![Liuhe Pagoda](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2b/Liuhe_Pagoda.jpg)
The architecture of the Song dynasty (960–1279) was noted for its towering
Buddhist
Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and ...
pagodas
A pagoda is an Asian tiered tower with multiple eaves common to Nepal, India, China, Japan, Korea, Myanmar, Vietnam, and other parts of Asia. Most pagodas were built to have a religious function, most often Buddhist but sometimes Taoist, ...
, enormous stone and wooden bridges, lavish tombs, and extravagant palaces. Although literary works on architecture existed beforehand, architectural writing blossomed during the
Song dynasty
The Song dynasty (; ; 960–1279) was an imperial dynasty of China that began in 960 and lasted until 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song following his usurpation of the throne of the Later Zhou. The Song conquered the rest ...
, maturing into a more professional form that described dimensions and working materials in a concise, organized manner. In addition to the examples still standing, depictions in
Song artwork,
architectural drawings, and illustrations in published books all aid modern historians in understanding the architecture of the period.
The professions of
architect
An architect is a person who plans, designs and oversees the construction of buildings. To practice architecture means to provide services in connection with the design of buildings and the space within the site surrounding the buildings that h ...
,
master craftsman
Historically, a master craftsman or master tradesman (sometimes called only master or grandmaster) was a member of a guild. The title survives as the highest professional qualification in craft industries.
In the European guild system, only mas ...
,
carpenter
Carpentry is a skilled trade and a craft in which the primary work performed is the cutting, shaping and installation of building materials during the construction of buildings, Shipbuilding, ships, timber bridges, concrete formwork, etc. ...
, and
structural engineer
Structural engineers analyze, design, plan, and research structural components and structural systems to achieve design goals and ensure the safety and comfort of users or occupants. Their work takes account mainly of safety, technical, economic ...
did not have the high status of the
Confucian
Confucianism, also known as Ruism or Ru classicism, is a system of thought and behavior originating in ancient China. Variously described as tradition, a philosophy, a Religious Confucianism, religion, a humanistic or rationalistic religion, ...
scholar-officials during the dynastic era. Architectural knowledge had been passed down orally for thousands of years, usually from craftsman fathers to their sons. There were also government agencies and schools for construction, building, and engineering. The Song dynasty's building manuals aided not only the various private workshops, but also the craftsmen employed by the central government.
City and palace
![MET DP165840](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/MET_DP165840.jpg)
The layout of ancient Chinese capitals, such as
Bianjing
Kaifeng () is a prefecture-level city in east-central Henan province, China. It is one of the Eight Ancient Capitals of China, having been the capital eight times in history, and is best known for having been the Chinese capital during the Nort ...
, capital of the
Northern Song
Northern may refer to the following:
Geography
* North, a point in direction
* Northern Europe, the northern part or region of Europe
* Northern Highland, a region of Wisconsin, United States
* Northern Province, Sri Lanka
* Northern Range, a r ...
, followed the guidelines in ''
Kao Gong Ji
The ''Kao Gong ji'' (考工记), translated variously as the ''Record of Trades'', ''Records of Examination of Craftsman'', ''Book of Diverse Crafts'' or ''Artificers' Record'', is a classic work on science and technology in Ancient China, compiled ...
'', which specified a square city wall with several gates on each side and passageways for the emperor. The outer city of ancient Bianjing was built during the reign of
Emperor Shenzong to a rectangular plan, almost square in proportions, about from north to south and from west to east. The south wall had three gates, with Nanxun Gate in the center, Chenzhou Gate to the east, and Dailou Gate to the west. The other walls had four gates each: in the east wall were Dongshui Gate (at the southern end), Xinsong Gate, Xinchao Gate, and North-East Water Gate; in the west wall Xinzheng Gate, West Water Gate, Wansheng Gate, and Guzi Gate; and in the north wall Chenqiao Gate (at the eastern end), Fengqiu Gate, New Wild Jujube Gate and Weizhou Gate. The gates in the center of each of the four sides were reserved for the emperor; these gates had straight passages and only two sets of doors, while the other city gates had zigzag passages and were guarded by three sets of doors.
The Song artist
Zhang Zeduan
Zhang Zeduan (; 1085–1145), courtesy name Zhengdao (), was a Chinese painter of the Song dynasty. He lived during the transitional period from the Northern Song to the Southern Song, and was instrumental in the early history of the Chinese l ...
's painting ''
Along the River During the Qingming Festival
''Along the River During the Qingming Festival'' (''Qingming Shanghe Tu'') is a handscroll painting by the Song dynasty painter Zhang Zeduan (1085–1145) and copied many times in the following centuries. It captures the daily life of people an ...
'' depicts the Dongshui Gate in detail: the building on top had a five-ridged roof with a shallow slope in the Song dynasty style, supported prominently by two sets of brackets (''
dougong
''Dougong'' () is a structural element of interlocking wooden brackets, one of the most important in traditional Chinese architecture.
The use of dougong first appeared in buildings of the late centuries BC and evolved into a structural net ...
''). The lower bracket assembly rested on the city gate to form a wooden foundation, while the upper assembly supported the roof, similar to the ''dougong'' in an extant Song building, the Goddess Temple in Taiyuan. This method of using bracket assemblies to support superstructure was specified in the 12th-century building manual ''
Yingzao Fashi'' as ''pingzuo'' (literally "flat base").
The city wall itself was built with
rammed earth
Rammed earth is a technique for constructing foundations, floors, and walls using compacted natural raw materials such as earth, chalk, lime, or gravel. It is an ancient method that has been revived recently as a sustainable building method.
...
, a technique also detailed in ''Yingzao Fashi'', vol. III, "Standards for Moat, Stronghold and Masonry Work":
Foundation: For every square ''chi
Chi or CHI may refer to:
Greek
*Chi (letter), the Greek letter (uppercase Χ, lowercase χ);
Chinese
*Chi (length), ''Chi'' (length) (尺), a traditional unit of length, about ⅓ meter
*Chi (mythology) (螭), a dragon
*Chi (surname) (池, pin ...
'', apply two ''dan
Dan or DAN may refer to:
People
* Dan (name), including a list of people with the name
** Dan (king), several kings of Denmark
* Dan people, an ethnic group located in West Africa
**Dan language, a Mande language spoken primarily in Côte d'Ivoi ...
'' of earth; on top of it lay a mixture of broken brick, tile and crushed stones, also two ''dan''. For every five-'' cun'' layer of earth, two men, standing face to face, should tamp six times with pestles, each man pounding three times on a dent; then tamp four times on each dent, two men again standing face to face, each pounding twice on the same dent; then tamp two more times, each man pounding once. Following this, tamp the surface with pestles or stamp with feet randomly to even out the surface. Every five-''cun'' layer of earth should be compressed to three ''cun''; every three-''cun'' layer of brick and stone to one and a half ''cun''.
Rammed-earth walls during this time were tapered: the thickness of the wall is greatest at the base and decreases steadily with increasing height, as detailed in Li Jie's book.
During the Song dynasty, the city of Bianjing had three enclosures: the outer city wall, the inner city wall, and the palace at the center. The inner city was rectangular, with three doors on each side. The palace enclosure was also rectangular, with a watch tower on each of the four corners. It had four main gates: Xihua Gate to the west, Donghua Gate to the east, Gongchen Gate to the north, and Xuande Gate, also known as Duan Gate or Xuandelou, at the south. Xuande Gate had five-paneled doors, painted red and decorated with gold tacks; its walls were lavishly decorated with dragon, phoenix and floating-cloud patterns to match the carved beams, painted rafters and glazed-tile roof. There were also two glazed dragons, each biting an end of the rooftop ridge, its tail pointing to the sky. The symbolic function of these ''chi wei'' was explained in
Yingzao Fashi:
There is a dragon in the East Sea, whose tail (''wei'') is similar to that of a sparrow-hawk (''chi''); it stirs up waves and causes rainfall, so people put its likeness on the rooftop to prevent fire. However, they misnamed it "sparrow-hawk tail" (''chi wei'').
Running southward from Xuande Gate was the Imperial Boulevard, about two hundred paces wide, with the Imperial Corridors on either side. Merchants opened shops in the Corridors until 1112, when they were banned. Two rows of black fencing were placed at the center of the boulevard as a barrier to pedestrians and carriages. Along the inner sides of the fences ran the brick-lined Imperial Water Furrows, filled with
lotus. About south from Xuande Gate, the Bian River intercepted the Imperial Boulevard, which crossed it over the stone Zhou Bridge,
balustrade
A baluster is an upright support, often a vertical moulded shaft, square, or lathe-turned form found in stairways, parapets, and other architectural features. In furniture construction it is known as a spindle. Common materials used in its con ...
d and flat-decked. This design of a boulevard with a stone bridge crossing a river was later imitated in the
Forbidden City
The Forbidden City () is a Chinese palace, palace complex in Dongcheng District, Beijing, China, at the center of the Imperial City, Beijing, Imperial City of Beijing. It is surrounded by numerous opulent imperial gardens and temples includ ...
. During spring and summer, mingled peach, plum, pear and apricot trees adorned the banks of the Bian with a variety of flowers.
Buddhist pagodas
![Dingzhou Liaodi Pagoda 3](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/Dingzhou_Liaodi_Pagoda_3.jpg)
Following the reign of the
Han dynasty
The Han dynasty (, ; ) was an imperial dynasty of China (202 BC – 9 AD, 25–220 AD), established by Liu Bang (Emperor Gao) and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–207 BC) and a warr ...
, (202 BC–220 AD), the idea of the
Buddhist
Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and ...
stupa
A stupa ( sa, स्तूप, lit=heap, ) is a mound-like or hemispherical structure containing relics (such as ''śarīra'' – typically the remains of Buddhist monks or nuns) that is used as a place of meditation.
In Buddhism, circumamb ...
entered
Chinese culture
Chinese culture () is one of the world's oldest cultures, originating thousands of years ago. The culture prevails across a large geographical region in East Asia and is extremely diverse and varying, with customs and traditions varying grea ...
as a means to house and protect scriptural
sutra
''Sutra'' ( sa, सूत्र, translit=sūtra, translit-std=IAST, translation=string, thread)Monier Williams, ''Sanskrit English Dictionary'', Oxford University Press, Entry fo''sutra'' page 1241 in Indian literary traditions refers to an aph ...
s. During the
Southern and Northern Dynasties
The Northern and Southern dynasties () was a period of political division in the history of China that lasted from 420 to 589, following the tumultuous era of the Sixteen Kingdoms and the Eastern Jin dynasty. It is sometimes considered as ...
period, the distinctive Chinese
pagoda
A pagoda is an Asian tiered tower with multiple eaves common to Nepal, India, China, Japan, Korea, Myanmar, Vietnam, and other parts of Asia. Most pagodas were built to have a religious function, most often Buddhist but sometimes Taoist, ...
was developed, its predecessors being the tall watch towers and towering residential apartments of the Han dynasty (as inferred from models in Han-era tombs).
[Needham, Volume 4, 128.] During the
Sui (581–618) and
Tang
Tang or TANG most often refers to:
* Tang dynasty
* Tang (drink mix)
Tang or TANG may also refer to:
Chinese states and dynasties
* Jin (Chinese state) (11th century – 376 BC), a state during the Spring and Autumn period, called Tang (唐) b ...
(618–907) periods,
Chinese pagoda
A pagoda is an Asian tiered tower with multiple eaves common to Nepal, India, China, Japan, Korea, Myanmar, Vietnam, and other parts of Asia. Most pagodas were built to have a religious function, most often Buddhist but sometimes Taoist, ...
s were developed from purely wooden structures to use
articulated
An articulated vehicle is a vehicle which has a permanent or semi-permanent pivot joint in its construction, allowing it to turn more sharply. There are many kinds, from heavy equipment to buses, trams and trains. Steam locomotives were sometim ...
stone
In geology, rock (or stone) is any naturally occurring solid mass or aggregate of minerals or mineraloid matter. It is categorized by the minerals included, its Chemical compound, chemical composition, and the way in which it is formed. Rocks ...
and
brick
A brick is a type of block used to build walls, pavements and other elements in masonry construction. Properly, the term ''brick'' denotes a block composed of dried clay, but is now also used informally to denote other chemically cured cons ...
, which could more easily survive fires caused by lightning or arson and were less susceptible to decay. The earliest brick pagoda that remains extant is the
Songyue Pagoda
The Songyue Pagoda (), constructed in AD 523, is located at the Songyue Monastery on Mount Song, in Henan province, China.Yetts, 124. Built during the Northern Wei Dynasty, this pagoda is one of the few intact sixth-century pagodas in China and is ...
, built in 523, and a typical example of a Tang-era stone pagoda is the
Giant Wild Goose Pagoda
Giant Wild Goose Pagoda or Big Wild Goose Pagoda (, literally "big swan goose pagoda"), is a monumental Buddhist pagoda located in southern Xi'an, Shaanxi, China. It was built in 648/649(?) during the Tang dynasty and originally had five storie ...
, constructed in 652. Although Buddhist influences on China waned after the late
Tang period
The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, t= ), or Tang Empire, was an imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907 AD, with an interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dynasty and followed by the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdom ...
, numerous Buddhist pagoda towers were built during the Song dynasty. Tall Chinese pagodas were often built in the countryside rather than within a city's walls, largely to avoid competition with the cosmic-imperial authority embodied in the cities' drum- and gate-towers.
[Needham, Volume 4, 137.] The Giant Wild Goose Pagoda, built in a city ward of what was
southeastern
The points of the compass are a set of horizontal, radially arrayed compass directions (or azimuths) used in navigation and cartography. A compass rose is primarily composed of four cardinal directions—north, east, south, and west—each se ...
Chang'an
Chang'an (; ) is the traditional name of Xi'an. The site had been settled since Neolithic times, during which the Yangshao culture was established in Banpo, in the city's suburbs. Furthermore, in the northern vicinity of modern Xi'an, Qin Shi ...
, is among the exceptions.
The
Iron Pagoda
The Iron Pagoda () of Youguo Temple (), Kaifeng City, Henan province, is a Buddhist Chinese pagoda built in 1049 during the Song dynasty (960–1279) of China. The pagoda is so-named not because it is made of iron, but because its color resemble ...
of
Youguo Temple in
Kaifeng
Kaifeng () is a prefecture-level city in east-central Henan province, China. It is one of the Eight Ancient Capitals of China, having been the capital eight times in history, and is best known for having been the Chinese capital during the Nort ...
earned its name from the iron-grey color of the glazed bricks forming the tower. Originally built of wood by the architect
Yu Hao
Yu Hao (, 970) was a Chinese architect, structural engineer, and writer during the Song Dynasty.
Legacy
Yu Hao was given the title of Master-Carpenter (Du Liao Jiang) for his architectural skill.Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 81. He wrote the ''Mu J ...
, it was struck by lightning and burned down in 1044, during the
Northern Song
Northern may refer to the following:
Geography
* North, a point in direction
* Northern Europe, the northern part or region of Europe
* Northern Highland, a region of Wisconsin, United States
* Northern Province, Sri Lanka
* Northern Range, a r ...
period. In 1049 the pagoda was rebuilt as it appears today, under the order of
Emperor Renzong of Song. This 13-story pagoda, structured on an
octagonal base, is tall. Its glazed tile bricks feature carved artwork of dancing figures, solemn ministers, and Buddhist themes (see
gallery
Gallery or The Gallery may refer to:
Arts, entertainment, and media
* Art gallery
** Contemporary art gallery
Music
* Gallery (band), an American soft rock band of the 1970s
Albums
* ''Gallery'' (Elaiza album), 2014 album
* ''Gallery'' (Gr ...
below).
The period also featured true cast-iron pagodas, such as the Iron Pagoda of
Yuquan Temple (Jade Springs Temple),
Dangyang
Dangyang () is a city in western Hubei province, People's Republic of China, lying east of the Gezhouba Dam on the Yangtze River. During the Western Han Dynasty (206-24 BC). Emperor Jing of Han established an administration in Dangyang on an ar ...
,
Hubei
Hubei (; ; alternately Hupeh) is a landlocked province of the People's Republic of China, and is part of the Central China region. The name of the province means "north of the lake", referring to its position north of Dongting Lake. The prov ...
Province. Built in 1061, it incorporates of
cast iron
Cast iron is a class of iron–carbon alloys with a carbon content more than 2%. Its usefulness derives from its relatively low melting temperature. The alloy constituents affect its color when fractured: white cast iron has carbide impuriti ...
and stands tall.
[Needham, Volume 4, 141–142.] Imitating contemporary wooden, stone, and brick pagodas, the pagoda features sloping eaves and an octagonal base. Another iron pagoda was constructed in 1105, Jining, Shandong, and was cast layer by layer in octagonal sections, standing 78 feet high. Several such cast iron pagodas exist in China today.
The
Liuhe Pagoda
Liuhe Pagoda (), literally Six Harmonies Pagoda, is a multi-story Chinese pagoda in southern Hangzhou, Zhejiang province, China. It is located at the foot of Yuelun Hill, facing the Qiantang River. It was originally constructed in 970 by the Wuyu ...
, or Six Harmonies Pagoda, is another example of Song-era pagoda architecture. It is located in the
Southern Song
The Song dynasty (; ; 960–1279) was an imperial dynasty of China that began in 960 and lasted until 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song following his usurpation of the throne of the Later Zhou. The Song conquered the rest ...
capital of
Hangzhou
Hangzhou ( or , ; , , Standard Mandarin pronunciation: ), also romanized as Hangchow, is the capital and most populous city of Zhejiang, China. It is located in the northwestern part of the province, sitting at the head of Hangzhou Bay, whi ...
, in
Zhejiang
Zhejiang ( or , ; , also romanized as Chekiang) is an eastern, coastal province of the People's Republic of China. Its capital and largest city is Hangzhou, and other notable cities include Ningbo and Wenzhou. Zhejiang is bordered by Jiang ...
Province, at the foot of Yuelun Hill facing the
Qiantang River
The Qiantang River, formerly known as the Hangchow River and alternatively romanised as the Tsientang River, is a river in East China. An important commercial artery, it runs for through Zhejiang, passing through the provincial capital Hangz ...
. Although the original was destroyed in 1121, the current tower was erected in 1156 and fully restored by 1165. It stands tall, and was constructed from a red brick frame with 13 stages of wooden eaves. Because of its size, the pagoda served as a permanent
lighthouse
A lighthouse is a tower, building, or other type of physical structure designed to emit light from a system of lamps and lenses and to serve as a beacon for navigational aid, for maritime pilots at sea or on inland waterways.
Lighthouses mar ...
to aid sailors at night (as described in ''Hangzhou Fu Zhi'').
[Needham, Volume 4, 662.]
The Zhengjue Temple Pagoda in Pengxian County of
Sichuan
Sichuan (; zh, c=, labels=no, ; zh, p=Sìchuān; alternatively romanized as Szechuan or Szechwan; formerly also referred to as "West China" or "Western China" by Protestant missions) is a province in Southwest China occupying most of the ...
Province (near
Chengdu
Chengdu (, ; Simplified Chinese characters, simplified Chinese: 成都; pinyin: ''Chéngdū''; Sichuanese dialects, Sichuanese pronunciation: , Standard Chinese pronunciation: ), Chinese postal romanization, alternatively Romanization of Chi ...
) is a brick pagoda that was built between 1023 and 1026, according to inscriptions running along its first storey. It has a square base on a ''
sumeru
Mount Meru (Sanskrit/Pali: मेरु), also known as Sumeru, Sineru or Mahāmeru, is the sacred five-peaked mountain of Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist cosmology and is considered to be the centre of all the physical, metaphysical and spiritu ...
'' pedestal, thirteen stories totaling in height, and multiple layers of eaves similar in style to the earlier Tang pagodas of Chang'an, the Giant Wild Goose Pagoda and the
Small Wild Goose Pagoda
The Small Wild Goose Pagoda, sometimes Little Wild Goose Pagoda (), is one of two significant pagodas in Xi'an, Shaanxi, China, the site of the old Han and Tang capital Chang'an. The other notable pagoda is the Giant Wild Goose Pagoda, origin ...
.
Wood-and-brick hybrid pagodas were also built. The first four floors of the octagonal,
Lingxiao Pagoda
The Lingxiao Pagoda () is a Chinese pagoda west of the Xinglong Temple in Zhengding, Hebei Province, China.
History
The original pagoda that stood at the same site was dubbed the Wooden Pagoda, and was built in 860 AD during the Tang dynasty (618 ...
of 1045 are brick (with wooden eaves), while from the fifth floor up it is entirely made of wood. Even pagodas made of stone or brick featured architectural elements that were typical of Chinese wooden buildings; for example the
Pizhi Pagoda
The Pizhi Pagoda () is an 11th-century Chinese pagoda located at Lingyan Temple, Changqing, near Jinan, Shandong province, China. Although originally built in 753 during the reign of Emperor Xuanzong of Tang (r. 712–756), the present pagoda ...
, built from 1056 to 1063, uses the ''
dougong
''Dougong'' () is a structural element of interlocking wooden brackets, one of the most important in traditional Chinese architecture.
The use of dougong first appeared in buildings of the late centuries BC and evolved into a structural net ...
'' brackets typical of wooden architecture to hold up pent, shingled roofs and tiers. Both of these pagodas feature interior staircases, although the Lingxiao Pagoda's only reaches to the fourth floor, and the Pizhi Pagoda's to the fifth. However, the Pizhi Pagoda features winding exterior stairs that provide access to the ninth and topmost floor.
The
Liaodi Pagoda
The Liaodi Pagoda () of Kaiyuan Monastery, Dingzhou, Hebei Province, China is the tallest existing pre-modern Chinese pagoda and tallest brick pagoda in the world, built in the 11th century during the Song dynasty (960–1279). The pagoda stands a ...
in Dingzhou, Hebei Province is a stone and brick pagoda completed in 1055, and one of the tallest
pre-modern Chinese constructions. At 84 meters (276 ft) tall, it is the tallest Chinese pagoda built in the dynastic era that is still standing, surpassing the
Qianxun Pagoda, which had held the record since its construction in the 9th century by the
Kingdom of Dali
The Dali Kingdom, also known as the Dali State (; Bai: Dablit Guaif), was a state situated in modern Yunnan province, China from 937 until 1253. In 1253, it was conquered by the Mongols but members of its former ruling dynasty continued to a ...
. The Liaodi Pagoda has an octagonal base on a large platform. It served both a religious purpose as a . Buddhist landmark of the Kaiyuan Monastery, and a military purpose as a watch tower used to observe the enemy forces of the
Liao dynasty
The Liao dynasty (; Khitan: ''Mos Jælud''; ), also known as the Khitan Empire (Khitan: ''Mos diau-d kitai huldʒi gur''), officially the Great Liao (), was an imperial dynasty of China that existed between 916 and 1125, ruled by the Yelü ...
.
[Liaodi Pagoda at Kaiyuan Temple in Dingzhou of Hebei Province](_blank)
From China.org.cn. Retrieved on 2008-02-12. Beside their utility in surveillance, pagoda towers could also serve as astronomical
observatories
An observatory is a location used for observing terrestrial, marine, or celestial events. Astronomy, climatology/meteorology, geophysical, oceanography and volcanology are examples of disciplines for which observatories have been constructed. His ...
; one such is the
Gaocheng Astronomical Observatory, built in 1276 and still standing today.
File:Zhengding Lingxiao Pagoda 1.jpg, alt=A wide, octagonal pagoda. It has four tall, functional floors made of brick, and an additional five, short, purely decorative floors made of wood. Each floor is separated by an eave, and the top five floor's eaves look as if they were simply stacked right on top of one another., Lingxiao Pagoda
The Lingxiao Pagoda () is a Chinese pagoda west of the Xinglong Temple in Zhengding, Hebei Province, China.
History
The original pagoda that stood at the same site was dubbed the Wooden Pagoda, and was built in 860 AD during the Tang dynasty (618 ...
in Zhengding
Zhengding (), originally Zhending (), is a county in southwestern Hebei Province, North China, located approximately south of Beijing. It is under the administration of the prefecture-level city of Shijiazhuang, the capital of the province, and h ...
, Hebei
Hebei or , (; alternately Hopeh) is a northern province of China. Hebei is China's sixth most populous province, with over 75 million people. Shijiazhuang is the capital city. The province is 96% Han Chinese, 3% Manchu, 0.8% Hui, an ...
Province, is a tall wood-and-brick hybrid pagoda. It was built in 1045.
Image:Pagoda at Lingyan Si.jpg, alt=A thin, nine story tall octagonal pagoda. It is made of brown-orange brick and stone, and appears to lean slightly. Each floor is separated from the others by a double eave., Pizhi Pagoda
The Pizhi Pagoda () is an 11th-century Chinese pagoda located at Lingyan Temple, Changqing, near Jinan, Shandong province, China. Although originally built in 753 during the reign of Emperor Xuanzong of Tang (r. 712–756), the present pagoda ...
of Lingyan Temple, Shandong
Shandong ( , ; ; alternately romanized as Shantung) is a coastal province of the People's Republic of China and is part of the East China region.
Shandong has played a major role in Chinese history since the beginning of Chinese civilizati ...
, in height, built in 1063.
Image:The Fugong Temple Wooden Pagoda.jpg, alt=A wide, wooden pagoda. Despite having nine stories on the inside, it appears to have five, exceptionally tall stories from the outside. The ground floor and the second floor are separated by a double eave, and the other external stories are separated by single eaves. The bottommost eave is much wider than the others., The wooden ''dougong
''Dougong'' () is a structural element of interlocking wooden brackets, one of the most important in traditional Chinese architecture.
The use of dougong first appeared in buildings of the late centuries BC and evolved into a structural net ...
''-constructed Pagoda of Fogong Temple
The Sakyamuni Pagoda of Fogong Temple () of Ying County, Shanxi province, China, is a wooden Chinese pagoda built in 1056, during the Khitan-led Liao dynasty. The pagoda was built by Emperor Daozong of Liao (Hongji) at the site of his grandmoth ...
, located in Shanxi
Shanxi (; ; formerly romanised as Shansi) is a landlocked province of the People's Republic of China and is part of the North China region. The capital and largest city of the province is Taiyuan, while its next most populated prefecture-lev ...
, in height, built in 1056 during the Liao dynasty
The Liao dynasty (; Khitan: ''Mos Jælud''; ), also known as the Khitan Empire (Khitan: ''Mos diau-d kitai huldʒi gur''), officially the Great Liao (), was an imperial dynasty of China that existed between 916 and 1125, ruled by the Yelü ...
File:20090905 Suzhou North Temple Pagoda 4611.jpg, alt=A nine-story-tall octagonal pagoda made out of orange brick. Each floor is separated by an eave. The eaves of the pagoda each have eight upward curving corners., Although rebuilt during the Ming dynasty
The Ming dynasty (), officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty was the last ort ...
, the Beisi Pagoda
The Beisi Pagoda (; Suzhou Wu: Poh zy thaeh, ) or North Temple Pagoda is a Chinese pagoda located at Bao'en Temple in Suzhou, Jiangsu Province, China. The base of the pagoda has an octagonal frame, and the tower rises nine stories in a total he ...
's frame was designed between 1131 and 1162 during the Song period; it stands tall.
File:Wuhan Wuying Ta 2012.11.21 10-44-59.jpg, Wuying Pagoda
The Wuying Pagoda (), also known as the Xingfu Temple Pagoda () and The Thousand Year-Old Pagoda of Wuhan (), is a Buddhist pagoda in Wuchang, Wuhan, Hubei Province, China. Built of stone 750 years ago during the final years of the Southern Song ...
(Shadowless Pagoda) in Wuhan, built in 1270 during the Mongol Invasion of the Southern Song
Temples
![Goddess Temple Jinsi](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/Goddess_Temple_Jinsi.JPG)
It was not uncommon for wealthy or powerful families to facilitate the construction of large temple complexes, usually by donating a portion of their family estate to a Buddhist sect. Often the land already contained buildings that could be re-purposed for religions use. The Fei (費) family of the town of Jinze, located just west of Shanghai, converted a mansion on their property into a Buddhist sutra-recitiation hall, and later built several other religious buildings around the hall. This spurred a boom in temple construction in the area, causing Jinze to become a major center of the
White Lotus
The White Lotus () is a syncretic religious and political movement which forecasts the imminent advent of the "King of Light" (), i.e., the future Buddha Maitreya. As White Lotus sects developed, they appealed to many Han Chinese who found sola ...
sect of Buddhism, which in turn spurred the construction of more temples and lead the town to become a significant location within the Song. The nearby town of Nanxiang gained prominence shortly after the fall of the Song in large part to the construction of temples and other religious buildings, which spanned the entire Song empire.
Apart from stimulating the development of urban areas, temples and religious buildings featured a number of unique aesthetic and structural features. The Temple of the Saintly Mother (圣母殿) and the Hall of Sacrifice of the Jin Temple (晋祠), located in a southeastern suburb of
Taiyuan
Taiyuan (; ; ; Mandarin pronunciation: ; also known as (), ()) is the capital and largest city of Shanxi Province, People's Republic of China. Taiyuan is the political, economic, cultural and international exchange center of Shanxi Province. ...
City,
Shanxi
Shanxi (; ; formerly romanised as Shansi) is a landlocked province of the People's Republic of China and is part of the North China region. The capital and largest city of the province is Taiyuan, while its next most populated prefecture-lev ...
province, are extant examples of early Song architecture. The Temple of the Saintly Mother is the main building of the Jin Temple, first built in the period between 1023 and 1032 and renovated in 1102. It has a double-eaved roof with nine ridges, and two dragon-heads with wide-open jaws biting the ends of the main ridge. The roof is supported by massive ''
dougong
''Dougong'' () is a structural element of interlocking wooden brackets, one of the most important in traditional Chinese architecture.
The use of dougong first appeared in buildings of the late centuries BC and evolved into a structural net ...
'' brackets corresponding to drawings in ''Yingzao Fashi''. The eaves of the Temple of the Saintly Mother curve upward slightly at each end, a characteristic of Song architecture. The columns of the façade, decorated with dragons that coil around the shafts, become progressively taller with increasing distance to either side of the central pair. The building has a porch around it, the sole example of such a structure; another unique feature of the site is a cross-shaped bridge that leads to the Goddess Temple.
The Trinity Hall of Xuan Miao Temple (玄妙观), situated in the heart of
Suzhou
Suzhou (; ; Suzhounese: ''sou¹ tseu¹'' , Mandarin: ), alternately romanized as Soochow, is a major city in southern Jiangsu province, East China. Suzhou is the largest city in Jiangsu, and a major economic center and focal point of trade ...
city, is another example of Song architecture. In 1982, it was established as a National Heritage Site by the Chinese government.
The Jingling Palace (景灵宫 ''Jingling Gong''), a temple to the legendary
Yellow Emperor
The Yellow Emperor, also known as the Yellow Thearch or by his Chinese name Huangdi (), is a deity ('' shen'') in Chinese religion, one of the legendary Chinese sovereigns and culture heroes included among the mytho-historical Three Soverei ...
located near modern-day
Qufu
Qufu ( ; ) is a city in southwestern Shandong province, East China. It is located about south of the provincial capital Jinan and northeast of the prefectural seat at Jining. Qufu has an area of 815 square kilometers, and a total population of ...
, was built in the 11th century. It was subsequently destroyed near the end of the
Yuan dynasty
The Yuan dynasty (), officially the Great Yuan (; xng, , , literally "Great Yuan State"), was a Mongol-led imperial dynasty of China and a successor state to the Mongol Empire after its division. It was established by Kublai, the fifth ...
. However, several other structures in
Shou Qiu
Shou Qiu () is a historical site on the eastern outskirts of the city of Qufu in Shandong Province, China. According to the legend, Shou Qiu is the birthplace of the Yellow Emperor.
Shou Qiu itself is today marked only by a pyramidal monument, ...
, the complex that Jingling Palace was situated in, remain intact. Two giant
tortoise-borne stele
A stele ( ),Anglicized plural steles ( ); Greek plural stelai ( ), from Greek , ''stēlē''. The Greek plural is written , ''stēlai'', but this is only rarely encountered in English. or occasionally stela (plural ''stelas'' or ''stelæ''), whe ...
s flank what was the entrance to the palace. One of the two steles, the Stele of the Sorrow of 10,000, is at high, the tallest unmarked stele in the country.
A large pyramid constructed of rounded stone blocks, the
symbolic tomb of the Yellow Emperor's son
Shaohao
Shaohao or Shao Hao ( "Lesser Brightness"), also known Jin Tian (金天), was a legendary Chinese sovereign. Shaohao is usually identified as a son of the Yellow Emperor. According to some traditions (for example the '' Book of Documents''), he i ...
, is located outside the Shou Qiu complex.
Another important large tortoise-borne stele of the same period has been preserved at the
Dai Miao of
Mount Tai
Mount Tai () is a mountain of historical and cultural significance located north of the city of Tai'an. It is the highest point in Shandong province, China. The tallest peak is the '' Jade Emperor Peak'' (), which is commonly reported as being t ...
.
Bridges
Bridge
A bridge is a structure built to span a physical obstacle (such as a body of water, valley, road, or rail) without blocking the way underneath. It is constructed for the purpose of providing passage over the obstacle, which is usually somethi ...
s over waterways had been known in China since the ancient
Zhou dynasty
The Zhou dynasty ( ; Old Chinese ( B&S): *''tiw'') was a royal dynasty of China that followed the Shang dynasty. Having lasted 789 years, the Zhou dynasty was the longest dynastic regime in Chinese history. The military control of China by th ...
. During the Song dynasty, large
trestle bridge
A trestle bridge is a bridge composed of a number of short spans supported by closely spaced frames. A trestle (sometimes tressel) is a rigid frame used as a support, historically a tripod used to support a stool or a pair of isosceles trian ...
s were constructed, such as that built by Zhang Zhongyan in 1158.
[Needham, Volume 4, 150.] There were also large bridges made entirely of stone, like the Ba Zi Bridge of
Shaoxing
Shaoxing (; ) is a prefecture-level city on the southern shore of Hangzhou Bay in northeastern Zhejiang province, China. It was formerly known as Kuaiji and Shanyin and abbreviated in Chinese as (''Yuè'') from the area's former inhabitant ...
, built in 1256 and still standing today.
[Needham, Volume 4, 153.] Bridges with
pavilions
In architecture, ''pavilion'' has several meanings:
* It may be a subsidiary building that is either positioned separately or as an attachment to a main building. Often it is associated with pleasure. In palaces and traditional mansions of Asia ...
crowning their central spans were often featured in such paintings as the landscapes of
Xia Gui
Xia Gui (; fl. 1195–1224), courtesy name Yuyu (禹玉), was a Chinese landscape painter of the Song dynasty. Very little is known about his life, and only a few of his works survive, but he is generally considered one of China's greatest ...
(1195–1224). Long, covered corridor bridges, like the 12th-century Rainbow Bridge in Wuyuan,
Jiangxi
Jiangxi (; ; formerly romanized as Kiangsi or Chianghsi) is a landlocked province in the east of the People's Republic of China. Its major cities include Nanchang and Jiujiang. Spanning from the banks of the Yangtze river in the north int ...
province, which has wide stone-based piers and a wooden superstructure, were also built.
While serving as an administrator for
Hangzhou
Hangzhou ( or , ; , , Standard Mandarin pronunciation: ), also romanized as Hangchow, is the capital and most populous city of Zhejiang, China. It is located in the northwestern part of the province, sitting at the head of Hangzhou Bay, whi ...
, the poet
Su Shi
Su Shi (; 8 January 1037 – 24 August 1101), courtesy name Zizhan (), art name Dongpo (), was a Chinese calligrapher, essayist, gastronomer, pharmacologist, poet, politician, and travel writer during the Song dynasty. A major personality of ...
(1037–1101) had a large pedestrian
causeway
A causeway is a track, road or railway on the upper point of an embankment across "a low, or wet place, or piece of water". It can be constructed of earth, masonry, wood, or concrete. One of the earliest known wooden causeways is the Sweet Tra ...
built across the
West Lake
West Lake (; ) is a freshwater lake in Hangzhou, China. It is divided into five sections by three causeways. There are numerous temples, pagodas, gardens, and natural/artificial islands within the lake. Gushan (孤山) is the largest natural ...
, which still bears his name: ''Sudi'' (蘇堤). In 1221, the
Taoist
Taoism (, ) or Daoism () refers to either a school of philosophical thought (道家; ''daojia'') or to a religion (道教; ''daojiao''), both of which share ideas and concepts of Chinese origin and emphasize living in harmony with the ''Tao'' ...
traveler Qiu Changchun visited
Genghis Khan
''Chinggis Khaan'' ͡ʃʰiŋɡɪs xaːŋbr />Mongol script: ''Chinggis Qa(gh)an/ Chinggis Khagan''
, birth_name = Temüjin
, successor = Tolui (as regent)Ögedei Khan
, spouse =
, issue =
, house = Borjigin
, ...
in
Samarkand
fa, سمرقند
, native_name_lang =
, settlement_type = City
, image_skyline =
, image_caption = Clockwise from the top:Registan square, Shah-i-Zinda necropolis, Bibi-Khanym Mosque, view inside Shah-i-Zinda, ...
, describing various Chinese bridges encountered on the way there through the
Tian Shan
The Tian Shan,, , otk, 𐰴𐰣 𐱅𐰭𐰼𐰃, , tr, Tanrı Dağı, mn, Тэнгэр уул, , ug, تەڭرىتاغ, , , kk, Тәңіртауы / Алатау, , , ky, Теңир-Тоо / Ала-Тоо, , , uz, Tyan-Shan / Tangritog‘ ...
Mountains, east of
Yining
YiningThe official spelling according to (), also known as Ghulja ( ug, غۇلجا) or Qulja ( kk, قۇلجا) and formerly Ningyuan (), is a county-level city in Northwestern Xinjiang, People's Republic of China and the seat of the Ili Kazakh ...
. The historian Joseph Needham quotes Qiu as saying:
he road had"no less than 48 timber bridges of such width that two carts can drive over them side by side". It had been built by Chang Jung hang Rongand the other engineers of the Chagatai some years before. The wooden trestles of Chinese bridges from the −3rd century Conwards were no doubt similar to those supposed to have been employed in Julius Caesar
Gaius Julius Caesar (; ; 12 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC), was a Roman general and statesman. A member of the First Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in the Gallic Wars before defeating his political rival Pompey in a civil war, and ...
's bridge of −55 Cacross the Rhine
), Surselva, Graubünden, Switzerland
, source1_coordinates=
, source1_elevation =
, source2 = Rein Posteriur/Hinterrhein
, source2_location = Paradies Glacier, Graubünden, Switzerland
, source2_coordinates=
, so ...
, or drawn by Leonardo
Leonardo is a masculine given name, the Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese equivalent of the English, German, and Dutch name, Leonard
Leonard or ''Leo'' is a common English masculine given name and a surname.
The given name and surname originate ...
, or found in use in Africa. But where in +13th century DEurope could a two-lane highway like Chang Jung's have been found?[Needham, Volume 4, 151.]
In
Fujian
Fujian (; alternately romanized as Fukien or Hokkien) is a province on the southeastern coast of China. Fujian is bordered by Zhejiang to the north, Jiangxi to the west, Guangdong to the south, and the Taiwan Strait to the east. Its capi ...
Province, enormous beam bridges were built during the Song dynasty. Some of these were as long as , with individual spans of up to in length; their construction necessitated moving massive stones of .
No names of the engineers were recorded or appear in the inscriptions on the bridges, which give only the names of local officials who sponsored them and oversaw their construction and repair.
However, there might have been an engineering school in Fujian, headed by a prominent engineer known as
Cai Xiang (1012–1067), who had risen to the position of governmental
prefect
Prefect (from the Latin ''praefectus'', substantive adjectival form of ''praeficere'': "put in front", meaning in charge) is a magisterial title of varying definition, but essentially refers to the leader of an administrative area.
A prefect's ...
in Fujian. Between 1053 and 1059, he planned and supervised the construction of the large Wanan Bridge (once called the Luoyang Bridge) near
Quanzhou
Quanzhou, postal map romanization, alternatively known as Chinchew, is a prefecture-level city, prefecture-level port city on the north bank of the Jin River, beside the Taiwan Strait in southern Fujian, China. It is Fujian's largest metrop ...
(on the border of the present-day
Luojiang District
Luojiang may refer to the following locations in China:
*Luojiang District, Deyang (罗江区), Sichuan
*Luojiang District, Quanzhou (洛江区), Fujian
*Luojiang, Tibet, Tibet, China
* Luojiang, Miluo (罗江镇), a town in Miluo City, Hunan pro ...
and
Huai'an County.
This bridge, a stone structure similar to a number of other bridges found in Fujian, still stands, and features ship-like piers bound to their bases using
mucilage
Mucilage is a thick, gluey substance produced by nearly all plants and some microorganisms. These microorganisms include protists which use it for their locomotion. The direction of their movement is always opposite to that of the secretion of m ...
from oysters as an adhesive.
[Luoyang Bridge](_blank)
. From chinaculture.org. Retrieved on 2010-12-11. It is in length, in width, and in height. Another famous bridge near Quanzhou, the
Anping Bridge
Anping Bridge () is a Song dynasty stone beam bridge in Fujian province. It is long. Fu et al (2002), p. 185 Mao (1978), p. 6 The bridge is also known as the Wuli Bridge (, literally ''Five Li Bridge'') because its length is about 5 '' li'', whe ...
, was constructed between 1138 and 1151.
Other examples of Song bridges include
Guyue Bridge
The Guyue Bridge () is an arch bridge located in Yiwu, Zhejiang province, China.
Introduction
The bridge is located in Chi'an Town (), and it's about 100-meter western of the Yazhi Street (雅治街). It goes across the ''Dragon Creek'' (traditio ...
, a stone
arch bridge
An arch bridge is a bridge with abutments at each end shaped as a curved arch. Arch bridges work by transferring the weight of the bridge and its loads partially into a horizontal thrust restrained by the abutments at either side. A viaduct ...
in
Yiwu
Yiwu () is a county-level city under the jurisdiction of Jinhua in Central Zhejiang Province, East China. As of the 2020 census, the city had 1,859,390 inhabitants and its built-up (or metro) area, joined with that of the neighboring Dongy ...
, Zhejiang Province. The bridge was built in 1213, the sixth year of the
Jiading Era in the Southern Song dynasty.
Song-era pontoon bridges include the
Dongjin Bridge
The Dongjin Bridge () or Jianchunmen Pontoon Bridge () in Ganzhou, Jiangxi province, China is a pontoon bridge constructed over the Gong River in the Chinese Song dynasty (960–1279). Situated outside the Jianchunmen gate of the Ganzhou city wa ...
, 400 m ( mi) long, which may still be seen today.
Tombs of Northern Song emperors
![Songling2](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ad/Songling2.jpg)
Located southwest of
Gongyi
Gongyi (), formerly Gong County (), is a county-level city of Henan Province, South Central China, it is under the administration of the prefecture-level city of Zhengzhou. It has a population of 790,000 people and an area of .
City
Gongyi is lo ...
city in
Henan
Henan (; or ; ; alternatively Honan) is a landlocked province of China, in the central part of the country. Henan is often referred to as Zhongyuan or Zhongzhou (), which literally means "central plain" or "midland", although the name is al ...
province, the large tombs of the
Northern Song
Northern may refer to the following:
Geography
* North, a point in direction
* Northern Europe, the northern part or region of Europe
* Northern Highland, a region of Wisconsin, United States
* Northern Province, Sri Lanka
* Northern Range, a r ...
number about one thousand, including individual tombs for Song emperors, empresses, princes, princesses, consorts, and members of the extended family. The complex extends approximately from east to west and from north to south.
The construction of the complex began in 963 AD, during the reign of the first Song ruler,
Emperor Taizu of Song
Emperor Taizu of Song (21 March 927 – 14 November 976), personal name Zhao Kuangyin, courtesy name Yuanlang, was the founder and first emperor of the Song dynasty of China. He reigned from 960 until his death in 976. Formerly a distinguish ...
, whose father is also buried at the site.
[Steinhardt (1993), 374.] The only Northern Song emperors not buried there are
Emperor Huizong of Song and
Emperor Qinzong of Song
Emperor Qinzong of Song (23 May 1100 – 14 June 1161), personal name Zhao Huan, was the ninth emperor of the Song dynasty of China and the last emperor of the Northern Song dynasty.
Emperor Qinzong was the eldest son and heir apparent of Empe ...
, who
died in captivity after the
Jin–Song Wars
The Jin–Song Wars were a series of conflicts between the Jurchen-led Jin dynasty (1115–1234) and the Han-led Song dynasty (960–1279). In 1115, Jurchen tribes rebelled against their overlords, the Khitan-led Liao dynasty (916–1125) ...
in 1127. Lining the
spirit way
A spirit way () is the ornate road leading to a Chinese tomb of a major dignitary.
The term is also sometimes translated as spirit road, spirit path or sacred way.
The spirit way is lined on both sides by a succession of statues, pillars, and ...
s of the tomb complex are hundreds of Song
sculpture
Sculpture is the branch of the visual arts that operates in three dimensions. Sculpture is the three-dimensional art work which is physically presented in the dimensions of height, width and depth. It is one of the plastic arts. Durable sc ...
s and
statue
A statue is a free-standing sculpture in which the realistic, full-length figures of persons or animals are carved or cast in a durable material such as wood, metal or stone. Typical statues are life-sized or close to life-size; a sculpture t ...
s of tigers, rams, lions, horses with grooms, horned beasts and mythical creatures, government officials, military generals, foreign ambassadors, and others featured in an enormous display of
Song-era artwork.
The layout and style of the Song tombs resemble those found in the contemporary
Tangut kingdom of the
Western Xia
The Western Xia or the Xi Xia (), officially the Great Xia (), also known as the Tangut Empire, and known as ''Mi-nyak''Stein (1972), pp. 70–71. to the Tanguts and Tibetans, was a Tangut-led Buddhist imperial dynasty of China tha ...
, which also had an auxiliary burial site associated with each tomb.
At the center of each burial site is a truncated pyramidal tomb, each having once been guarded by a four-walled enclosure with four centered gates and four corner towers.
[Steinhardt (1993), 375.] About from Gongxian is the Baisha Tomb, which contains "elaborate facsimiles in brick of Chinese timber frame construction, from door lintels to pillars and pedestals to bracket sets, that adorn interior walls."
The Baisha Tomb has two large separate chambers with conical
dome
A dome () is an architectural element similar to the hollow upper half of a sphere. There is significant overlap with the term cupola, which may also refer to a dome or a structure on top of a dome. The precise definition of a dome has been a m ...
d ceilings; a large staircase leads down to the entrance doors of the subterranean tomb.
[Steinhardt (1993), 376.]
Literature
![Iron Pagoda d](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/Iron_Pagoda_d.JPG)
During the
Song dynasty
The Song dynasty (; ; 960–1279) was an imperial dynasty of China that began in 960 and lasted until 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song following his usurpation of the throne of the Later Zhou. The Song conquered the rest ...
, previous works on architecture were brought to more sophisticated levels of description, as in ''
Yili Shigong'' written in 1193 AD.
[Needham, Volume 4, 81.] However, one of the most definitive works was the earlier ''Mu Jing'' ("Timberwork Manual"), ascribed to
Yu Hao
Yu Hao (, 970) was a Chinese architect, structural engineer, and writer during the Song Dynasty.
Legacy
Yu Hao was given the title of Master-Carpenter (Du Liao Jiang) for his architectural skill.Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 81. He wrote the ''Mu J ...
and written sometime between 965 and 995. Yu Hao was responsible for the construction of a wooden pagoda tower in Kaifeng, which was destroyed by lightning and replaced by the brick
Iron Pagoda
The Iron Pagoda () of Youguo Temple (), Kaifeng City, Henan province, is a Buddhist Chinese pagoda built in 1049 during the Song dynasty (960–1279) of China. The pagoda is so-named not because it is made of iron, but because its color resemble ...
soon after. In his time, books on architecture were still considered a lowly scholarly achievement due to the craft's status, so ''Mu Jing'' was not even recorded in the official court bibliography.
[Needham, Volume 4, 82.] Although the book itself was lost to history, the scientist and statesman
Shen Kuo wrote of Yu's work extensively in his ''
Dream Pool Essays'' of 1088, praising it as a work of architectural genius, saying that no one in his own time could reproduce such a work.
[Needham, Volume 4, 84.] Shen Kuo singled out, among other passages, a scene in which Yu Hao gives advice to another artisan-architect about slanting
strut
A strut is a structural component commonly found in engineering, aeronautics, architecture and anatomy. Struts generally work by resisting longitudinal compression, but they may also serve in tension.
Human anatomy
Part of the functionality o ...
s in order to brace a pagoda against the wind, and a passage in which Yu Hao describes the three sections of a building, the area above the crossbeams, the area above ground, and the foundation, and then proceeds to provide proportional ratios and construction techniques for each section.
[Needham, Volume 4, 141.][Needham, Volume 4, 82–84]
Several years later the ''
Yingzao Fashi'' ("Treatise on Architectural Methods" or "State Building Standards") was published.
[Guo, 1.] Although similar books came before it, such as ''Yingshan Ling'' ("National Building Law") of the early
Tang dynasty
The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, t= ), or Tang Empire, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907 AD, with an Zhou dynasty (690–705), interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dyn ...
(618–907),
[Guo, 1–3.] this is a manual on Chinese architecture to have survived in full.
''Yingzao Fashi''
![Yingzao Fashi 1 desmear](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/Yingzao_Fashi_1_desmear.JPG)
''Yingzao Fashi'' is a technical treatise on architecture and craftsmanship written at the Directorate of Buildings and Construction. The book was completed in 1100 and presented to
Emperor Zhezong of Song
Emperor Zhezong of Song (4 January 1077 – 23 February 1100), personal name Zhao Xu, was the seventh emperor of the Song dynasty of China. His original personal name was Zhao Yong but he changed it to "Zhao Xu" after his coronation. He reig ...
in the last year of his reign.
His successor,
Emperor Huizong of Song, had the treatise officially published three years later, in 1103, for the benefit of foremen, architects, and literate craftsmen.
The book was intended to provide standard regulations, to not only the engineering agencies of the central government, but also the many
workshop
Beginning with the Industrial Revolution era, a workshop may be a room, rooms or building which provides both the area and tools (or machinery) that may be required for the manufacture or repair of manufactured goods. Workshops were the only ...
s and
artisan
An artisan (from french: artisan, it, artigiano) is a skilled craft worker who makes or creates material objects partly or entirely by hand. These objects may be functional or strictly decorative, for example furniture, decorative art ...
families throughout China who could benefit from using a well-written government manual on building practices.
''
Yingzao Fashi'' included building codes and regulations, accounting information, descriptions of construction materials, and classification of crafts.
[Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 84–85.] In its 34 chapters, the book outlined
units of measurement
A unit of measurement is a definite magnitude (mathematics), magnitude of a quantity, defined and adopted by convention or by law, that is used as a standard for measurement of the same kind of quantity. Any other quantity of that kind can ...
,
and the construction of
moat
A moat is a deep, broad ditch, either dry or filled with water, that is dug and surrounds a castle, fortification, building or town, historically to provide it with a preliminary line of defence. In some places moats evolved into more extensive ...
s, fortifications,
stonework
Stonemasonry or stonecraft is the creation of buildings, structures, and sculpture using stone as the primary material. It is one of the oldest activities and professions in human history. Many of the long-lasting, ancient shelters, temples, m ...
, and woodwork.
[Needham, Volume 4, 85] For the latter, it included specifications for making
bracket
A bracket is either of two tall fore- or back-facing punctuation marks commonly used to isolate a segment of text or data from its surroundings. Typically deployed in symmetric pairs, an individual bracket may be identified as a 'left' or 'r ...
ing units with inclined arms and
joint
A joint or articulation (or articular surface) is the connection made between bones, ossicles, or other hard structures in the body which link an animal's skeletal system into a functional whole.Saladin, Ken. Anatomy & Physiology. 7th ed. McGraw ...
s for
column
A column or pillar in architecture and structural engineering is a structural element that transmits, through compression, the weight of the structure above to other structural elements below. In other words, a column is a compression member. ...
s and
beams.
[Guo, 2.] It also provided specifications for
wood carving
Wood carving is a form of woodworking by means of a cutting tool (knife) in one hand or a chisel by two hands or with one hand on a chisel and one hand on a mallet, resulting in a wooden figure or figurine, or in the sculptural ornamentation ...
, drilling, sawing,
bamboo
Bamboos are a diverse group of evergreen perennial flowering plants making up the subfamily Bambusoideae of the grass family Poaceae. Giant bamboos are the largest members of the grass family. The origin of the word "bamboo" is uncertain, bu ...
work,
tiling
Tiling may refer to:
*The physical act of laying tiles
* Tessellations
Computing
*The compiler optimization of loop tiling
*Tiled rendering, the process of subdividing an image by regular grid
*Tiling window manager
People
*Heinrich Sylvester T ...
,
wall building, and decoration.
The book contained recipes for decorative paints,
glazes, and
coating
A coating is a covering that is applied to the surface of an object, usually referred to as the substrate. The purpose of applying the coating may be decorative, functional, or both. Coatings may be applied as liquids, gases or solids e.g. Pow ...
s,
also listing proportions for mixing
mortars
Mortar may refer to:
* Mortar (weapon), an indirect-fire infantry weapon
* Mortar (masonry), a material used to fill the gaps between blocks and bind them together
* Mortar and pestle, a tool pair used to crush or grind
* Mortar, Bihar, a villag ...
used in
masonry
Masonry is the building of structures from individual units, which are often laid in and bound together by mortar; the term ''masonry'' can also refer to the units themselves. The common materials of masonry construction are bricks, building ...
,
[Guo, 5.] brick
A brick is a type of block used to build walls, pavements and other elements in masonry construction. Properly, the term ''brick'' denotes a block composed of dried clay, but is now also used informally to denote other chemically cured cons ...
work,
and manufacture of glazed tiles,
illustrating practices and standards with drawings.
His book outlined structural
carpentry
Carpentry is a skilled trade and a craft in which the primary work performed is the cutting, shaping and installation of building materials during the construction of buildings, ships, timber bridges, concrete formwork, etc. Carpenters tr ...
in great detail, providing standard dimensional measurements for all components used.
[Guo, 6.] here he developed a standard eight-grade system for sizing timber elements, known as the ''cai-fen'' system of units, which could be universally applied in buildings.
[Guo, 6–7.] About 8% of the book was derived from pre-existing written material on architecture, while the majority of the book documented the inherited traditions of craftsmen and architects.
[Guo, 4.] The ''Yingzao Fashi'' provided a full
glossary
A glossary (from grc, γλῶσσα, ''glossa''; language, speech, wording) also known as a vocabulary or clavis, is an alphabetical list of Term (language), terms in a particular domain of knowledge with the definitions for those terms. Tradi ...
of technical terms that included mathematical formulae, building proportions, and construction techniques, and discussed the implications of the local
topography
Topography is the study of the forms and features of land surfaces. The topography of an area may refer to the land forms and features themselves, or a description or depiction in maps.
Topography is a field of geoscience and planetary sci ...
for construction at a particular site.
He also estimated the monetary costs of hiring laborers of different skill levels from various crafts on the basis of a day's work, in addition to the price of the materials they would need and according to the season in which they were to be employed.
Architecture in Song artwork
File:Li Cheng Buddhist Temple in Moutain Detail.jpg, alt=A painting of a temple with wide eaves situated on top of a hill. The branches of trees obstruct the view of the temple., Detail of a mountain temple, from a vertical scroll landscape painting
Landscape painting, also known as landscape art, is the depiction of natural scenery such as mountains, valleys, trees, rivers, and forests, especially where the main subject is a wide view—with its elements arranged into a coherent compo ...
(c. 919–967)
File:Song-Imperial-Garden1.jpg, alt=A painting of people boating in a lake. There is a small island in the center of the lake, connected to the mainland by an arched bridge. The entire lake is surrounded by a low wall., ''Games in the Jinming Pool'', a painting by Zhang Zeduan depicting Kaifeng
Kaifeng () is a prefecture-level city in east-central Henan province, China. It is one of the Eight Ancient Capitals of China, having been the capital eight times in history, and is best known for having been the Chinese capital during the Nort ...
, the Northern Song capital.
File:Song-Palace1.jpg, alt=A painting depicting eighteen white cranes flying around the top of a curved roof. Two additional cranes are perched on the roof itself. The building that the roof is attached to is obscured by fog or haze., A Kaifeng palace rooftop visited by cranes, by Emperor Huizong of Song (r. 1100–1126)
File:Ma Lin Guests.jpg, alt=An oval shaped painting of a small building situated in a garden. The building appears six sided, and the roof of the building is almost cone shaped, with each of the six triangular sides curving up to meet at the top corner., ''Expecting Guests'', by Ma Lin, c. 1250.
File:Song Dynasty Hydraulic Mill for Grain.JPG, alt=A diagram of an elaborate building situated on a stream or river. It appears that people are bringing buckets of water from the river up a pair of ramps and pouring it into a turbine in order to make the turbine move, as opposed to the flow of the river moving the turbine., Northern Song era water-powered grain mill
File:Clock Tower from Su Song's Book desmear.JPG, alt=A diagram of the interior of a clocktower. The clock mechanism has several large gears, however it is not apparent how they would receive stimulus to move., Interior design of Su Song's clocktower
Clock towers are a specific type of structure which house a turret clock and have one or more clock faces on the upper exterior walls. Many clock towers are freestanding structures but they can also adjoin or be located on top of another buildi ...
, from his book of 1092
File:Qingming Festival Detail 15.jpg, alt=An expert from the painting "Along the River During Qingming Festival" depicting a simple building with a triangular roof. It appears that the teahouse is at the top floor of a multi-floor building, however the rest of the building is not shown., Detail of a teahouse
A teahouse (mainly Asia) or tearoom (also tea room) is an establishment which primarily serves tea and other light refreshments. A tea room may be a room set aside in a hotel especially for serving afternoon tea, or may be an establishment whi ...
from '' Along the River During Qingming Festival'' by Zhang Zeduan
Zhang Zeduan (; 1085–1145), courtesy name Zhengdao (), was a Chinese painter of the Song dynasty. He lived during the transitional period from the Northern Song to the Southern Song, and was instrumental in the early history of the Chinese l ...
(1085–1145)
File:Qingming Festival 5.jpg, alt=A large section of the painting "Along the River During Qingming Festival" depicting four large building complexes flanking a main city road, with two complexes on each side. At the end of the road is a city gate, nearly identical to the one described at the beginning of this article., From the same painting by Zhang Zeduan: a wider scene of urban buildings with a large gatehouse to the right
File:五彩遍装斗拱.JPG, alt="Wucai Caihua"(Five Coloured Painting)-decorations as detailed on the Yingzao Fashi., "Wucai Caihua
''Caihua'' ( zh, s=彩画, p=cǎihuà), or "colour painting", is the traditional Chinese decorative painting or polychrome used for architecture and one of the most notable and important features of historical Chinese architecture. It held a sign ...
"(Five Coloured Painting)-decorations as detailed on the Yingzao Fashi
File:丹粉刷饰.jpg, alt="Danfen Caihua"(Red and White)-decorations as detailed on the Yingzao Fashi., "Danfen Caihua
''Caihua'' ( zh, s=彩画, p=cǎihuà), or "colour painting", is the traditional Chinese decorative painting or polychrome used for architecture and one of the most notable and important features of historical Chinese architecture. It held a sign ...
"(Red and White)-decorations as detailed on the Yingzao Fashi.
See also
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Chinese architecture
Chinese architecture (Chinese:中國建築) is the embodiment of an architectural style that has developed over millennia in China and it has influenced architecture throughout Eastern Asia. Since its emergence during the early ancient era, the ...
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Caihua
''Caihua'' ( zh, s=彩画, p=cǎihuà), or "colour painting", is the traditional Chinese decorative painting or polychrome used for architecture and one of the most notable and important features of historical Chinese architecture. It held a sign ...
*
Chinese Palaces
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List of Chinese inventions
China has been the source of many innovations, scientific discoveries and inventions. This includes the '' Four Great Inventions'': papermaking, the compass, gunpowder, and printing (both woodblock and movable type). The list below contains th ...
Notes
References
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*Guo, Qinghua. "Yingzao Fashi: Twelfth-Century Chinese Building Manual",
Architectural History
The history of architecture traces the changes in architecture through various traditions, regions, overarching stylistic trends, and dates. The beginnings of all these traditions is thought to be humans satisfying the very basic need of shelt ...
: Journal of the
Society of Architectural Historians of Great Britain
The Society of Architectural Historians of Great Britain (SAHGB) is a United Kingdom learned society for people interested in the history of architecture.
Purpose
The Society exists to encourage interest in the history of architecture, to enab ...
(Volume 41 1998): 1–13.
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*Steinhardt, Nancy Shatzman. "The Tangut Royal Tombs near Yinchuan", Muqarnas: An Annual on Islamic Art and Architecture (Volume X, 1993): 369–381.
External links
Information on Chinese pagodas
{{DEFAULTSORT:Architecture Of The Song Dynasty
Song dynasty
The Song dynasty (; ; 960–1279) was an imperial dynasty of China that began in 960 and lasted until 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song following his usurpation of the throne of the Later Zhou. The Song conquered the rest ...
Song dynasty
The Song dynasty (; ; 960–1279) was an imperial dynasty of China that began in 960 and lasted until 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song following his usurpation of the throne of the Later Zhou. The Song conquered the rest ...
.