh Kaplan
Aryeh Moshe Eliyahu Kaplan ( he, אריה משה אליהו קפלן; October 23, 1934 – January 28, 1983) was an American Orthodox rabbi, author, and translator, best known for his Living Torah edition of the Torah. He became well known as ...
, volume 5, pages 1–150. Jerusalem: Moznaim Publishing, 1979.
*Thomas Hobbes
Thomas Hobbes ( ; 5/15 April 1588 – 4/14 December 1679) was an English philosopher, considered to be one of the founders of modern political philosophy. Hobbes is best known for his 1651 book '' Leviathan'', in which he expounds an influ ...
. ''Leviathan
Leviathan (; he, לִוְיָתָן, ) is a sea serpent noted in theology and mythology. It is referenced in several books of the Hebrew Bible, including Psalms, the Book of Job, the Book of Isaiah, the Book of Amos, and, according to some ...
'', 3:38. England, 1651. Reprint edited by C. B. Macpherson, page 487. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Classics, 1982.
* Shabbethai Bass. ''Sifsei Chachamim''. Amsterdam, 1680. In, e.g., ''Sefer Shemos: From the Five Books of the Torah: Volume 1: Shemos–Yitro: Chumash: Targum Okelos: Rashi: Sifsei Chachamim: Yalkut: Haftaros'', translated by Avrohom Y. Davis, pages 119–85. Lakewood Township, New Jersey
Lakewood Township is the most populous township in Ocean County, in the U.S. state of New Jersey. A rapidly growing community as of the 2020 U.S. census, the township had a total population of 135,158 representing an increase of 41,415 (+45.5 ...
: Metsudah Publications, 2009.
*Chaim ibn Attar. ''Ohr ha-Chaim''. Venice, 1742. In Chayim ben Attar. ''Or Hachayim: Commentary on the Torah''. Translated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 2, pages 533–73. Brooklyn: Lambda Publishers, 1999.
*Nachman of Breslov. ''Teachings''. Bratslav, Ukraine, before 1811. In ''Rebbe Nachman's Torah: Breslov Insights into the Weekly Torah Reading: Exodus-Leviticus''. Compiled by Chaim Kramer, edited by Y. Hall, pages 64–95. Jerusalem: Breslov Research Institute, 2011.
*Henry Wadsworth Longfellow]''The Jewish Cemetery at Newport ''
Boston, 1854. In Harold Bloom. ''American Religious Poems'', pages 80–81. New York: Library of America, 2006. *
Samson Raphael Hirsch
Samson Raphael Hirsch (; June 20, 1808 – December 31, 1888) was a German Orthodox rabbi best known as the intellectual founder of the ''Torah im Derech Eretz'' school of contemporary Orthodox Judaism. Occasionally termed ''neo-Orthodoxy'', hi ...
. ''The Pentateuch: Exodus''. Translated by Isaac Levy, volume 2, pages 107–74. Gateshead: Judaica Press, 2nd edition 1999. Originally published as ''Der Pentateuch uebersetzt und erklaert''. Frankfurt, 1867–1878.
*Samuel David Luzzatto (Shadal). ''Commentary on the Torah.'' Padua, 1871. In, e.g., Samuel David Luzzatto. ''Torah Commentary''. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 2, pages 594–633. New York: Lambda Publishers, 2012.
*Malbim. ''The Torah and the Commandments''. Warsaw, 1874–80. In, e.g., Malbim: Rabbenu Meir Leibush ben Yechiel Michel. ''Commentary on the Torah''. Translated by Zvi Faier, volume 4, pages 254–84; volume 5, pages 1–386. Israel: M.P. Press/Hillel Press, 1984.
*Yehudah Aryeh Leib Alter. ''Sefat Emet''. Góra Kalwaria (Ger), Poland, before 1906. Excerpted in ''The Language of Truth: The Torah Commentary of Sefat Emet''. Translated and interpreted by Arthur Green, pages 93–97. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1998. Reprinted 2012.
*Hermann Cohen. ''Religion of Reason: Out of the Sources of Judaism''. Translated with an introduction by Simon Kaplan; introductory essays by Leo Strauss, pages 121, 328. New York: Ungar, 1972. Reprinted Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1995. Originally published as ''Religion der Vernunft aus den Quellen des Judentums''. Leipzig: Gustav Fock, 1919.
*James Joyce. ''Ulysses (novel), Ulysses'', s:Ulysses (1922)/Chapter 7, chapter 7 (Aeolus). Paris: Shakespeare and Company (1919–1941), Shakespeare and Company, 1922. Reprinted, e.g., ''Ulysses: The Corrected Text''. Edited by Hans Walter Gabler with Wolfhard Steppe and Claus Melchior, pages 116–17. New York: Random House, 1986. (The orator John F. Taylor is quoted saying: “It seemed to me that I had been transported into a country far away from this country, into an age remote from this age, that I stood in ancient Egypt and that I was listening to the speech of some highpriest of that land addressed to the youthful Moses. . . . And it seemed to me that I heard the voice of that Egyptian highpriest raised in a tone of like haughtiness and like pride. I heard his words and their meaning was revealed to me. . . . Why will you Jews not accept our culture, our religion and our language? You are a tribe of nomad herdsmen: we are a mighty people. You have no cities nor no wealth: our cities are hives of humanity and our galleys, trireme and quadrireme, laden with all manner merchandise furrow the waters of the known globe. You have but emerged from primitive conditions: we have a literature, a priesthood, an agelong history and a polity. . . . But, ladies and gentlemen, had the youthful Moses listened to and accepted that view of life, had he bowed his head and bowed his will and bowed his spirit before that arrogant admonition he would never have brought the chosen people out of their house of bondage, nor followed the pillar of the cloud by day. He would never have spoken with the Eternal amid lightnings on Sinai's mountaintop nor ever have come down with the light of inspiration shining in his countenance and bearing in his arms the tables of the law, graven in the language of the outlaw.”).
*Alexander Alan Steinbach. ''Sabbath Queen: Fifty-four Bible Talks to the Young Based on Each Portion of the Pentateuch'', pages 45–48. New York: Behrman's Jewish Book House, 1936.
*Benno Jacob. ''The Second Book of the Bible: Exodus''. London, 1940. Translated by Walter Jacob, pages 280–376. Hoboken, New Jersey: KTAV Publishing House, 1992.
*A. M. Klein. ''Concerning Four Strange Sons.'' Circa 1937. ''Haggadah.'' 1940. In ''The Collected Poems of A.M. Klein'', pages 78–79, 143–46. Toronto: McGraw-Hill Ryerson, 1974.
*Thomas Mann. ''Joseph and His Brothers''. Translated by John E. Woods (translator), John E. Woods, pages 79, 384–86, 715, 788. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2005. Originally published as ''Joseph und seine Brüder''. Stockholm: Bermann-Fischer Verlag, 1943.
*Umberto Cassuto
Umberto Cassuto, also known as Moshe David Cassuto (16 September 1883 – 19 December 1951), was an Italian historian, a rabbi, and a scholar of the Hebrew Bible and Ugaritic literature, in the University of Florence, then at the University ...
. ''A Commentary on the Book of Exodus''. Jerusalem, 1951. Translated by Israel Abrahams, pages 122–54. Jerusalem: The Magnes Press, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, The Hebrew University, 1967.
*Ziony Zevit“The Priestly Redaction and Interpretation of the Plague Narrative in Exodus.”
''The Jewish Quarterly Review'', new series, volume 66, number 4 (April 1976): pages 193–211. *Robert R. Wilson, "The Hardening of Pharaoh's Heart." ''Catholic Biblical Quarterly'', volume 41 (number 1) (1979): pages 18–36. *Elie Munk. ''The Call of the Torah: An Anthology of Interpretation and Commentary on the Five Books of Moses''. Translated by E.S. Mazer, volume 2, pages 112–61. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1995. Originally published as ''La Voix de la Thora''. Paris: Fondation Samuel et Odette Levy, 1981. *Judith R. Baskin. ''Pharaoh's Counsellors: Job, Jethro, and Balaam in Rabbinic and Patristic Tradition''. Brown Judaic Studies, 1983. *Dan Jacobson. "A Plague of Darkness." In ''Gates to the New City: A Treasury of Modern Jewish Tales''. Edited by Howard Schwartz, pages 157–60. New York: Avon, 1983. Reissue edition Jason Aronson, 1991. *Baruch M. Bokser. ''Origins of the Seder: The Passover Rite and Early Rabbinic Judaism''. Oakland: University of California Press, 1984; reprinted New York: Jewish Theological Seminary Press, 2002. *Mayer Rabinowitz
"A Pesah Guide."
New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 1984. OH 453.1984. *Pinchas Hacohen Peli, Pinchas H. Peli. ''Torah Today: A Renewed Encounter with Scripture'', pages 63–66. Washington, D.C.: B'nai B'rith Books, 1987. *Mark S. Smith. ''The Early History of God: Yahweh and the Other Deities in Ancient Israel'', pages 2, 10, 108, 113. New York: HarperSanFrancisco, 1990. *Ziony Zevit
“Three Ways to Look at the Ten Plagues:Were they natural disasters, a demonstration of the impotence of the Egyptian gods or an undoing of Creation?
''Bible Review'', volume 6, number 3 (1990). *Harvey J. Fields. ''A Torah Commentary for Our Times: Volume II: Exodus and Leviticus'', pages 25–31. New York: UAHC Press, 1991. *Nahum M. Sarna. ''The JPS Torah Commentary: Exodus: The Traditional Hebrew Text with the New JPS Translation'', pages 48–68, 270–73. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1991. *Nechama Leibowitz, Nehama Leibowitz. ''New Studies in Shemot (Exodus)'', volume 1, pages 178–230. Jerusalem: Haomanim Press, 1993. Reprinted as ''New Studies in the Weekly Parasha''. Lambda Publishers, 2010. *Gerald Skolnik
"Should There Be a Special Ceremony in Recognition of a First-Born Female Child?"
New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 1993. YD 305:1.1993. In ''Responsa: 1991–2000: The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement''. Edited by Kassel Abelson and David J. Fine, pages 163–65. New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2002. *Aaron Wildavsky. ''Assimilation versus Separation: Joseph the Administrator and the Politics of Religion in Biblical Israel'', page 14. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction Publishers, 1993. *Joseph B. Soloveitchik. ''Festival of Freedom: Essays on Pesah and the Haggadah''. Before 1994. Reprinted Ktav Publishing, 2006. *Walter Brueggemann. “The Book of Exodus.” In ''Interpreter's Bible series, The New Interpreter's Bible''. Edited by Leander E. Keck, volume 1, pages 760–987. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1994. *Shimon Finkelman, Moshe Dov Stein, Moshe Lieber, Nosson Scherman. ''Pesach-Passover: Its Observance, Laws and Significance / A Presentation Based on Talmudic and Traditional Sources''. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1994. *Judith S. Antonelli. "Firstborn Daughters." In ''In the Image of God: A Feminist Commentary on the Torah'', pages 154–66. Northvale, New Jersey: Jason Aronson, 1995. *Gunther Plaut, W. Gunther Plaut. ''The Haftarah Commentary'', pages 140–48. New York: UAHC Press, 1996. *Sorel Goldberg Loeb and Barbara Binder Kadden. ''Teaching Torah: A Treasury of Insights and Activities'', pages 100–06. Denver: A.R.E. Publishing, 1997.
*Barack Obama. ''Dreams from My Father'', page 294. New York: Three Rivers Press, 1995, 2004. (Moses and Pharaoh).
* Jacob Milgrom. "The Alien in Your Midst: Every Nation Has Its Ger: The Permanent Resident. The Torah Commands Us, First, Not To Oppress the Ger, and Then To Befriend and Love Him." ''Bible Review'', volume 11 (numbers 6) (Dec. 1995).
*Ellen Frankel. ''The Five Books of Miriam: A Woman’s Commentary on the Torah'', pages 105–08. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1996.
*Robert Goodman. “Pesach” and “Rosh Chodesh.” In ''Teaching Jewish Holidays: History, Values, and Activities'', pages 153–72, 241–47. Denver: A.R.E. Publishing, 1997.
*William H.C. Propp. ''Exodus 1–18'', volume 2, pages 290–461. New York: Anchor Bible, 1998.
*''Exodus to Deuteronomy: A Feminist Companion to the Bible (Second Series)''. Edited by Athalya Brenner, pages 31, 72, 95–96. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2000.
*Avivah Gottlieb Zornberg. ''The Particulars of Rapture: Reflections on Exodus'', pages 132–98. New York: Doubleday, 2001.
*Lainie Blum Cogan and Judy Weiss. ''Teaching Haftarah: Background, Insights, and Strategies'', pages 422–27. Denver: A.R.E. Publishing, 2002.
*Michael Fishbane. ''The JPS Bible Commentary: Haftarot'', pages 93–97. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2002.
*Robert Alter. ''The Five Books of Moses: A Translation with Commentary'', pages 365–88. New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 2004.
*Martin Sicker. ''A Passover Seder Companion and Analytic Introduction to the Haggadah''. New York: iUniverse, 2004.
*Jeffrey H. Tigay. "Exodus." In ''The Jewish Study Bible''. Edited by Adele Berlin and Marc Zvi Brettler, pages 122–33. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.
*''Professors on the Parashah: Studies on the Weekly Torah Reading'' Edited by Leib Moscovitz, pages 100–04. Jerusalem: Urim Publications, 2005.
*W. Gunther Plaut. ''The Torah: A Modern Commentary: Revised Edition''. Revised edition edited by David E. Stern, David E.S. Stern, pages 405–29. New York: Union for Reform Judaism, 2006.
*Diane Ackerman. ''The Zookeeper's Wife, The Zookeeper's Wife: A War Story'', pages 181–82, 211. New York: W.W. Norton, 2007. (Passover in the Warsaw Ghetto).
*Suzanne A. Brody. "Pidyon HaBen." In ''Dancing in the White Spaces: The Yearly Torah Cycle and More Poems'', page 77. Shelbyville, Kentucky: Wasteland Press, 2007.
*Esther Jungreis. ''Life Is a Test'', page 117. Brooklyn: Shaar Press, 2007.
*James Kugel, James L. Kugel. ''How To Read the Bible: A Guide to Scripture, Then and Now'', pages 217–32, 278, 299, 318–24, 669. New York: Free Press, 2007.
*Kenton L. Sparks“‘Enūma Elish’ and Priestly Mimesis: Elite Emulation in Nascent Judaism.”
''Journal of Biblical Literature'', volume 126 (2007): 635–37. (“Priestly Mimesis in the Exodus Story”). *''The Torah: A Women's Commentary''. Edited by Tamara Cohn Eskenazi and Andrea Weiss (rabbi), Andrea L. Weiss, pages 355–78. New York: Union for Reform Judaism, URJ Press, 2008. *Thomas B. Dozeman. ''Commentary on Exodus'', pages 238–98. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2009. *Reuven Hammer. ''Entering Torah: Prefaces to the Weekly Torah Portion'', pages 89–93. New York: Gefen Publishing House, 2009. *Rebecca G.S. Idestrom
“Echoes of the Book of Exodus in Ezekiel.”
''Journal for the Study of the Old Testament'', volume 33 (number 4) (June 2009): pages 489–510. (Motifs from Exodus found in Ezekiel, including the call narrative, divine encounters, captivity, signs, plagues, judgment, redemption, tabernacle/temple, are considered.). *Jason Gary Klein. “The Ritual of Storytelling: Parashat Bo (Exodus 10:1–13:16).” In ''Torah Queeries: Weekly Commentaries on the Hebrew Bible''. Edited by Gregg Drinkwater, Joshua Lesser, and David Shneer; foreword by Judith Plaskow, pages 85–88. New York: New York University Press, 2009. *Bruce Wells. "Exodus." In ''Zondervan Illustrated Bible Backgrounds Commentary''. Edited by John H. Walton, volume 1, pages 198–211. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan, 2009.
*Julie Cadwallader-Staub. Joy
'. In ''Face to Face: A Poetry Collection''. DreamSeeker Books, 2010. ("land of milk and honey"). *Idan Dershowitz
“A Land Flowing with Fat and Honey.”
''Vetus Testamentum'', volume 60 (number 2) (2010): pages 172–76. *Jonathan Sacks. ''Covenant & Conversation: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible: Exodus: The Book of Redemption'', pages 69–94. Jerusalem: Maggid Books, 2010. *Sam Ernst and Jim Dunn (writer), Jim Dunn. "A Tale of Two Audreys." In ''Haven (TV series), Haven'', season 2, episode 1. Entertainment One, 2011. (plagues plot element). *Katherine Low
“Implications Surrounding Girding the Loins in Light of Gender, Body, and Power.”
''Journal for the Study of the Old Testament'', volume 36 (number 1) (September 2011): pages 3–30. (). *Jeffrey Stackert
“Why Does the Plague of Darkness Last for Three Days? Source Ascription and Literary Motif in Exodus 10:21–23, 27.”
''Vetus Testamentum'', volume 61 (number 4) (2011): pages 657–76. *William G. Dever. ''The Lives of Ordinary People in Ancient Israel: When Archaeology and the Bible Intersect'', page 188. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2012.
*Shmuel Herzfeld. "Do Not Leave Your Doorway until the Morning." In ''Fifty-Four Pick Up: Fifteen-Minute Inspirational Torah Lessons'', pages 86–92. Jerusalem: Gefen Publishing House, 2012.
*''Torah MiEtzion: New Readings in Tanach: Shemot''. Edited by Ezra Bick and Yaakov Beasley, pages 109–55. Jerusalem: Maggid Books, 2012.
*Fernanda Santos. "Brooklyn Matzo Prebaked in an Arizona Field: A Safeguarded Grain Untouched by Rain or Other Moisture." ''The New York Times''. June 29, 2013. Page A1.
*Tibor Krausz"The divine confidence trick."
''The Jerusalem Report'', volume 25 (number 1) (April 21, 2014): page 47. *Michael Balinsky
"Passover Jews and Shavuot Jews: On Shavuot, we are all called to Mount Sinai to affirm our covenantal bond with God and our people."
''The Jerusalem Report'', volume 25 (number 5) (June 16, 2014): page 47. *Jonathan Sacks. ''Lessons in Leadership: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible'', pages 73–77. New Milford, Connecticut: Maggid Books, 2015. *David Fohrman. ''The Exodus You Almost Passed Over''. Aleph Beta Press, 2016. *Jean-Pierre Isbouts. ''Archaeology of the Bible: The Greatest Discoveries from Genesis to the Roman Era'', pages 105–07. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society, National Geographic, 2016. *“The Hittites: Between Tradition and History.” ''Biblical Archaeology Review'', volume 42 (number 2) (March/April 2016): pages 28–40, 68. *Jonathan Sacks. ''Essays on Ethics: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible'', pages 91–95. New Milford, Connecticut: Maggid Books, 2016. *Shai Held. ''The Heart of Torah, Volume 1: Essays on the Weekly Torah Portion: Genesis and Exodus'', pages 144–54. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2017. *James L. Kugel. ''The Great Shift: Encountering God in Biblical Times'', page 408. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2017. *Steven Levy and Sarah Levy. ''The JPS Rashi Discussion Torah Commentary'', pages 47–49. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2017. *Pekka Pitkänen
“Ancient Israelite Population Economy: Ger, Toshav, Nakhri and Karat as Settler Colonial Categories.”
''Journal for the Study of the Old Testament'', volume 42 (number 2) (December 2017): pages 139–53. *Bill Dauster
"Pharaoh’s Administration Offers a Cautionary Tale for Today."
''Washington Jewish Week''. January 11, 2018, page 19. *David L. Abramson
“Do you really believe in bashert?”
''Washington Jewish Week''. January 18, 2018, page 31. *Biblical Archaeology Society Staff
“Exodus in the Bible and the Egyptian Plagues: Can we make sense of the Biblical plagues?”
''Bible History Daily'', March 31, 2020.
External links
Texts
Commentaries
Academy for Jewish Religion, California
Chabad.org
Reconstructionist Judaism
{{DEFAULTSORT:Bo (Parsha) Weekly Torah readings in Shevat Weekly Torah readings from Exodus