sh) and other proprietary Unix shells.
Since its inception, Bash has gained widespread adoption and is commonly used as the default sh). Other features, e.g., history, are copied from the csh), and the ksh). It is a History
While Bash was developed for UNIX and UNIX-like operating systems, such as GNU/Linux, it is also available on Android, macOS, Windows, and numerous other current and historical operating systems. "Although there have been attempts to create specialized shells, the Bourne shell derivatives continue to be the primary shells in use."Timeline
Features
List of short descriptions
As a command processor, Bash can operate in two modes, interactive and non-interactive. In interactive mode, commands are read from a terminal, prompting the user to enter commands. In non-interactive mode, commands are read from named files (known asinfo bash, and a technical manual available as man bash.
* A &&), OR (, , ), and NOT (!);
*** if and case compound commands;
** while, until, and select loop compound commands;
*** arithmetic (C-style) and list-enumerating for loop compound commands; and
*** continue, break, return, and exit flow control commands;
* Built in commands for testing file attributes, comparing string and integer values, etc.:
** Traditional test command,
** Traditional single bracket test: /code>,
** Modern double bracket test: [[ ... ]], which includes advanced features:
*** Extended regular expression and extglob matching
*** Lexicographic comparisons with < and >;
** (( ... )) numeric evaluation and testing; this includes almost all "C" language operators for arithmetic and numeric comparison;
* UNIX
Unix (, ; trademarked as UNIX) is a family of multitasking, multi-user computer operating systems that derive from the original AT&T Unix, whose development started in 1969 at the Bell Labs research center by Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, a ...
-style pipelines
A pipeline is a system of pipes for long-distance transportation of a liquid or gas, typically to a market area for consumption. The latest data from 2014 gives a total of slightly less than of pipeline in 120 countries around the world. The Un ...
">;
* Subshells: ( ... );
* Command substitutions: $( ... );
* Arithmetic substitutions: $(( ... ));
* Signaling as a means of Jobs and Job control (Unix)">job control:
** job_spec & where job_spec can be one of:
*** A simple or compound command; or
*** A job control identifier as denoted by a leading percent symbol: %1 &;
* A shell # (hash) to the end of the same line;
** Commands are parsed one line at a time:
*** Control structures are honored, and
*** Backslash \ escapes are also honored at the ends of lines;
** Split into words (i.e., word splitting) according to String literal">quoting rules,
*** Including ANSI-C quoting $'...';
** Seven kinds of expansions are performed in the following order on the resulting string:
*** (Step 1) Brace expansion kernel,
*** (Step 2) Tilde expansion ~,
*** (Step 3) In a left-to-right fashion:
**** Parameter
A parameter (), generally, is any characteristic that can help in defining or classifying a particular system (meaning an event, project, object, situation, etc.). That is, a parameter is an element of a system that is useful, or critical, when ...$foo or $, including
***** declare -A, and
***** Expansion syntaxes which can perform some tasks more quickly than external utilities, including, among others:
****** Pattern Substitution
******* $ for sed 's/x/y/g',
****** Remove Matching Prefix or Suffix Pattern
******* $ for cut -c8-,
****** Enumerate Array Keys
******* $, and
****** Display Error if Null or Unset
******* $,
**** $( ... ),
**** Process substitution, <() or >(), when a system supports it:
**** Arithmetic expansion, (( ... )) or $(( ... )), including
***** Integer bc and awk, among others),
*** (Step 4) Word splitting (again),
*** (Step 5) Pathname expansion, i.e., shell-style globbing and *, ?, ../code>, and
**** (Although they can be used in conjunction, the use of brackets in pattern matching, ../code>, and the use of brackets in the testing commands, Quote removal;
** Redirection (computing)">Redirections of Standard Input, Standard Output and Standard Error Standard streams">data streams are performed, including
*** File writing, >, and appending, >>,
*** Here documents, <<,
*** Here strings, <<<, which allow parameters to be used as input, and
*** A redirection operator, >, , which can force overwriting of a file when a shell's noclobber setting is enabled;
** Command name lookup is performed, in the following order:
*** Commands internal to the shell
Shell may refer to:
Architecture and design
* Shell (structure), a thin structure
** Concrete shell, a thin shell of concrete, usually with no interior columns or exterior buttresses
Science Biology
* Seashell, a hard outer layer of a marine ani ...
:
**** Shell aliases,
**** Shell reserved words,
**** Shell functions, and
**** Shell built-in commands;
*** Commands external to the shell:
**** Separate UNIX
Unix (, ; trademarked as UNIX) is a family of multitasking, multi-user computer operating systems that derive from the original AT&T Unix, whose development started in 1969 at the Bell Labs research center by Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, a ...
-style programs such as ls or ln, and
**** Shell script
A shell script is a computer program designed to be run by a Unix shell, a command-line interpreter. The various dialects of shell scripts are considered to be command languages. Typical operations performed by shell scripts include file manipu ...
s, which are files containing executable commands. (Shell scripts do not require compilation before execution and, when certain requirements are met, can be invoked as commands by using their filename.)
** The resulting string is executed as a command.
Bash also offers...
* Configurable execution environment(s):
** Shell and session startup files such as ~/.bashrc and ~/.profile (i.e., dotfiles);
** Settings (set built-in) and shell options (shopt built-in) which alter shell behavior;
* Support for Unicode
Unicode or ''The Unicode Standard'' or TUS is a character encoding standard maintained by the Unicode Consortium designed to support the use of text in all of the world's writing systems that can be digitized. Version 16.0 defines 154,998 Char ...
;
* With interactive invocation only,
** Unlimited size command history
Command history is a feature in many operating system shells, computer algebra programs, and other software that allows the user to recall, edit and rerun previous commands.
Command line history was added to Unix in Bill Joy's C shell of 1978; ...
,
** A directory stack (see pushd and popd built-ins),
** Tab completion
Command-line completion (also tab completion) is a common feature of command-line interpreters, in which the program automatically fills in partially typed commands.
Command line interpreters are programs that allow a user to interact with the u ...
,
** Configurable prompts, and
** Command line editing with GNU readline
GNU Readline is a software library that provides in-line editing and history capabilities for interactive programs with a command-line interface, such as GNU bash, Bash. It is currently maintained by Chet Ramey as part of the GNU Project.
It allo ...
;
* Lightweight logging
Logging is the process of cutting, processing, and moving trees to a location for transport. It may include skidder, skidding, on-site processing, and loading of trees or trunk (botany), logs onto logging truck, trucksdebugging
In engineering, debugging is the process of finding the Root cause analysis, root cause, workarounds, and possible fixes for bug (engineering), bugs.
For software, debugging tactics can involve interactive debugging, control flow analysis, Logf ...
purposes (xtrace), and other lightweight debugging options (errexit, noexec, nounset, pipefail, etc.);
* Shell compatibility mode
A compatibility mode is a software mechanism in which a software either emulates an older version of software, or mimics another operating system in order to allow older or incompatible software or files to remain compatible with the computer's n ...
s: bash 5.1 can operate as if it were bash 4.2, etc.;
* Various Built-In Commands:
** cd
** pwd
* Documentation:
** A built-in help command.
** A man page
A man page (short for manual page) is a form of software documentation found on Unix and Unix-like operating systems. Topics covered include programs, system libraries, system calls, and sometimes local system details. The local host administr ...
, and
** An info page which is the same as the GNU manual;
* Informal avenues of support via:
** IRC at libera.chat #bash
** Mailing lists a
Bash
- GNU Project - Free Software Foundation
General discussion
The Bash command
Command may refer to:
Computing
* Command (computing), a statement in a computer language
* command (Unix), a Unix command
* COMMAND.COM, the default operating system shell and command-line interpreter for DOS
* Command key, a modifier key on A ...
syntax is a superset
In mathematics, a set ''A'' is a subset of a set ''B'' if all elements of ''A'' are also elements of ''B''; ''B'' is then a superset of ''A''. It is possible for ''A'' and ''B'' to be equal; if they are unequal, then ''A'' is a proper subset ...
of the Bourne shell command syntax. Bash supports brace expansion, command line completion (Programmable Completion), basic debugging and signal handling (using trap) since bash 2.05a among other features. Bash can execute the vast majority of Bourne shell scripts without modification, with the exception of Bourne shell scripts stumbling into fringe syntax behavior interpreted differently in Bash or attempting to run a system command matching a newer Bash builtin, etc. Bash command syntax includes ideas drawn from the Korn Shell
KornShell (ksh) is a Unix shell which was developed by David Korn at Bell Labs in the early 1980s and announced at USENIX on July 14, 1983. The initial development was based on Bourne shell source code. Other early contributors were Bell ...
(ksh) and the C shell
The C shell (csh or the improved version, tcsh) is a Unix shell created by Bill Joy while he was a graduate student at University of California, Berkeley in the late 1970s. It has been widely distributed, beginning with the 2BSD release of the ...
(csh) such as command line editing, command history
Command history is a feature in many operating system shells, computer algebra programs, and other software that allows the user to recall, edit and rerun previous commands.
Command line history was added to Unix in Bill Joy's C shell of 1978; ...
(history command), the directory stack, the $RANDOM and $PPID variables, and POSIX command substitution
In computing, command substitution is a facility that allows a Command-line interpreter, command to be run and its output to be pasted back on the command line as arguments to another command. Command substitution first appeared in the Bourne she ...
syntax $(...).
When a user presses the tab key
The tab key (abbreviation of tabulator key or tabular key) on a keyboard is used to advance the cursor to the next tab stop.
History
The word ''tab'' derives from the word ''tabulate'', which means "to arrange data in a tabular, or table, ...
within an interactive command-shell, Bash automatically uses command line completion, since beta version 2.04, to match partly typed program names, filenames and variable names. The Bash command-line completion system is very flexible and customizable, and is often packaged with functions that complete arguments and filenames for specific programs and tasks.
Bash's syntax has many extensions lacking in the Bourne shell. Bash can perform integer calculations ("arithmetic evaluation") without spawning external processes. It uses the ((...)) command and the $((...)) variable syntax for this purpose. Its syntax simplifies I/O redirection. For example, it can redirect standard output (stdout) and standard error
The standard error (SE) of a statistic (usually an estimator of a parameter, like the average or mean) is the standard deviation of its sampling distribution or an estimate of that standard deviation. In other words, it is the standard deviati ...
(stderr) at the same time using the &> operator. This is simpler to type than the Bourne shell equivalent 'command > file 2>&1'. Bash supports process substitution using the <(command) and >(command)syntax, which substitutes the output of (or input to) a command where a filename is normally used. (This is implemented through ''/proc/fd/'' unnamed pipes on systems that support that, or via temporary named pipes where necessary).
When using the 'function' keyword, Bash function declarations are not compatible with Bourne/Korn/POSIX scripts (the KornShell has the same problem when using 'function'), but Bash accepts the same function declaration syntax as the Bourne and Korn shells, and is POSIX-conformant. Because of these and other differences, Bash shell scripts are rarely runnable under the Bourne or Korn shell interpreters unless deliberately written with that compatibility in mind, which is becoming less common as Linux becomes more widespread. But in POSIX mode, Bash conforms with POSIX more closely.
Bash supports here document
In computing, a here document (here-document, here-text, heredoc, hereis, here-string or here-script) is a file literal or input stream literal: it is a section of a source code file that is treated as if it were a separate file. The term is also ...
s. Since version 2.05b Bash can redirect standard input
In computer programming, standard streams are preconnected input and output communication channels between a computer program and its environment when it begins execution. The three input/output (I/O) connections are called standard input (stdin), ...
(stdin) from a "here string" using the <<< operator.
Bash 3.0 supports in-process regular expression
A regular expression (shortened as regex or regexp), sometimes referred to as rational expression, is a sequence of characters that specifies a match pattern in text. Usually such patterns are used by string-searching algorithms for "find" ...
matching using a syntax reminiscent of Perl
Perl is a high-level, general-purpose, interpreted, dynamic programming language. Though Perl is not officially an acronym, there are various backronyms in use, including "Practical Extraction and Reporting Language".
Perl was developed ...
.
In February 2009, Bash 4.0 introduced support for associative arrays
In computer science, an associative array, key-value store, map, symbol table, or dictionary is an abstract data type that stores a collection of (key, value) pairs, such that each possible key appears at most once in the collection. In math ...
. Associative array indices are strings, in a manner similar to AWK or Tcl
TCL or Tcl or TCLs may refer to:
Business
* TCL Technology, a Chinese consumer electronics and appliance company
** TCL Electronics, a subsidiary of TCL Technology
* Texas Collegiate League, a collegiate baseball league
* Trade Centre Limited ...
. They can be used to emulate multidimensional arrays. Bash 4 also switches its license to GPL-3.0-or-later.
Bash supplies "conditional execution" command separators that make execution of a command contingent on the exit code set by a precedent command. For example:
cd "$SOMEWHERE" && ./do_something , , echo "An error occurred" >&2
Where is only executed if the (change directory) command was "successful" (returned an exit status of zero) and the command would only be executed if either the or the command return an "error" (non-zero exit status).
For all commands the exit status is stored in the special variable $?. Bash also supports and forms of conditional command evaluation.
Process management (a.k.a., "job control")
The Bash shell has two modes of execution for commands: batch (asynchronous), and concurrent (synchronous).
To execute commands in batch mode (i.e., in sequence) they must be separated by the character ";", or on separate lines:
command1; command2
command3
In this example, when command1 is finished, command2 is executed, and when command2 has completed, command3 will execute.
A background execution of command1 can occur using (symbol &) at the end of an execution command, and process will be executed in background while immediately returning control to the shell and allowing continued execution of commands.
command1 &
Or to have a concurrent execution of command1 and command2, they must be executed in the Bash shell in the following way:
command1 & command2
In this case command1 is executed in the background ''&'' symbol, returning immediately control to the shell that executes command2 in the foreground.
A process can be stopped and control returned to bash by typing while the process is running in the foreground.
A list of all processes, both in the background and stopped, can be achieved by running jobs:
$ jobs
Running command1 &
Stopped command2
In the output, the number in brackets refers to the job id. The plus sign signifies the default process for bg and fg. The text "Running" and "Stopped" refer to the process state
In a multitasking computer system, processes may occupy a variety of states. These distinct states may not be recognized as such by the operating system kernel. However, they are a useful abstraction for the understanding of processes.
Prim ...
. The last string is the command that started the process.
The state of a process can be changed using various commands. The fg command brings a process to the foreground, while bg sets a stopped process running in the background. bg and fg can take a job id as their first argument, to specify the process to act on. Without one, they use the default process, identified by a plus sign in the output of jobs. The kill
Kill often refers to:
*Homicide, one human killing another
*cause death, to kill a living organism, to cause its death
Other common uses include:
*Kill (body of water), a body of water, most commonly a creek
*Kill (command), a computing command
*K ...
command can be used to end a process prematurely, by sending it a signal
A signal is both the process and the result of transmission of data over some media accomplished by embedding some variation. Signals are important in multiple subject fields including signal processing, information theory and biology.
In ...
. The job id must be specified after a percent sign:
kill %1
Portability with POSIX
Invoking Bash with the --posix option or stating set -o posix in a script causes Bash to conform very closely with the POSIX 1003.2 standard. Bash shell scripts intended for portability should take into account at least the POSIX shell standard. Some bash features not found in POSIX are:
* Certain extended invocation options
* Brace expansion
* Arrays and associative arrays
* The double bracket extended test construct and its regex matching
* The double-parentheses arithmetic-evaluation construct (only ; is POSIX)
* Certain string-manipulation operations in parameter expansion
* for scoped variables
* Process substitution
* Bash-specific builtins
* Coprocess
In computer science, a coprocess is a process that explicitly yields control to other processes or the operating system.
In Unix, a coprocess is a process that sends its output solely to the exact single process from which it solely received input ...
es
* $EPOCHSECONDS and $EPOCHREALTIME variables
If a piece of code uses such a feature, it is called a "bashism" – a problem for portable use. Debian's and Vidar Holen's can be used to make sure that a script does not contain these parts. The list varies depending on the actual target shell: Debian's policy allows some extensions in their scripts (as they are in the dash
The dash is a punctuation mark consisting of a long horizontal line. It is similar in appearance to the hyphen but is longer and sometimes higher from the baseline. The most common versions are the endash , generally longer than the hyphen ...
shell), while a script intending to support pre-POSIX Bourne shells, like autoconf
GNU Autoconf is a software development tool for generating a configure script that in turn generates files for building a codebase and for packaging or installing the resulting files. Autoconf is part of the GNU Build System along with Autom ...
's , are even more limited in the features they can use.
Brace Expansion
Brace expansion, also called alternation, is a feature copied from the C shell
The C shell (csh or the improved version, tcsh) is a Unix shell created by Bill Joy while he was a graduate student at University of California, Berkeley in the late 1970s. It has been widely distributed, beginning with the 2BSD release of the ...
. It generates a set of alternative combinations. Generated results need not exist as files. The results of each expanded string are not sorted and left to right order is preserved:
$ echo ae
ape ace ade abe
$ echo
ad ae af bd be bf cd ce cf
Users should not use brace expansions in portable shell scripts, because the Bourne shell
The Bourne shell (sh) is a shell command-line interpreter for computer operating systems. It first appeared on Version 7 Unix, as its default shell. Unix-like systems continue to have /bin/sh—which will be the Bourne shell, or a symbolic lin ...
does not produce the same output.
$ # bash shell
$/bin/bash -c 'echo ae'
ape ace ade abe
$ # A traditional shell does not produce the same output
$ /bin/sh -c 'echo ae'
ae
When brace expansion is combined with wildcards, the braces are expanded first, and then the resulting wildcards are substituted normally. Hence, a listing of JPEG and PNG images in the current directory could be obtained using:
ls *. # expands to *.jpg *.jpeg *.png – after which,
# the wildcards are processed
echo *. # echo just shows the expansions –
# and braces in braces are possible.
In addition to alternation, brace expansion can be used for sequential ranges between two integers or characters separated by double dots. Newer versions of Bash allow a third integer to specify the increment.
$ echo
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
$ echo
01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10
$ echo file.txt
file1.txt file2.txt file3.txt file4.txt
$ echo
a b c d e
$ echo
1 4 7 10
$ echo
a d g j
When brace expansion is combined with variable expansion (A.K.A. ''parameter expansion'' and ''parameter substitution'') the variable expansion is performed ''after'' the brace expansion, which in some cases may necessitate the use of the eval built-in, thus:
$ start=1; end=10
$ echo # fails to expand due to the evaluation order
$ eval echo # variable expansion occurs then resulting string is evaluated
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Configurable execution environment(s)
Shell and session startup Files (a.k.a., "dot files")
When Bash starts, it executes the commands in a variety of dot files. Unlike Bash shell scripts, dot files do typically have neither the execute permission enabled nor an interpreter directive
An interpreter directive is a computer language construct, that on some systems is better described as an aspect of the system's executable file format, that is used to control which interpreter parses and interprets the instructions in a compute ...
like #!/bin/bash.
= Legacy-compatible Bash startup example
=
The example ~/.bash_profile below is compatible with the Bourne shell and gives semantics similar to csh for the ~/.bashrc and ~/.bash_login. The -r ''filename'' && cmd is a short-circuit evaluation
Short-circuit evaluation, minimal evaluation, or McCarthy evaluation (after John McCarthy) is the semantics of some Boolean operators in some programming languages in which the second argument is executed or evaluated only if the first argumen ...
that tests if ''filename'' exists and is readable, skipping the part after the && if it is not.
-r ~/.profile &&. ~/.profile # set up environment, once, Bourne-sh syntax only
if -n "$PS1" then # are we interactive?
-r ~/.bashrc &&. ~/.bashrc # tty/prompt/function setup for interactive shells
-r ~/.bash_login &&. ~/.bash_login # any at-login tasks for login shell only
fi # End of "if" block
= Operating system issues in Bash startup
=
Some versions of Unix
Unix (, ; trademarked as UNIX) is a family of multitasking, multi-user computer operating systems that derive from the original AT&T Unix, whose development started in 1969 at the Bell Labs research center by Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, a ...
and Linux
Linux ( ) is a family of open source Unix-like operating systems based on the Linux kernel, an kernel (operating system), operating system kernel first released on September 17, 1991, by Linus Torvalds. Linux is typically package manager, pac ...
contain Bash system startup scripts, generally under the /etc directory. Bash executes these files as part of its standard initialization, but other startup files can read them in a different order than the documented Bash startup sequence. The default content of the root user's files may also have issues, as well as the skeleton files the system provides to new user accounts upon setup. The startup scripts that launch the X window system
The X Window System (X11, or simply X) is a windowing system for bitmap displays, common on Unix-like operating systems.
X originated as part of Project Athena at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1984. The X protocol has been at ...
may also do surprising things with the user's Bash startup scripts in an attempt to set up user-environment variables before launching the window manager
A window manager is system software that controls the placement and appearance of window (computing), windows within a windowing system in a graphical user interface. Most window managers are designed to help provide a desktop environment. They ...
. These issues can often be addressed using a ~/.xsession or ~/.xprofile file to read the ~/.profile — which provides the environment variables that Bash shell windows spawned from the window manager need, such as xterm
xterm is the standard terminal emulator for the X Window System. It allows users to run programs which require a command-line interface.
If no particular program is specified, xterm runs the user's Unix shell, shell. An X display device, dis ...
or Gnome Terminal.
Settings and shell options
= The set built-in
=
* Xtrace: set -o xtrace The shell's primary means of debugging. Both xtrace and verbose can be turned off at the same time with the command set -.
* Verbose: set -o verbose Prints a command to the terminal as Bash reads it. Bash reads constructs all at once, such as compound commands which include if-fi and case-esac blocks. If a set -v is included within a compound command, then "verbose" will be enabled the next time Bash reads code as input, i.e., after the end of the currently executing construct. Both xtrace and verbose can be turned off at the same time with the command set -.
= The shopt built-in
=
* expand-aliases
On by default in interactive shells. Some developers discourage its use in scripts.
Programmable completion
Bash supports programmable completion via built-in complete, , and compgen commands. The feature has been available since the beta version of 2.04 released in 2000. These commands enable complex and intelligent completion specification for commands (i.e. installed programs), functions, variables, and filenames.
The complete and two commands specify how arguments of some available commands or options are going to be listed in the readline input. As of version 5.1 completion of the command or the option is usually activated by the keystroke after typing its name.
Keyboard shortcuts with Readline
Bash uses GNU Readline
GNU Readline is a software library that provides in-line editing and history capabilities for interactive programs with a command-line interface, such as GNU bash, Bash. It is currently maintained by Chet Ramey as part of the GNU Project.
It allo ...
to provide keyboard shortcuts for command line editing using the default (Emacs
Emacs (), originally named EMACS (an acronym for "Editor Macros"), is a family of text editors that are characterized by their extensibility. The manual for the most widely used variant, GNU Emacs, describes it as "the extensible, customizable, s ...
) key bindings. Vi-binding
Arrow keys or cursor movement keys are keys on a computer keyboard that are either programmed or designated to move the cursor (computers), cursor in a specified direction.
The term "cursor movement key" is distinct from "arrow key" in that th ...
s can be enabled by running set -o vi.
Documentation
As the standard upon which bash is based, the POSIX Standard, or IEEE Std 1003.1, et seq, is especially informative.
The Linux "man page" is intended to be the authoritative explanatory technical document for the understanding of how bash operates. It is usually available by running man bash.
The GN
manual
is sometimes considered more user-friendly for reading. "You may also find information about Bash by running info bash ... or by looking at /usr/share/doc/bash/, /usr/local/share/doc/bash/, or similar directories on your system. A brief summary is available by running bash --help.
" If a user invoke RUNCOM without any arguments it prints some instructions on how to use it and stops, returning the user to the supervisor's (system's) command line.( RUNCOM)"
On modern Linuxes, information on shell built-in commands can be found by executing help, help uilt-in name/code> or man builtins at a terminal prompt where bash is installed. Some commands, such as echo, false, kill, printf, test or true, depending on your system and on your locally installed version of bash, can refer to either a shell built-in or a system binary executable file. When one of these command name collisions occurs, bash will by default execute a given command line using the shell built-in. Specifying a binary executable's absolute path (i.e., /bin/printf) is one way of ensuring that the shell uses a system binary. This name collision issue also effects any "help summaries" viewed with kill --help and /bin/kill --help. Shell built-ins and system binary executable files of the same name often have differing options.
"The project maintainer also has a Bash page which includes Frequently Asked Questions", this FAQ is current as of bash version 5.1 and is no longer updated.
Security and vulnerabilities
Root scripts
Running any shell scripts as the root user has, for years, been widely criticized as poor security practice. One commonly given reason is that, when a script is executed as root, the negative effects of any bugs in a script would be magnified by root's elevated privileges.
One common example: a script contains the command, rm -rf $/, but the variable $dir is left undefined. In Linux, if the script was executed by a regular user, the shell would attempt to execute the command rm -rf / as a regular user, and the command would fail. However, if the script was executed by the root user, then the command would likely succeed and the filesystem would be erased.
It is recommended to use sudo on a per-command basis instead.
Debugging
* Shell features specified by POSIX
The Portable Operating System Interface (POSIX; ) is a family of standards specified by the IEEE Computer Society for maintaining compatibility between operating systems. POSIX defines application programming interfaces (APIs), along with comm ...
:
** Parameter Expansions:
** Special Parameters:
** Special Built-In Utility :
** Special Built-In Utility :
** Utility : a means of reliably printing the contents of a variable:
* Bash features not specified by POSIX:
** Bash Variables:
** Shell Builtin :
** Shell Builtin :
** Shell Builtin : While POSIX does specify certain uses of the builtin, the following signal specs are Bash extensions.
* Third party debugging utilities:
** ShellCheck: Shell script analysis tool;
** devscripts-checkbashisms: Check whether a /bin/sh script contains any common bash-specific constructs;
** kcov: Code coverage tool without special compilation options;Kcov - code coverage
/ref>
** Bashdb: The Bash symbolic debugger.
Examples
With the parameter expansion, an unset or null variable can halt a script.
* ex.sh
*:
#!/bin/bash
bar="foo is not defined"
echo "$"
echo this message doesn't print
*:
$ ./ex.sh
./ex.sh: line 3: foo: foo is not defined
Reliably printing the contents of an array that contains spaces and newlines first in a portable syntax, and then the same thing in Bash. Note that POSIX doesn't have named array, only the list of arguments, "$@", which can be re-set by the set builtin.
:
$ # In POSIX shell:
$ set -- "a" " b" "
> c "
$ printf ',%s,\n' "$@"
,a,
, b,
,
c,
Note that in Bash, the number of spaces before the newline is made clear.
:
$ # In Bash:
$ array=( "a" " b" "
> c " )
$ declare -p array
declare -a array=( "a" " b" $' \n c ')
Printing an error message when there's a problem.
* error.sh
*:
if ! lsblk , grep sdb
then
echo Error, line $LINENO
fi
*:
$ ./error.sh
Error, line 130
Using xtrace. If errexit had been enabled, then would not have been executed.
* test.sh
*:
#!/bin/bash
set -x
foo=bar; echo $foo
false
echo quux
*:
$ ./test.sh
+ foo=bar
+ echo bar
bar
+ false
+ echo quux
quux
Deprecated syntax
* Back-tick style command substitutions: `...` is deprecated in favor of $(...);
* Use of -a or -o in test/ /code>/[ -r ./file -a ! -l ./file /code> is deprecated in favor of [ -r ./file ] && ! [ -l ./file ];
* Use of the arithmetic syntax $ ../code> is deprecated in favor of $((...)) or ((...)), as appropriate;
* Use of ^ as a pipeline is deprecated in favor of , ;
* Any uses of expr or let.
Shellshock
In September 2014, a security bug
A security bug or security defect is a software bug that can be exploited to gain unauthorized access or privileges on a computer system. Security bugs introduce security vulnerabilities by compromising one or more of:
* Authentication of users ...
was discovered in the program. It was dubbed " Shellshock." Public disclosure quickly led to a range of attacks across the Internet
The Internet (or internet) is the Global network, global system of interconnected computer networks that uses the Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to communicate between networks and devices. It is a internetworking, network of networks ...
.
Exploitation of the vulnerability could enable arbitrary code execution
In computer security, arbitrary code execution (ACE) is an attacker's ability to run any commands or code of the attacker's choice on a target machine or in a target process. An arbitrary code execution vulnerability is a security flaw in softwa ...
in CGI scripts executable by certain versions of Bash. The bug involved how Bash passed function definitions to subshells through environment variable
An environment variable is a user-definable value that can affect the way running processes will behave on a computer. Environment variables are part of the environment in which a process runs. For example, a running process can query the va ...
s. The bug had been present in the source code
In computing, source code, or simply code or source, is a plain text computer program written in a programming language. A programmer writes the human readable source code to control the behavior of a computer.
Since a computer, at base, only ...
since August 1989 (version 1.03) and was patched in September 2014 (version 4.3).
Patches to fix the bugs were made available soon after the bugs were identified. Upgrading to a current version is strongly advised.
It was assigned the Common Vulnerability identifiers , among others. Under CVSS Metrics 2.x and 3.x, the bug is regarded as "high" and "critical", respectively.
Bug reporting
An external command called ''bashbug'' reports Bash shell bugs. When the command is invoked, it brings up the user's default editor with a form to fill in. The form is mailed to the Bash maintainers (or optionally to other email addresses).
See also
* Comparison of command shells
This article catalogs comparable aspects of notable operating system shell (computing), shells.
General characteristics
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, -
...
* , exec_com: the first command processor.
Unix shells
* Almquist shell (ash)
* Bourne shell (sh)
* BusyBox
BusyBox is a software suite that provides several List of Unix commands, Unix utilities in a single executable file. It runs in a variety of POSIX environments such as Linux, Android (operating system), Android, and FreeBSD, although many of the ...
* C shell (csh)
* Debian-Almquist Shell (dash)
* Fish shell: Friendly Interactive Shell
* Google Shell (goosh) – a UNIX-like front-end for Google Search.
* Korn shell (ksh), of which there are numerous variations.
* nsh – "A command-line shell like fish, but POSIX compatible"; available on Arch.
* osh – "Oil Shell is a Bash-compatible UNIX command-line shell"; available on Arch.
* Mashey or Programmer's Workbench shell
* Qshell for IBM i
* rc from Plan 9
* RUNCOM
* rush – Restricted User Shell, available on Debian.
* Stand-alone shell (sash)
* scsh – The Scheme Shell.
* TENEX C shell (tcsh)
* Thompson shell (tsh)
* Toybox
Toybox is a free and open-source software implementation of over 200 Unix command line utilities such as '' ls'', '' cp'', and '' mv''. The Toybox project was started in 2006, and became a 0BSD licensed BusyBox alternative. Toybox is used for m ...
* yash – Yet Another Shell, aims "to be the most POSIX-compliant shell in the world"; available on Arch.
* Z shell (zsh)
Further reading
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References
{{DEFAULTSORT:Bash (Unix Shell)
1989 software
Cross-platform free software
Domain-specific programming languages
Dynamically scoped programming languages
Free software programmed in C
GNU Project software
Scripting languages
Text-oriented programming languages
Unix shells