Battle Of The Saintes
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The Battle of the Saintes (known to the French as the Bataille de la Dominique), also known as the Battle of Dominica, was an important naval battle in the Caribbean between the British and the French that took place 9–12 April 1782. The British victory was considered their greatest over the French during the
American Revolutionary War The American Revolutionary War (April 19, 1775 – September 3, 1783), also known as the Revolutionary War or American War of Independence, was a major war of the American Revolution. Widely considered as the war that secured the independence of t ...
. The British fleet under Admiral Sir
George Rodney Admiral George Brydges Rodney, 1st Baron Rodney, KB ( bap. 13 February 1718 – 24 May 1792), was a British naval officer. He is best known for his commands in the American War of Independence, particularly his victory over the French at th ...
defeated a French fleet under the
Comte de Grasse ''Comte'' is the French, Catalan and Occitan form of the word 'count' (Latin: ''comes''); ''comté'' is the Gallo-Romance form of the word 'county' (Latin: ''comitatus''). Comte or Comté may refer to: * A count in French, from Latin ''comes'' * A ...
, forcing the French and Spanish to abandon a planned invasion of
Jamaica Jamaica (; ) is an island country situated in the Caribbean Sea. Spanning in area, it is the third-largest island of the Greater Antilles and the Caribbean (after Cuba and Hispaniola). Jamaica lies about south of Cuba, and west of His ...
. The battle is named after the
Îles des Saintes The Îles des Saintes (; "Islands of the Female Saints"), also known as Les Saintes, is a group of small islands in the archipelago of Guadeloupe, an overseas department of France. It is part of the Canton of Trois-Rivières and is divided in ...
, a group of small islands between
Guadeloupe Guadeloupe (; ; gcf, label=Antillean Creole, Gwadloup, ) is an archipelago and overseas department and region of France in the Caribbean. It consists of six inhabited islands—Basse-Terre, Grande-Terre, Marie-Galante, La Désirade, and the ...
and
Dominica Dominica ( or ; Kalinago: ; french: Dominique; Dominican Creole French: ), officially the Commonwealth of Dominica, is an island country in the Caribbean. The capital, Roseau, is located on the western side of the island. It is geographically ...
in the
West Indies The West Indies is a subregion of North America, surrounded by the North Atlantic Ocean and the Caribbean Sea that includes 13 independent island countries and 18 dependencies and other territories in three major archipelagos: the Greater A ...
. The French had blockaded the
British Army The British Army is the principal land warfare force of the United Kingdom, a part of the British Armed Forces along with the Royal Navy and the Royal Air Force. , the British Army comprises 79,380 regular full-time personnel, 4,090 Gurk ...
at Chesapeake Bay the year before, during the
Siege of Yorktown The Siege of Yorktown, also known as the Battle of Yorktown, the surrender at Yorktown, or the German battle (from the presence of Germans in all three armies), beginning on September 28, 1781, and ending on October 19, 1781, at Yorktown, Virgi ...
, and supported the eventual American victory in their revolution. This battle, however, halted their momentum and had a significant effect on
peace negotiations A peace treaty is an agreement between two or more hostile parties, usually countries or governments, which formally ends a state of war between the parties. It is different from an armistice, which is an agreement to stop hostilities; a surre ...
to end the war. The French suffered heavy casualties at the Saintes and many were taken prisoner, including de Grasse. Four French
ships of the line A ship of the line was a type of naval warship constructed during the Age of Sail from the 17th century to the mid-19th century. The ship of the line was designed for the naval tactic known as the line of battle, which depended on the two colum ...
were captured (including the
flagship A flagship is a vessel used by the commanding officer of a group of naval ships, characteristically a flag officer entitled by custom to fly a distinguishing flag. Used more loosely, it is the lead ship in a fleet of vessels, typically the fi ...
) and one was destroyed. Rodney was credited with pioneering the tactic of "
breaking the line Breaking or breakin' may refer to: Arts * Breakdancing (also breaking), an athletic style of street dance * ''Breakin, a 1984 American breakdancing-themed musical film * "Breakin, a twelfth-season episode of the American animated television se ...
" in the battle, though this is disputed.


Background

In October 1781 Admiral Comte de Grasse, commander of the French fleet in the West Indies;
Francisco Saavedra de Sangronis Francisco Saavedra de Sangronis (1746–1819) was a Spanish government official and soldier whose work in Cuba during the American Revolutionary War laid the foundations for the defeat of British forces in Florida and at Yorktown. Early career ...
, General Bureau for the Spanish Indies; and
Bernardo de Gálvez Bernardo Vicente de Gálvez y Madrid, 1st Count of Gálvez (23 July 1746 – 30 November 1786) was a Spanish military leader and government official who served as colonial governor of Spanish Louisiana and Cuba, and later as Viceroy of New Sp ...
, court representative and aide to the Spanish
Governor of Louisiana A governor is an administrative leader and head of a polity or political region, ranking under the head of state and in some cases, such as governors-general, as the head of state's official representative. Depending on the type of political ...
, developed a plan against British forces. The strategic objectives of the Franco-Spanish military forces in the West Indies in this plan were: * to aid the Americans and defeat the British naval squadron at New York * to capture the British
Windward Islands french: Îles du Vent , image_name = , image_caption = ''Political'' Windward Islands. Clockwise: Dominica, Martinique, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, and Grenada. , image_alt = , locator_map = , location = Caribbean SeaNorth ...
and * to conquer Jamaica. This plan became known as the "De Grasse–Saavedra Convention." The first objective had been essentially met by the surrender of the British army under
General Cornwallis Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis, (31 December 1738 – 5 October 1805), styled Viscount Brome between 1753 and 1762 and known as the Earl Cornwallis between 1762 and 1792, was a British Army general and official. In the United S ...
at the Siege of Yorktown in September 1781. De Grasse and his fleet had played a decisive part in that victory, after which they returned to the Caribbean. On arrival in
Saint-Domingue Saint-Domingue () was a French colony in the western portion of the Caribbean island of Hispaniola, in the area of modern-day Haiti, from 1659 to 1804. The name derives from the Spanish main city in the island, Santo Domingo, which came to refer ...
in November 1781, the admiral was notified to proceed with a plan for the conquest of Jamaica. Jamaica was the largest and most profitable British island in the Caribbean, mainly because of sugar: it was more valuable to the British economy than all of the 13 American colonies.
King George III George III (George William Frederick; 4 June 173829 January 1820) was King of Great Britain and of Ireland from 25 October 1760 until the union of the two kingdoms on 1 January 1801, after which he was King of the United Kingdom of Great Br ...
wrote to
Lord Sandwich Earl of Sandwich is a noble title in the Peerage of England, held since its creation by the House of Montagu. It is nominally associated with Sandwich, Kent. It was created in 1660 for the prominent naval commander Admiral Sir Edward Montagu ...
, saying that he would protect Britain's important Caribbean islands at the risk of Britain herself, and this was the strategy implemented in 1779. Sugar made up 20% of all British imports and was worth five times as much as tobacco. The French and Spanish were fighting to take over Jamaica in order to expel the British from the West Indies, and to strike a massive blow against the British economy. The courts at Paris and Madrid perceived the invasion of Jamaica as an alternative to the Spanish and French attempts to take Gibraltar, which for two years had been a costly disaster. Whilst de Grasse waited for reinforcements to undertake the Jamaica campaign, he captured St. Kitts in February 1782. The rest of the Windward Islands—
Antigua Antigua ( ), also known as Waladli or Wadadli by the native population, is an island in the Lesser Antilles. It is one of the Leeward Islands in the Caribbean region and the main island of the country of Antigua and Barbuda. Antigua and Bar ...
,
St. Lucia Saint Lucia ( acf, Sent Lisi, french: Sainte-Lucie) is an island country of the West Indies in the eastern Caribbean. The island was previously called Iouanalao and later Hewanorra, names given by the native Arawaks and Caribs, two Amerin ...
, and
Barbados Barbados is an island country in the Lesser Antilles of the West Indies, in the Caribbean region of the Americas, and the most easterly of the Caribbean Islands. It occupies an area of and has a population of about 287,000 (2019 estimate). ...
—still remained under British control. Admiral George Rodney arrived in the Caribbean theatre the following month, bringing reinforcements. These included 17 ships of the line and gave the British a slight numerical advantage. On 7 April 1782, de Grasse set out from
Martinique Martinique ( , ; gcf, label=Martinican Creole, Matinik or ; Kalinago: or ) is an island and an overseas department/region and single territorial collectivity of France. An integral part of the French Republic, Martinique is located in th ...
with 35 ships of the line, including two 50-gun ships and a large convoy of more than 100 cargo ships, to meet with a Spanish fleet of 12 ships of the line. In addition de Grasse was to rendezvous with 15,000 troops at Saint Domingue, who were earmarked for the conquest and intended to land on Jamaica's north coast. Rodney, on learning of this, sailed from St. Lucia in pursuit with 36 ships of the line the following day. The British ships' hulls by this time had been given
copper sheathing Copper sheathing is the practice of protecting the under-water hull of a ship or boat from the corrosive effects of salt water and biofouling through the use of copper plates affixed to the outside of the hull. It was pioneered and developed by ...
to protect them from
marine growth Biofouling or biological fouling is the accumulation of microorganisms, plants, algae, or small animals where it is not wanted on surfaces such as ship and submarine hulls, devices such as water inlets, pipework, grates, ponds, and rivers that ...
,
fouling Fouling is the accumulation of unwanted material on solid surfaces. The fouling materials can consist of either living organisms (biofouling) or a non-living substance (inorganic or organic). Fouling is usually distinguished from other surf ...
, and saltwater corrosion, dramatically improving speed and overall sailing performance in good wind.


Opposing fleets and officers

The British flagship was HMS ''Formidable'' under Admiral Rodney. Second in command was Admiral Samuel Hood. and third was Vice Admiral
Francis Samuel Drake Sir Francis Samuel Drake, 1st Baronet (1729 – 19 October 1789) was an officer of the Royal Navy. He served during the Seven Years' War and the American War of Independence, rising to the rank of Rear-admiral of the Red. Family and the Seven ...
. As was the convention of the day, the fleet was split into three sections: Rodney had individual control as Admiral of the White of 12 ships flying the
White Ensign The White Ensign, at one time called the St George's Ensign due to the simultaneous existence of a cross-less version of the flag, is an ensign worn on British Royal Navy ships and shore establishments. It consists of a red St George's Cross on ...
; Drake had command of 12 ships as
Admiral of the Blue The Admiral of the Blue was a senior rank of the Royal Navy of the United Kingdom, immediately outranked by the rank Admiral of the White (see order of precedence below). From 1688 to 1805 this rank was in order of precedence third; after 1805 ...
flying the
Blue Ensign The Blue Ensign is a flag, one of several British ensigns, used by certain organisations or territories associated or formerly associated with the United Kingdom. It is used either plain or Defacement (flag), defaced with a Heraldic badge, ...
; and Hood was
Admiral of the Red The Admiral of the Red was a senior rank of the Royal Navy of the United Kingdom, immediately outranked by the rank Admiral of the Fleet (see order of precedence below). The rank did not exist prior to 1805, as the admiral commanding the Red ...
with 12 ships flying the Red Ensign. ''Formidable'' was accompanied by three 98-gun ships: HMS ''Barfleur'' (commanded by Hood), HMS ''Prince George'', and HMS ''Duke'', plus the 90-gun HMS ''Namur''. The remaining 31 ships were equipped with 64 to 74 guns. In total the British fleet had 2,620 guns compared to the French total of 2,526. Most of the British fleet was equipped with
carronade A carronade is a short, smoothbore, cast-iron cannon which was used by the Royal Navy. It was first produced by the Carron Company, an ironworks in Falkirk, Scotland, and was used from the mid-18th century to the mid-19th century. Its main func ...
s on the upper decks, which had a major advantage in flexibility and were a great advantage at close quarters. In March 1782 ''Formidable'' was stationed at Gros Islet Bay between the island of St. Lucia and Pigeon Island. She was under the command of Admiral Rodney, serving as his flagship at the head of 36 ships of the line. Meanwhile, French Admiral de Grasse headed 34 ships of the line at Fort Royal Bay in Martinique. Rodney had been dispatched from Britain with 12 well-fitted ships to rescue the West Indies from a series of attacks from the French, which had already resulted in the loss of several islands. They joined 24 ships on St. Lucia who had already seen action against the French and were undergoing repairs. The French had allies in the Spanish, who had 13 ships of the line at Cap‑Français on the island of San Domingo (Hispaniola). Together with transport ships, the Spanish had a considerable force of 24,000 men. They awaited the arrival of a further 10,000 French troops dispatched from
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, under escort of five men-of-war, to further boost their strength. The plan was for Grasse's fleet, with at least 5,000 further troops, to unite with the Spanish at Cap‑Français, and from there to attack and capture the island of Jamaica with their conjoined armada of some 60 ships and 40,000 troops. Rodney had been in communication with de Grasse during March, organising the exchange of prisoners, who were conveyed by HMS ''Alert'' under Captain Vashon. The two officers had much mutual respect. Rodney's task was to intercept the French fleet en route to Cap‑Français. Grasse's vice admiral at the time was
Louis-Philippe de Rigaud, Marquis de Vaudreuil Louis-Philippe de Rigaud, Marquis de Vaudreuil (18 April 1724 – 14 December 1802) was second in command of the French squadron off America during the American Revolutionary War. Biography Early life Louis-Philippe Rigaud de Vaudreuil was ...
. Third in command was
Louis Antoine de Bougainville Louis-Antoine, Comte de Bougainville (, , ; 12 November 1729 – August 1811) was a French admiral and explorer. A contemporary of the British explorer James Cook, he took part in the Seven Years' War in North America and the American Revolution ...
. The French flagship was the huge 104-gun ''Ville de Paris''. The troops were under the command of the Marquis de Bouillé. The French fleet was also split into three squadrons: Grasse led the "Cornette Blanche;" Bougainville led the "Escadre Bleue;" and Vaudreuil as a second-in-command flew the mixed white and blue colours of the "Blanche et Bleue." Other British commanders included Captain Lord Robert Manners of HMS ''Resolution'', Admiral
William Cornwallis Admiral of the Red Sir William Cornwallis, (10 February 17445 July 1819) was a Royal Navy officer. He was the brother of Charles Cornwallis, the 1st Marquess Cornwallis, British commander at the siege of Yorktown. Cornwallis took part in a n ...
in command of HMS ''Canada'', and HMS ''Monarch'' under the command of Captain Francis Reynolds. Other aristocrats present included Captain
Lord Cranstoun Lord Cranstoun was a title in the Peerage of Scotland. It was created on 17 November 1609 for Sir William Cranstoun of that Ilk, sometimes designated 'of Morristoun', Berwickshire. On the death of the eleventh lord, unmarried, in 1869, the peera ...
, a supernumerary onboard ''Formidable''. Sir Charles Douglas, a nephew of Charles Douglas, 3rd Duke of Queensberry, was
Captain of the Fleet In the Royal Navy of the 18th and 19th centuries a captain of the fleet could be appointed to assist an admiral when the admiral had ten or more ships to command. The equivalent post was called fleet captain in the U.S. Navy of the 18th and 19th ...
. Sir James Wallace was also present. Other commanders included Captains Blair, Buckner, Burnett, Charrington, Cornish, Dumaresq, Graves, Inglefield, Inglis, Knight, Parry, Saumarez, Savage, Symons, Truscott, Wilkinson, Williams, and Wilson. Frederick Thesiger, Acting Lieutenant on board ''Formidable'', was appointed as Rodney’s aide-de-camp shortly before the battle. A lookout squadron, a line of
frigate A frigate () is a type of warship. In different eras, the roles and capabilities of ships classified as frigates have varied somewhat. The name frigate in the 17th to early 18th centuries was given to any full-rigged ship built for speed and ...
s headed by Captain George Anson Byron on HMS ''Andromache'', reported all of de Grasse's movements at Fort Royal. This squadron included the speedy HMS ''Agamemnon'' and also HMS ''Magnificent''.


Pre-battle movements

On 3 April it was signalled that the repairs on the French fleet were complete. On 5 April it was reported that the French troops were boarding the ships. At 8:00 am on Sunday 8 April, it was reported that the French fleet were leaving Fort Royal. Rodney's fleet called all men to join their ships and they began leaving Gros Islet Bay at 10:30 am. The total French armada comprised 35 ships of the line, 10 frigates, and over 100 smaller ships. The smaller ships moved in advance of the men-of-war, heading for St. Pierre. Just past 4:00 pm Hood's ''Barfleur'', at the head of the British fleet, espied five sails ahead that she presumed to be part of the French fleet. These came into view of ''Formidable'' around two hours later, just before sunset. They pursued the French through the night. At 2:00 am on 9 April, HMS ''St Albans'' dropped alongside ''Formidable'', reporting that along with HMS ''Valiant'', she had located the French fleet in the darkness. Rodney rested for the remainder of the night. The sun rose at 5:30 am. The French fleet extended from six to 12 miles distant, navigating the waters between Dominica and Guadeloupe. The majority of the warships lay off Prince Rupert's Bay. Due to a
dead calm Death is the irreversible cessation of all biological functions that sustain an organism. For organisms with a brain, death can also be defined as the irreversible cessation of functioning of the whole brain, including brainstem, and brain ...
from 3:00 until 7:00 am, neither fleet could move. The initial wind only reached ''Barfleur'' and its eight support ships, causing them to detach ahead of the main fleet, which lay in the lee of Dominica. De Grasse saw the opportunity to cripple this advanced section and wheeled to begin the first attack.


Battle

On 9 April 1782 the copper-sheathed British fleet caught up with the French, who were surprised by their speed. Admiral de Grasse ordered the French convoy to head into Guadeloupe for repair, forcing him to escort two 50-gun ships (''Fier'' and ''Experiment''), and placing his fleet in
line of battle The line of battle is a tactic in naval warfare in which a fleet of ships forms a line end to end. The first example of its use as a tactic is disputed—it has been variously claimed for dates ranging from 1502 to 1652. Line-of-battle tacti ...
in order to cover the retreat.


First encounters

Hood's section of the fleet, headed by ''Barfleur'', braced for the first attack. As the first action, HMS ''Alfred'' taunted the 18 approaching French ships under de Vaudreuil by exposing her broadside to the approaching French, but without consequence. The British patiently awaited the formal signal from Rodney on ''Formidable'', some six miles behind, and eventually received a red flag signal telling them to "engage the enemy." As the wind rose around noon, it enabled most of the French fleet and part of the British fleet (including Rodney in ''Formidable'') to join the melee. At this point the French outnumbered the British two to one. Captain William Bayne on ''Alfred'' was killed during this action. After an inconclusive encounter during which both sides suffered damage, de Grasse realised that the remainder of the British fleet would soon be upon them and broke off the engagement to withdraw a safe distance. De Grasse moved his ships to the Saintes Islands to the north (south of Guadeloupe). Meanwhile, Rodney reversed the order of his line to bring Drake's hitherto undamaged ships to the front, and allow Hood to undertake repairs in the rear lines. On 10 April the French began 10 miles distant but did not turn to engage, instead continuing on their original course, and by nightfall had increased their separation to 15 miles. This appears to be partly due to the incorrect presumption on Rodney's part that the French were going to turn to engage. On Wednesday 11 April two French ships, and ''Magnanime'', who had accidentally collided and fallen behind the main French fleet, came into view around noon. Rodney decided that attacking these two ships would cause de Grasse to return to protect them, which worked: a large section of the French fleet turned to protect the pair. These movements were executed without any physical attacks.


Main engagement

On 12 April the French were ranged from six to 12 miles distant and were not in formation, as the two fleets manoeuvred between the northern end of Dominica and the Saintes in the Saintes Passage. The unfortunate ''Zélé'' had had a second collision during the night with one of its rescuers, ''Ville de Paris'', and was now being towed to
Basse-Terre Basse-Terre (, ; ; gcf, label=Guadeloupean Creole, Bastè, ) is a commune in the French overseas department of Guadeloupe, in the Lesser Antilles. It is also the ''prefecture'' (capital city) of Guadeloupe. The city of Basse-Terre is located ...
in Guadeloupe by ''Astrée'' with General de Bouillé on board. They were chased by four British ships: ''Monarch'', ''Valiant'', HMS ''Centaur'' and HMS ''Belliqueux''. De Grasse made for Guadeloupe and bore up with his fleet to protect the ship. At the same time, Rodney recalled his chasing ships and made the signal for line of battle. Rear Admiral Hood's van division were still making repairs from the action three days earlier, so he directed his rear division, under Rear Admiral Drake, to take the lead. At 7:40, under Captain
Taylor Penny Captain Taylor Penny (1721–1786) was an 18th-century officer of the Royal Navy who came to fame at the Battle of the Saintes. Life He was born in Weymouth in Dorset in 1721, probably into a seafaring family. He was commissioned as a lie ...
led the British line and opened battle when she approached the centre of the French line. Having remained parallel with the French, the ships of Drake's division passed the remaining length of de Grasse's line and the two sides exchanged
broadside Broadside or broadsides may refer to: Naval * Broadside (naval), terminology for the side of a ship, the battery of cannon on one side of a warship, or their near simultaneous fire on naval warfare Printing and literature * Broadside (comic ...
s, a typical naval engagement of the time.


Initial attack

''Marlborough'' headed the British attack. As the battle progressed, the strong winds of the previous day and night began to temper and became more variable. As the French line passed down the British line, the sudden shift of wind let Rodney's flagship ''Formidable'' and several other ships, including ''Duke'' and , sail toward the French line. At 8:00 am ''Formidable'' raised the red flag to permit ''Marlborough'' to open fire and engage the French. At this point ''Marlborough'' was opposite ''Dauphin Royal'', who received her full broadside. Sixteen ships in line separated ''Marlborough'' from ''Formidable'' and each stood 200 metres apart. As each circled past the French, they fired a broadside against them. Second, behind ''Marlborough'', was HMS ''Arrogant'', who had been recently re-equipped and managed three broadsides against one from the French as they passed. Third in line was HMS ''Alcide'' under Captain Charles Thomson. Then followed HMS ''Nonsuch'' under Captain Truscott, and then HMS ''Conqueror'' under Captain George Balfour. Next in line was Admiral Drake on HMS ''Princessa'', who was in command of the first 12 vessels, and was followed by ''Prince George'' under Captain Williams. Then came the 100-year-old HMS ''Torbay'' under Captain Keppel and the year-old HMS ''Anson'' under Captain William Blair on the main deck, who was struck by round shot at waist level and sliced in two. The blue squadron was then completed by HMS ''Fame'' and HMS ''Russell'' under Captain
James Saumarez Admiral of the Red James Saumarez, 1st Baron de Saumarez (or Sausmarez), GCB (11 March 1757 – 9 October 1836) was an admiral of the British Royal Navy, known for his victory at the Second Battle of Algeciras. Early life Saumarez was b ...
. The white squadron under Rodney followed in exact formation after the blue. This was headed by HMS ''America'' under Captain Thompson. HMS ''Hercules'' under Captain Henry Savage followed. Then came HMS ''Prothee'' under Captain Buckner and ''Resolution'' under Captain Robert Manners. The 24-year-old Manners was the first casualty on his ship and was severely injured in both legs and right arm, dying later of these wounds. ''Resolution'' was followed by ''Duke'' under Captain Alan Gardner. As ''Formidable'' was in the centre of the British line, it took her almost an hour to reach the centre of the action. All ships had to maintain a steady speed, and as she passed de Grasse's flagship, the 104-gun ''Ville de Paris'', the two met for the first time. ''Ville de Paris'' was already damaged by the 15 ships ahead of ''Formidable'' in the line. Although it was a sunny day, the smoke of the battle was like a dense fog. ''Formidable'' entered the smoke and approached ''Ville de Paris'' at 8:40 am. The countermovement of the fleets brought a series of ships opposite ''Formidable'' in sequence behind ''Ville de Paris'', movements that brought about a different pairing of enemies every five minutes. Next was ''Couronne'', followed by ''Éveillé'' under Le Gardeur de Tilly, and then ''Sceptre'' under the command of de Vaudreuil.


Breaking the line

Within an hour, the wind had shifted to the south, forcing the French line to separate and bear to the west, as it could not hold its course into the wind. This allowed the British to use guns on both sides of their ships without fear of return fire from the front and rear of the French ships, between which they were passing. The effect was greater using the carronades, with which the British had just equipped nearly half their fleet. This relatively new short-range weapon was quicker to reload and more of them could be carried. , under command of Captain des Cars, moving in the wake of ''Ville de Paris'', was the next victim. Virtually a sitting duck due to damage in the previous 10 minutes from ''Duke'', she was quickly pounded and dismasted by intense fire. In the confusion four French ships beginning with ''Diadem'' broke out of sequence, partly due to the uncontrollable speed of the mastless ''Glorieux''. ''Formidable'' turned to starboard and brought her port guns to bear on them. As a result ''Formidable'' sailed through the gap, breaking the French line. This breach was further followed through by five other British ships. The breach was later recorded by Charles Dashwood, who was a midshipman on ''Formidable'' on that day. Although the concept of "breaking the line" was born here, it is logically of mixed blessings, since in breaking the enemy line, one breaks one's own line. Whilst the movement has the advantage that guns can be fired on both port and starboard sides, it also exposes the ship to attack on both sides. The advantage in this instance was that many of the French gunners left their post, in fear of ''Formidables three tiers of guns bearing down on them. ''Diadem'' appears to have fully withdrawn from the battle at this stage, and many presumed her to be sunk. ''Formidable'' was followed by ''Namur'' under Captain Fanshawe and then ''St Albans'' under Captain Inglis. These were followed by the deadly ''Canada'' under Captain
William Cornwallis Admiral of the Red Sir William Cornwallis, (10 February 17445 July 1819) was a Royal Navy officer. He was the brother of Charles Cornwallis, the 1st Marquess Cornwallis, British commander at the siege of Yorktown. Cornwallis took part in a n ...
, HMS ''Repulse'' under Captain Thomas Dumaresq, and HMS ''Ajax'' under Captain Nicholas Charrington. Each of these fired further upon the hapless and already crippled ''Glorieux''. Simultaneously, and because of the smoke, Commodore Edmund Affleck on ''Bedford'', the hindmost ship of the central white squadron, accidentally sailed through the confused French line, between ''César'' and ''Hector'', only to discover this error when no enemy lay on his starboard side in the clearing smoke. ''Bedford'' was followed by Hood's red squadron and this broke the French line into three sections. In the confusion the two leading ships of the rear red squadron, HMS ''Prince William'' and ''Magnificent'', had somehow passed ''Bedford'', who was now third in line within the red squadron and completely detached from her own white squadron. The whole red squadron then passed between ''César'' and ''Hector'', causing each to be crippled. The final ship of the red squadron, HMS ''Royal Oak'', passed the stern of ''César'' and delivered a final blow a few minutes after 11:00 am. Both fleets then drifted apart for some time and became temporarily becalmed. Around noon, both fleets observed that the waters were teeming with sharks attracted by the noise and blood. French casualties were greatly increased due to the high number of troops packed onto the lower decks: a minimum of 900 per ship and no fewer than 1,300 on ''Ville de Paris''. In order to lessen the confusion, the French had been throwing the dead (and perhaps the near-dead) overboard, a rich feast for the sharks.


French retreat

The French now lay totally to the
leeward Windward () and leeward () are terms used to describe the direction of the wind. Windward is ''upwind'' from the point of reference, i.e. towards the direction from which the wind is coming; leeward is ''downwind'' from the point of reference ...
of the British fleet, which stood between them and their destination. They had little option on the re-emergence of the wind but to sail west with it and attempt escape. At 1:00 pm the frigate ''Richemont'', under the command of Captain De Mortemart, but with
Denis Decrès Denis Decrès (18 June 1761 – 7 December 1820) was an officer of the French Navy and count, later duke of the First Empire. Early career Decrès was born in Châteauvillain, Haute-Marne on 18 June 1761 and joined the Navy at the age of 18, ...
in charge of the marines, was sent to join a towing cable to the heavily crippled ''Glorieux''. ''Souverain'' moved alongside to provide covering fire. However, the British, with both wind and cannon-power in their favour, moved a number of ships up to block this movement. The captain of ''Glorieux'' was already dead, and the ship was now under command of the senior officer remaining, Lieutenant Trogoff de Kerlessi. ''Souverain'' and ''Richmond'' retreated under heavy fire, and Kerlessi had little choice but to tear the flag from the mast and surrender, which was done to ''Royal Oak''. Captain Burnett used this opportunity to restock his depleted powder supplies. Meanwhile, ''Monarch'' stood alongside ''Andromache'', who was acting as a supply ship to the British fleet; 40 barrels of powder were exchanged. In the next action, around 1:30 pm, ''Centaur'' and ''Bedford'' attacked the stricken ''César'', captained by Bernard de Marigny, who refused to surrender and was seriously wounded in the first five minutes. Command then fell to his Captain Paul. With their formation shattered and many of their ships severely damaged, the French fell away to the southwest in small groups. Rodney attempted to redeploy and make repairs before pursuing the French. By 2:00 pm the wind had freshened and a general chase ensued. As the British pressed south, ''Ardent''. After taking possession of ''Glorieux'', they caught up with the French rear at around 3:00 pm. Admiral de Grasse signalled other ships to protect ''Ville de Paris'', but this was only partially fulfilled. Nine ships from de Vaudreuil's squadron came to his aid. The British fleet bore down on this small group. In succession Rodney's ships isolated the other three ships. ''César'', which was soon totally dismasted and in flames, was captured by ''Centaur''. Soon after 5:00 pm, ''Hector'', having been flanked by ''Canada'' and ''Alcide'', soon became a completely dismasted wreck. Following the mortal wounding of his captain, De la Vicomte, his first lieutenant De Beaumanoir, lowered the ship's flag and surrendered to ''Alcide''. Bougainville, who commanded , had ordered eight ships of his own division to aid ''Ville de Paris'', but only ''Ardent'' had proceeded. Her isolation caused her to be flanked by ''Belliqueux'' and ''Prince William'', soon leading to her capture. At 5:30 pm de Grasse's ''Ville de Paris'' stood practically alone and had ''Barfleur'' in close pursuit, with ''Formidable'' close behind. Five ships from de Vaudreuil's squadron were trying to protect her, but none in close formation. These were ''Triomphant'' (de Vaudreuil's flagship), ''Bourgogne'' (under De La Charette), ''Magnifique'' (Macarty Macteigue), ''Pluton'' (De Rions), and ''Marseillais'' (De Castellane-Majastre). Three ships from de Grasse's squadron also still remained: ''Languedoc'', ''Couronne'' and ''Sceptre''. De Grasse's closest protector, ''Couronne'', moved away at the approach of ''Canada'', who began the final attack on ''Ville de Paris''. With little support and suffering huge losses in men, de Grasse made another attempt to signal the fleet and gave the order "to build the line on the starboard
tack TACK is a group of archaea acronym for Thaumarchaeota (now Nitrososphaerota), Aigarchaeota, Crenarchaeota (now Thermoproteota), and Korarchaeota, the first groups discovered. They are found in different environments ranging from acidophilic the ...
," but again this was not done. By this time, most of the French fleet, apart from those ships that were surrounded, had retreated.


End of the battle

''Canada'' swept past ''Ville de Paris'', doing damage to the spars and slowing her further. HMS ''Russell'' under Captain Saumarez then moved diagonally along the stern of the flagship and fired a broadside that ripped the entire length of the ship. ''Russell'' then moved to the leeward side to hamper the ship's retreat, whilst ''Barfleur'' moved onto the opposite side. ''Languedoc'' attempted to approach and give aid but was beaten back by ''Duke''. ''Ville de Paris'' was in desperate condition, with all masts damaged, the rudder shot away, and at least 300 men dead or injured in the cockpit. Around 6:00 pm, overwhelmed and suffering terrible losses, ''Ville de Paris'' eventually struck her colours, signaling surrender. Hood approached on ''Barfleur'', which de Grasse had indicated was his preferred method of surrender. In an ungentlemanly act, Hood ordered one final broadside at close quarters, when de Grasse had already indicated surrender. The boarding crew, which included the British fleet surgeon
Gilbert Blane Sir Gilbert Blane of Blanefield, 1st Baronet FRSE FRS MRCP (29 August 174926 June 1834) was a Scottish physician who instituted health reform in the Royal Navy. He saw action against both the French and Spanish fleets, and later served as a C ...
, were horrified at the carnage. Admiral de Grasse appeared not to have a scratch on him, whilst every one of his officers had either been killed or wounded; only three men were unwounded. Rodney boarded soon after, and Hood presented de Grasse to him. With his surrender, the battle had effectively ended, except for a few long-range desultory shots and the retreat of many of the French ships in disorder. The gallantry of William Cornwallis of ''Canada'' (younger brother of
Charles Cornwallis Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis, (31 December 1738 – 5 October 1805), styled Viscount Brome between 1753 and 1762 and known as the Earl Cornwallis between 1762 and 1792, was a British Army general and official. In the United S ...
) gained the admiration of the whole fleet. One officer noted that he was "like Hector, as if emulous to revenge his brothers cause." The Marquis de Vaudreuil, seeing de Grasse's fate through his telescope, took command of the remaining scattered French naval fleet. On 13 April he had 10 ships with him and sailed toward Cap-Français. Rodney signaled his fleet not to pursue the remaining ships. The battle was thus over. Later that night around 9:00 pm, fire broke out on ''César'', begun by the entrapped French crew on the lower decks, who had broken into the liquor stores. By 10:30 pm the fire was out of control and the
magazine A magazine is a periodical publication, generally published on a regular schedule (often weekly or monthly), containing a variety of content. They are generally financed by advertising, purchase price, prepaid subscriptions, or by a combinatio ...
exploded, killing more than 400 French and 58 British sailors, plus the lieutenant in charge, all from ''Centaur''. Many men jumped overboard trying to avoid the conflagration, only to fall victim to the sharks below. Captain Marigny, who had been confined to his cabin, was one of the many killed, and none of the British prize crew survived. File:Barnard's History of England - Rodney accepts the surrender of deGrasse(crop).jpg, A 1785 engraving of de Grasse surrendering to Rodney. File:Fin du César-Dumoulin-IMG 5478.JPG, ''The End of the César'' by
François Aimé Louis Dumoulin François Aimé Louis Dumoulin (10 August 1753 in Vevey – 16 February 1834 in Vevey) was a Swiss painter and engraver. Biography Although he received some education in technical drawing, Dumoulin was initially intended for a commercial c ...
File:French Captive Ships 12 April 1782.jpg, Captured French ships after the battle by
Dominic Serres Dominic Serres (1722–1793), also known as Dominic Serres the Elder, was a French-born painter strongly associated with the English school of painting, and with paintings with a naval or marine theme. Such were his connections with the Engli ...


Casualties

The British lost 243 killed and 816 wounded, and two captains out of 36 were killed, whilst no ships were lost. The highest casualties were on ''Duke'', with 73 killed or wounded, including the death of Lieutenant Rowland de Cerjat. The total French casualties have never been stated, but six captains out of 30 were killed. In terms of soldiers and sailors, estimates range from 3,000 killed or wounded and 5,000 captured, to as many as around 3,000 dead, 6,000 wounded, and 6,000 captured. In addition to several French ships captured, others were severely damaged. The high number of casualties demonstrates the considerable force the French committed to achieve the invasion of Jamaica. Of ''Ville de Paris''s crew alone, over 400 were killed and more than 700 were wounded—more than the casualties of the entire British fleet. De Grasse—the first French admiral in history to be captured by an enemy—was sent to England, where he was
parole Parole (also known as provisional release or supervised release) is a form of early release of a prison inmate where the prisoner agrees to abide by certain behavioral conditions, including checking-in with their designated parole officers, or ...
d.


Aftermath

Rodney's failure to follow up the victory by a pursuit was criticised. Samuel Hood said that the 20 French ships would have been captured had Rodney maintained the chase. In 1899 the
Navy Records Society The Navy Records Society was established in 1893 as a scholarly text publication society to publish historical documents relating to the history of the Royal Navy. Professor Sir John Knox Laughton and Admiral Sir Cyprian Bridge were the key lea ...
published the ''Dispatches and Letters Relating to the Blockading of Brest''. In the introduction, they include a small biography of William Cornwallis. A poem purportedly written by him includes the lines: On 17 April Hood was sent in pursuit of the French, and promptly captured two 64-gun ships of the line ( ''Jason'' and ) and two smaller warships in the
Battle of the Mona Passage The Battle of the Mona Passage was a naval engagement on 19 April 1782 taking place in the aftermath of the Battle of the Saintes between Britain and France during the American Revolutionary War. A British fleet under Rear-Admiral Sir Samuel Hoo ...
on 19 April. Following this victory, Hood rendezvoused with Rodney at
Port Royal Port Royal is a village located at the end of the Palisadoes, at the mouth of Kingston Harbour, in southeastern Jamaica. Founded in 1494 by the Spanish, it was once the largest city in the Caribbean, functioning as the centre of shipping and co ...
on 29 April. As a result of the damage the fleet had sustained in battle, repairs took nine weeks. Soon after the defeat, the French fleet reached Cap-François in several waves. The main contingent, under de Vaudreuil, arrived on 25 April. ''Marseillais'', along with ''Hercule'', and ''Éveillé'', arrived on 11 May. In May all 26 French ships from the battle arrived from Martinique and were soon joined by 12 Spanish ships. Disease struck the French forces, in particular the soldiers, of whom thousands died. The allies' hesitation and indecision soon led them to abandon plans to attack Jamaica. Instead the French and Spanish focused on protecting their own territories. Jamaica remained a British colony, as indeed did Barbados and Antigua. Disaster struck the British months after the battle when Admiral Graves was leading a fleet back to England that included the French prizes from the battle. The fleet encountered the 1782 Central Atlantic hurricane in September, which hit off
Newfoundland Newfoundland and Labrador (; french: Terre-Neuve-et-Labrador; frequently abbreviated as NL) is the easternmost province of Canada, in the country's Atlantic region. The province comprises the island of Newfoundland and the continental region ...
. ''Glorieux'', ''Hector'' and ''Ville de Paris'', along with other ships, foundered or sank with heavy loss of life.


Reactions

News of the battle reached France in June and was met with despair. The defeat along with the loss of ''Ville de Paris'' was a devastating blow to French king
Louis XVI Louis XVI (''Louis-Auguste''; ; 23 August 175421 January 1793) was the last King of France before the fall of the monarchy during the French Revolution. He was referred to as ''Citizen Louis Capet'' during the four months just before he was ...
. The navy minister, the Marquis de Castries, greeted the news as "a grim disaster." The Comte de Vergennes felt undermined in the confidence of the French navy. All blame lay on the Comte de Grasse, whilst he himself sought long to clear his name. He blamed his subordinates de Vaudreuil and Bougainville for the defeat, but an infuriated Louis bluntly told de Grasse to retire. The battle had repercussions for France's finances: the monetary loss was huge. On '' Ville de Paris'' alone, 36 chests of money worth at least £500,000 were found, this being payment for the troops. During the first four years of the war, the French navy had lost four ships of the line (three of them to accidents), whereas during 1782 it would lose 15 ships of the line, nearly half of these in April alone. The losses of these ships were significant. Nevertheless, Louis promised to build more ships after new taxes were levied. The French finance minister, Jean-François Joly de Fleury, successfully secured the addition of a Vingtième income tax, the third and last one of its kind in the
ancien regime ''Ancien'' may refer to * the French word for "ancient, old" ** Société des anciens textes français * the French for "former, senior" ** Virelai ancien ** Ancien Régime ** Ancien Régime in France ''Ancien'' may refer to * the French word fo ...
. There was widespread celebration in Britain upon news of the victory. In the newspaper ''Cumberland Pacquet'' it was noted, "A joy unknown for years past seemed to spread itself amongst all ranks of people." On his return Rodney was feted as a hero, and a number of cartoons and caricatures were created to commemorate the victory. He presented the Comte de Grasse personally to King George III as a prisoner, and was created a peer with £2,000 a year settled on the title in perpetuity. A number of paintings were commissioned to celebrate his victory, notably by
Thomas Gainsborough Thomas Gainsborough (14 May 1727 (baptised) – 2 August 1788) was an English portrait and landscape painter, draughtsman, and printmaker. Along with his rival Sir Joshua Reynolds, he is considered one of the most important British artists of ...
and
Joshua Reynolds Sir Joshua Reynolds (16 July 1723 – 23 February 1792) was an English painter, specialising in portraits. John Russell said he was one of the major European painters of the 18th century. He promoted the "Grand Style" in painting which depend ...
. Hood was also elevated to the peerage, whilst Drake and Affleck were made
baronet A baronet ( or ; abbreviated Bart or Bt) or the female equivalent, a baronetess (, , or ; abbreviation Btss), is the holder of a baronetcy, a hereditary title awarded by the British Crown. The title of baronet is mentioned as early as the 14th ...
s.


Impact on peace negotiations

Following the Franco-American victory at Yorktown six months earlier and the change of Government in England, peace negotiations in Paris had begun among Britain, the American colonies, France, and Spain in early 1782. The battle had a significant effect on those talks when news arrived of its outcome in June. The result of the Battle of the Saintes transferred the strategic initiative to the British, whose dominance at sea was reasserted. News of the defeat reached the Americans, who soon realised they were unlikely to have much French support in the future. American General
Nathanael Greene Nathanael Greene (June 19, 1786, sometimes misspelled Nathaniel) was a major general of the Continental Army in the American Revolutionary War. He emerged from the war with a reputation as General George Washington's most talented and dependabl ...
had high hopes of French assistance in the recapture of Charleston, but the defeat led to its abandonment. No longer humbled, the British stiffened their resolve: they objected to American claims on the Newfoundland fisheries and
Canada Canada is a country in North America. Its ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean, covering over , making it the world's second-largest country by tot ...
. As a result the American negotiators led by
John Jay John Jay (December 12, 1745 – May 17, 1829) was an American statesman, patriot, diplomat, abolitionist, signatory of the Treaty of Paris, and a Founding Father of the United States. He served as the second governor of New York and the first ...
became more amenable. Not only did they drop their minimum demands and insist on the single precondition of recognition of their independence, they also put forward America's abandonment of its commitment to make no separate peace treaty without the French. The victory at the Saintes thus signaled a collapse in the Franco-American alliance. Despite this the battle did not affect the overall outcome of the American Revolution. De Castries urged Spain to join the French to send another armada against the British West Indies. On the theory of this victory, it would win bargaining power to force Britain's acceptance of American independence. Vergennes, however, was desperate for peace, and time was running out: France was approaching the limits of its ability to borrow money. France had also promised not to make peace with England until Spain had achieved its principal goal of conquering Gibraltar. By October this attempt had been defeated: a huge Spanish attempt in September was repelled with heavy losses, following which
Richard Howe Admiral of the Fleet Richard Howe, 1st Earl Howe, (8 March 1726 – 5 August 1799) was a British naval officer. After serving throughout the War of the Austrian Succession, he gained a reputation for his role in amphibious operations aga ...
, with a large naval convoy, then relieved the garrison. As a result Vergennes demanded that Spain give up its claim on Gibraltar to make peace, to which the latter acquiesced. The Comte de Grasse, who was a high-profile prisoner in Britain, was used to exchange messages of peace between Great Britain and France. A preliminary peace treaty between Great Britain and the United States was signed on 30 November 1782. Thus, with the Americans split from their allies, peace was signed with France and Spain in January 1783. Initial articles of peace were signed in July, following by a full treaty in September 1783. Owing to their military successes in 1782, the peace treaties that brought the war to an end were less disadvantageous for Britain than had been anticipated.


Impact on naval tactics

Superior British seamanship and gunnery ruled the day in what is considered the greatest naval victory for the British over the French during the American Revolutionary War. The battle is famous for the innovative British tactic of "breaking the line," in which the British ships passed through a gap in the French line, engaging the enemy from leeward and throwing them into disorder. Arguably the battle was not the first time a line had been broken: Dano–Norwegian
admiral Admiral is one of the highest ranks in some navies. In the Commonwealth nations and the United States, a "full" admiral is equivalent to a "full" general in the army or the air force, and is above vice admiral and below admiral of the fleet, ...
Niels Juel Niels Juel (8 May 1629 – 8 April 1697) was a Danish admiral and a naval hero. He served as supreme command of the Dano-Norwegian Navy The history of the Danish navy began with the founding of a joint Dano-Norwegian navy on 10 August 1510, ...
had done this in the Battle of Køge Bay more than one hundred years earlier; and even earlier the
Dutch Dutch commonly refers to: * Something of, from, or related to the Netherlands * Dutch people () * Dutch language () Dutch may also refer to: Places * Dutch, West Virginia, a community in the United States * Pennsylvania Dutch Country People E ...
admiral
Michiel de Ruyter Michiel Adriaenszoon de Ruyter (; 24 March 1607 – 29 April 1676) was a Dutch admiral. Widely celebrated and regarded as one of the most skilled admirals in history, De Ruyter is arguably most famous for his achievements with the Dutch N ...
had used it for the first time in the last day of the
Four Days' Battle The Four Days' Battle, also known as the Four Days' Fight in some English sources and as Vierdaagse Zeeslag in Dutch, was a naval battle of the Second Anglo-Dutch War. Fought from 1 June to 4 June 1666 in the Julian or Old Style calendar that ...
in 1666 (and again in the
Battle of Schooneveld The Battles of Schooneveld were two naval battles of the Franco-Dutch War, fought off the coast of the Netherlands on 7 June and 14 June 1673 (New Style; 28 May and 4 June in the Julian calendar then in use in England) between an allied Angl ...
and the
Battle of Texel The naval Battle of Texel or Battle of Kijkduin took place off the southern coast of island of Texel on 21 August 1673 (11 August Old Style, O.S.) between the Dutch Republic, Dutch and the combined Kingdom of England, English and Kingdom of Fra ...
of 1673). Historians disagree about whether the tactic was intentional or made possible by weather. If intentional, who should receive credit is ambiguous: Rodney, his Scottish Captain-of-the-Fleet and aide-de-camp,
Sir Charles Douglas Charles Douglas may refer to: * Charles Douglas, 3rd Duke of Queensberry (1698–1778), Scottish nobleman * Charles Douglas, 6th Marquess of Queensberry (1777–1837), Scottish peer * Charles Douglas, 5th Lord Mordington 18th-century Scottish peer ...
, or
John Clerk of Eldin John Clerk of Eldin FRSE FSAScot (10 December 1728 – 10 May 1812) was a Scottish merchant, naval author, artist, geologist and landowner. The 7th son of Sir John Clerk of Penicuik, Bt, Clerk of Eldin was a figure in the Scottish Enlightenm ...
. As a result of the battle, British naval tactics changed. The old method had involved the attacking fleet spreading itself along the entire enemy line. In the five formal fleet actions involving the Royal Navy between the Battle of the Saintes and the
Battle of Trafalgar The Battle of Trafalgar (21 October 1805) was a naval engagement between the British Royal Navy and the combined fleets of the French and Spanish Navies during the War of the Third Coalition (August–December 1805) of the Napoleonic Wars (180 ...
, all were victories for the British and achieved by the creation of localised numerical superiority.


Monuments

A huge ornate monument to the three captains lost in the battle—William Blair, William Bayne and Robert Manners—was erected to their memory in
Westminster Abbey Westminster Abbey, formally titled the Collegiate Church of Saint Peter at Westminster, is an historic, mainly Gothic church in the City of Westminster, London, England, just to the west of the Palace of Westminster. It is one of the United ...
. The 25 feet high marble monument by
Joseph Nollekens Joseph Nollekens R.A. (11 August 1737 – 23 April 1823) was a sculptor from London generally considered to be the finest British sculptor of the late 18th century. Life Nollekens was born on 11 August 1737 at 28 Dean Street, Soho, London, ...
was completed in 1793. It consists of a figure of Fame standing on a column which has relief portraits of the captains attached, above figures of
Britannia Britannia () is the national personification of Britain as a helmeted female warrior holding a trident and shield. An image first used in classical antiquity, the Latin ''Britannia'' was the name variously applied to the British Isles, Great ...
and a lion opposite figures of
Neptune Neptune is the eighth planet from the Sun and the farthest known planet in the Solar System. It is the fourth-largest planet in the Solar System by diameter, the third-most-massive planet, and the densest giant planet. It is 17 times ...
and a sea horse. A monument in
Spanish Town Spanish Town ( jam, label=Jamaican Creole, Panish Tong) is the capital and the largest town in the parish of St. Catherine in the historic county of Middlesex, Jamaica. It was the Spanish and British capital of Jamaica from 1534 until 1872. Th ...
, Jamaica, was created to honour Admiral Rodney's role in the battle. It was created by the sculptor John Bacon in 1801. Two of the ''Ville de Paris'' guns flank Rodney's statue. File:3 Captains monument in Westminster Abbey.jpg , The Three Captains monument, Westminster Abbey File:The Three Captains monument, Westminster Abbey 04.jpg , Detail of the Three Captains monument, Westminster Abbey File:Rodney monument.jpg, Rodney monument in Spanish Town, Jamaica


Order of battle


Britain


France

Not in line: Frigates ''Richemont'' (
Mortemart Mortemart (; oc, Mòrtamar) is a Communes of France, commune in the Haute-Vienne Departments of France, department in the Nouvelle-Aquitaine Regions of France, region in west-central France. See also *Communes of the Haute-Vienne department Ref ...
); ''Amazone'' (Ensign Bourgarel de Martignan, acting captain replacing Montguyot); ''Aimable'' (Lieutenant de Suzannet); ''Galathée'' (Lieutenant de Roquart); corvette ''Cérès'' (Lieutenant de Paroy); and cutter ''Clairvoyant'' (Ensign de Daché); cutter ''Pandour'' ( Grasse-Limermont).


In popular culture

The battle is the subject of the title track on ''
No Grave But the Sea ''No Grave But the Sea'' is the fifth studio album by Scottish heavy metal band Alestorm, released on 26 May 2017. It's the band's first album to feature guitarist Máté Bodor since the departure of Dani Evans in 2015. Track listing A bonus d ...
,'' the 2017 album by the Scottish "
pirate metal Pirate metal is a style of heavy metal music characterized by its incorporation of pirate mythology within the music and sometimes in stage performances. Lyrics often use piratical jargon and various musical genres, such as thrash metal, speed ...
" band Alestorm. The lyrics mention de Grasse, the British ships ''Duke'' and ''Bedford'', and the tactic of "breaking the line." The battle was the climax of the first written Richard Bolitho novel by Alexander Kent. The battle is featured in ''Le Dernier Panache'', a show in the
Puy du Fou Puy du Fou () is a historical theme park in Les Epesses in the Pays de la Loire region of western France. It receives more than 2 million visitors every year, making it one of the most popular theme parks in France. In 2019 and 2020, it is the fo ...
, wherein the show's main character,
François de Charette François Athanase de Charette de la Contrie (2 May 1763 – 29 March 1796) was a Franco-Breton Royalist soldier and politician. He served in the French Navy during the American Revolutionary War and was one of the leaders of the Revolt in the V ...
, fights in the Battle of the Saintes. In the show and in reality he fought the battle as a lieutenant de vaisseau. In the verse epic ''
Omeros ' is an epic poem by Saint Lucian writer Derek Walcott, first published in 1990. The work is divided into seven "books" containing a total of sixty-four chapters. Many critics view ''Omeros'' as Walcott's finest work. In 2022, it was included ...
'' by Nobel-prize-winning poet
Derek Walcott Sir Derek Alton Walcott (23 January 1930 – 17 March 2017) was a Saint Lucian poet and playwright. He received the 1992 Nobel Prize in Literature. His works include the Homeric epic poem ''Omeros'' (1990), which many critics view "as Walcot ...
, which is set largely on
St. Lucia Saint Lucia ( acf, Sent Lisi, french: Sainte-Lucie) is an island country of the West Indies in the eastern Caribbean. The island was previously called Iouanalao and later Hewanorra, names given by the native Arawaks and Caribs, two Amerin ...
, the retired British officer Major Plunkett is researching the battle. Two chapters tell the story of his namesake Midshipman Plunkett, who dies in the battle.


References


Footnotes


Citations


Bibliography

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Playfair, John (1822). "On the Naval Tactics of the Late John Clerk, Esq. of Eldin." ''The Works of John Playfair'', Vol. III * * * * * * * * * * *


Further reading

*


External links

* * {{DEFAULTSORT:Saintes, Battle of the Naval battles of the Anglo-French War (1778–1783) Naval battles of the American Revolutionary War Naval battles of the American Revolutionary War involving France Naval battles of the American Revolutionary War involving Spain Naval battles involving France Naval battles involving Great Britain History of British Dominica Wars involving Dominica Conflicts in 1782 1782 in the Caribbean History of Îles des Saintes American Revolutionary War orders of battle