Vitruvius (; c. 80–70 BC – after c. 15 BC) was a Roman architect and engineer during the 1st century BC, known for his multi-volume work entitled ''
De architectura
(''On architecture'', published as ''Ten Books on Architecture'') is a treatise on architecture written by the Roman architect and military engineer Marcus Vitruvius Pollio and dedicated to his patron, the emperor Caesar Augustus, as a guide f ...
''. He originated the idea that all buildings should have three attributes: , , and ("strength", "utility", and "beauty"). These principles were later widely adopted in
Roman architecture. His discussion of perfect proportion in architecture and the human body led to the famous
Renaissance drawing of the ''
Vitruvian Man'' by
Leonardo da Vinci.
Little is known about Vitruvius' life, but by his own description
[De Arch. Book 1, preface. section 2.] he served as an artilleryman, the third class of arms in the Roman military offices. He probably served as a senior officer of artillery in charge of ''doctores ballistarum'' (artillery experts) and ''libratores'' who actually operated the machines. As an
army engineer
Military engineering is loosely defined as the art, science, and practice of designing and building military works and maintaining lines of military transport and military communications. Military engineers are also responsible for logistics b ...
he specialized in the construction of ''
ballista'' and ''
scorpio''
artillery war machines
War is an intense armed conflict between states, governments, societies, or paramilitary groups such as mercenaries, insurgents, and militias. It is generally characterized by extreme violence, destruction, and mortality, using regular o ...
for
sieges. It is possible that Vitruvius served with
Julius Caesar
Gaius Julius Caesar (; ; 12 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC), was a Roman general and statesman. A member of the First Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in the Gallic Wars before defeating his political rival Pompey in a civil war, and ...
's chief engineer
Lucius Cornelius Balbus.
Vitruvius' ''De architectura'' was widely copied and survives in many dozens of manuscripts throughout the Middle Ages,
though in 1414 it was "rediscovered" by the Florentine humanist
Poggio Bracciolini in the
library of Saint Gall Abbey.
Leon Battista Alberti published it in his seminal treatise on architecture, ''
De re aedificatoria'' (c. 1450). The first known Latin printed edition was by Fra Giovanni Sulpitius in Rome in 1486. Translations followed in Italian, French, English, German, Spanish, and several other languages. Though the original illustrations have been lost, the first illustrated edition was published in
Venice
Venice ( ; it, Venezia ; vec, Venesia or ) is a city in northeastern Italy and the capital of the Veneto Regions of Italy, region. It is built on a group of 118 small islands that are separated by canals and linked by over 400 ...
in 1511 by
Fra Giovanni Giocondo, with
woodcut illustrations based on descriptions in the text.
Life and career
Little is known about Vitruvius' life. Most inferences about him are extracted from his only surviving work ''
De Architectura
(''On architecture'', published as ''Ten Books on Architecture'') is a treatise on architecture written by the Roman architect and military engineer Marcus Vitruvius Pollio and dedicated to his patron, the emperor Caesar Augustus, as a guide f ...
''. His full name is sometimes given as "Marcus Vitruvius Pollio", but both the first and last names are uncertain.
Marcus Cetius Faventinus writes of "Vitruvius Polio aliique auctores"; this can be read as "Vitruvius Polio, and others" or, less likely, as "Vitruvius, Polio, and others". An inscription in Verona, which names a ''
Lucius Vitruvius Cordo'', and an inscription from
Thilbilis in North Africa, which names a ''Marcus Vitruvius Mamurra'' have been suggested as evidence that Vitruvius and
Mamurra (who was a military ''praefectus fabrum'' under
Julius Caesar
Gaius Julius Caesar (; ; 12 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC), was a Roman general and statesman. A member of the First Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in the Gallic Wars before defeating his political rival Pompey in a civil war, and ...
) were from the same family; or were even the same individual. Neither association, however, is borne out by ''De Architectura'' (which Vitruvius dedicated to
Augustus), nor by the little that is known of Mamurra.
Vitruvius was a military engineer (''
praefectus fabrum''), or a ''
praefect architectus armamentarius'' of the ''
apparitor'' status group (a branch of the Roman civil service). He is mentioned in
Pliny the Elder's table of contents for ''
Naturalis Historia'' (Natural History), in the heading for
mosaic techniques.
Frontinus refers to "Vitruvius the architect" in his late 1st-century work ''
De aquaeductu''.
Likely born a free Roman citizen, by his own account, Vitruvius served in the
Roman army
The Roman army (Latin: ) was the armed forces deployed by the Romans throughout the duration of Ancient Rome, from the Roman Kingdom (c. 500 BC) to the Roman Republic (500–31 BC) and the Roman Empire (31 BC–395 AD), and its medieval continu ...
under Caesar with the otherwise poorly identified Marcus Aurelius, Publius Minidius, and Gnaeus Cornelius. These names vary depending on the edition of ''De architectura''. Publius Minidius is also written as Publius Numidicus and Publius Numidius, speculated as the same Publius Numisius inscribed on the
Roman Theatre at Heraclea.
As an
army engineer
Military engineering is loosely defined as the art, science, and practice of designing and building military works and maintaining lines of military transport and military communications. Military engineers are also responsible for logistics b ...
he specialized in the construction of ''
ballista'' and ''
scorpio''
artillery war machines
War is an intense armed conflict between states, governments, societies, or paramilitary groups such as mercenaries, insurgents, and militias. It is generally characterized by extreme violence, destruction, and mortality, using regular o ...
for
sieges. It is speculated that Vitruvius served with Caesar's chief engineer
Lucius Cornelius Balbus.
The locations where he served can be reconstructed from, for example, descriptions of the building methods of various "foreign tribes". Although he describes places throughout ''De Architectura'', he does not say he was present. His service likely included
north Africa,
Hispania,
Gaul (including
Aquitaine) and
Pontus.
To place the role of Vitruvius the military engineer in context, a description of "The Prefect of the camp" or army engineer is quoted here as given by
Flavius Vegetius Renatus
Publius (or Flavius) Vegetius Renatus, known as Vegetius (), was a writer of the Later Roman Empire (late 4th century). Nothing is known of his life or station beyond what is contained in his two surviving works: ''Epitoma rei militaris'' (also re ...
in ''The Military Institutions of the Romans'':
The Prefect of the camp, though inferior in rank to the refect had a post of no small importance. The position of the camp, the direction of the entrenchments, the inspection of the tents or huts of the soldiers and the baggage were comprehended in his province. His authority extended over the sick, and the physicians who had the care of them; and he regulated the expenses relative thereto. He had the charge of providing carriages, bathhouses and the proper tools for sawing and cutting wood, digging trenches, raising parapets, sinking wells and bringing water into the camp. He likewise had the care of furnishing the troops with wood and straw, as well as the rams, '' onagri,'' ''balistae'' and all the other engines of war under his direction. This post was always conferred on an officer of great skill, experience and long service, and who consequently was capable of instructing others in those branches of the profession in which he had distinguished himself.
At various locations described by Vitruvius, battles and
sieges
A siege is a military blockade of a city, or fortress, with the intent of conquering by attrition, or a well-prepared assault. This derives from la, sedere, lit=to sit. Siege warfare is a form of constant, low-intensity conflict characterized ...
occurred. He is the only source for the siege of
Larignum in 56 BC. Of the battlegrounds of the
Gallic War
The Gallic Wars were waged between 58 and 50 BC by the Roman general Julius Caesar against the peoples of Gaul (present-day France, Belgium, Germany and Switzerland). Gallic, Germanic, and British tribes fought to defend their homel ...
there are references to:
* The siege and massacre of the 40,000 residents at
Avaricum in 52 BC.
Vercingetorix commented that "the Romans did not conquer by valour nor in the field, but by a kind of art and skill in assault, with which they
aulsthemselves were unacquainted."
* The broken siege at
Gergovia in 52 BC.
* The circumvallation and
Battle of Alesia
The Battle of Alesia or Siege of Alesia (September 52 BC) was a military engagement in the Gallic Wars around the Gallic ''oppidum'' (fortified settlement) of Alesia in modern France, a major centre of the Mandubii tribe. It was fought by ...
in 52 BC. The women and children of the encircled city were evicted to conserve food, and then starved to death between the opposing walls of the defenders and besiegers.
* The siege of
Uxellodunum in 51 BC.
These are all sieges of large Gallic ''
oppida''. Of the sites involved in
Caesar's civil war, we find the
Siege of Massilia
The siege of Massilia, including two naval engagements, was an episode of Caesar's Civil War, fought in 49 BC between forces loyal to the Optimates and a detachment of Caesar's army. The siege was conducted by Gaius Trebonius, one of Caesar's s ...
in 49 BC, the
Battle of Dyrrhachium of 48 BC (modern Albania), the
Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC (Hellas – Greece), the
Battle of Zela
The Battle of Zela was a battle fought in 47 BC between Julius Caesar and Pharnaces II of the Kingdom of Pontus. The battle took place near Zela (modern Zile), which is now a small hilltop town in the Tokat province of northern Turkey. The batt ...
of 47 BC (modern Turkey), and the
Battle of Thapsus in 46 BC in Caesar's
African
African or Africans may refer to:
* Anything from or pertaining to the continent of Africa:
** People who are native to Africa, descendants of natives of Africa, or individuals who trace their ancestry to indigenous inhabitants of Africa
*** Ethn ...
campaign.
A
legion that fits the same sequence of locations is the
Legio VI Ferrata
Legio VI Ferrata ("Sixth Ironclad Legion") was a legion of the Imperial Roman army. In 30 BC it became part of the emperor Augustus's standing army. It continued in existence into the 4th century. A ''Legio VI'' fought in the Roman Republican ci ...
, of which ''ballista'' would be an auxiliary unit.
Mainly known for his writings, Vitruvius was himself an architect. In Roman times architecture was a broader subject than at present including the modern fields of architecture,
construction management
Construction management (CM) is a professional service that uses specialized, project management techniques and software to oversee the planning, design, construction and closeout of a project. The purpose of Construction management is to control ...
,
construction engineering,
chemical engineering, civil engineering,
materials engineering, mechanical engineering,
military engineering
Military engineering is loosely defined as the art, science, and practice of designing and building military works and maintaining lines of military transport and military communications. Military engineers are also responsible for logistics be ...
and
urban planning;
architectural engineers consider him the first of their discipline, a specialization previously known as technical architecture.
In his work describing the construction of military installations, he also commented on the
miasma theory
The miasma theory (also called the miasmatic theory) is an obsolete medical theory that held that diseases—such as cholera, chlamydia, or the Black Death—were caused by a ''miasma'' (, Ancient Greek for 'pollution'), a noxious form of "bad ...
– the idea that unhealthy air from wetlands was the cause of illness, saying:
Frontinus mentions Vitruvious in connection with the standard sizes of
pipes: the role he is most widely respected. He is often credited as father of
architectural acoustics for describing the technique of ''
echeas'' placement in theaters.
The only building, however, that we know Vitruvius to have worked on is one he tells us about, a ''
basilica'' completed in 19 BC. It was built at Fanum Fortunae, now the modern town of
Fano. The ''Basilica di Fano'' (to give the building its Italian name) has disappeared so completely that its very site is a matter of conjecture, although various attempts have been made to visualise it. The early Christian practice of converting Roman ''basilicae'' (public buildings) into cathedrals implies the ''basilica'' may be incorporated into the cathedral in Fano.
In later years the emperor Augustus, through his sister
Octavia Minor, sponsored Vitruvius, entitling him with what may have been a pension to guarantee financial independence.
Whether ''De architectura'' was written by one author or is a compilation completed by subsequent librarians and copyists, remains an open question. The date of his death is unknown, which suggests that he had enjoyed only a little popularity during his lifetime.
Gerolamo Cardano, in his 1552 book ''De subtilitate rerum'', ranks Vitruvius as one of the 12 persons whom he supposes to have excelled all men in the force of genius and invention; and would not have scrupled to have given him the first place if it could be imagined that he had delivered nothing but his own discoveries.
''De architectura''
Vitruvius is the author of ''De architectura, libri decem'', known today as ''The Ten Books on Architecture'',
[Vitruvius, Pollio (transl. Morris Hicky Morgan, 1960), ''The Ten Books on Architecture''. Courier Dover Publications. .] a treatise written in
Latin on architecture, dedicated to the emperor Augustus. In the preface of Book I, Vitruvius dedicates his writings to giving personal knowledge of the quality of buildings to the emperor. Likely Vitruvius is referring to
Marcus Agrippa
Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa (; BC – 12 BC) was a Roman general, statesman, and architect who was a close friend, son-in-law, and lieutenant to the Roman emperor Augustus. He was responsible for the construction of some of the most notable build ...
's campaign of public repairs and improvements. This work is the only surviving major book on architecture from
classical antiquity. According to Petri Liukkonen, this text "influenced deeply from the
Early Renaissance onwards artists, thinkers, and architects, among them
Leon Battista Alberti (1404–1472),
Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519), and
Michelangelo
Michelangelo di Lodovico Buonarroti Simoni (; 6 March 1475 – 18 February 1564), known as Michelangelo (), was an Italian sculptor, painter, architect, and poet of the High Renaissance. Born in the Republic of Florence, his work was insp ...
(1475–1564)."
The next major book on architecture,
Alberti's reformulation of ''Ten Books'', was not written until 1452.
Vitruvius is famous for asserting in his book ''De architectura'' that a structure must exhibit the three qualities of ''firmitatis, utilitatis, venustatis'' – that is, stability, utility, and beauty. These are sometimes termed the Vitruvian virtues or the Vitruvian Triad. According to Vitruvius, architecture is an imitation of nature. As birds and bees built their nests, so humans constructed housing from natural materials, that gave them shelter against the elements. When perfecting this art of building, the Greeks invented the architectural orders:
Doric Doric may refer to:
* Doric, of or relating to the Dorians of ancient Greece
** Doric Greek, the dialects of the Dorians
* Doric order, a style of ancient Greek architecture
* Doric mode, a synonym of Dorian mode
* Doric dialect (Scotland)
* Doric ...
,
Ionic and
Corinthian. It gave them a sense of proportion, culminating in understanding the proportions of the greatest work of art: the human body. This led Vitruvius in defining his
Vitruvian Man, as drawn later by
Leonardo da Vinci: the human body inscribed in the circle and the square (the fundamental geometric patterns of the cosmic order). In this book series, Vitruvius, also wrote about
climate in relation to housing architecture and how to choose locations for cities.
Scope
Vitruvius is sometimes loosely referred to as the first architect, but it is more accurate to describe him as the first Roman architect to have written surviving records of his field. He himself cites older but less complete works. He was less an original thinker or creative intellect than a codifier of existing architectural practice. Vitruvius had a much wider scope than modern architects.
Roman architects practised a wide variety of disciplines; in modern terms, they could be described as being engineers, architects,
landscape architects
A landscape architect is a person who is educated in the field of landscape architecture. The practice of landscape architecture includes: site analysis, site inventory, site planning, land planning, planting design, grading, storm water manageme ...
, surveyors, artists, and
craftsmen
Craftsman may refer to:
A profession
*Artisan, a skilled manual worker who makes items that may be functional or strictly decorative
* Master craftsman, an artisan who has achieved such a standard that he may establish his own workshop and take ...
combined. Etymologically the word architect derives from Greek words meaning 'master' and 'builder'. The first of the ''Ten Books'' deals with many subjects which now come within the scope of
landscape architecture
Landscape architecture is the design of outdoor areas, landmarks, and structures to achieve environmental, social-behavioural, or aesthetic outcomes. It involves the systematic design and general engineering of various structures for constructio ...
.
In Book I, Chapter 1, titled The Education of the Architect, Vitruvius instructs...
He goes on to say that the architect should be versed in drawing, geometry, optics (lighting), history, philosophy, music, theatre, medicine, and law.
In Book I, Chapter 3 (''The Departments of Architecture''), Vitruvius divides architecture into three branches, namely; building; the construction of
sundial
A sundial is a horological device that tells the time of day (referred to as civil time in modern usage) when direct sunlight shines by the apparent position of the Sun in the sky. In the narrowest sense of the word, it consists of a flat ...
s and
water clocks
A water clock or clepsydra (; ; ) is a timepiece by which time is measured by the regulated flow of liquid into (inflow type) or out from (outflow type) a vessel, and where the amount is then measured.
Water clocks are one of the oldest time-m ...
; and the design and use of machines in construction and warfare. He further divides building into public and private. Public building includes city planning, public security structures such as walls, gates and towers; the convenient placing of public facilities such as theatres, forums and markets, baths, roads and pavings; and the construction and position of shrines and temples for religious use.
Later books are devoted to the understanding, design and construction of each of these.
Proportions of man
In Book III, Chapter 1, Paragraph 3, Vitruvius writes about the proportions of man:
It was upon these writings that Renaissance engineers, architects and artists like
Mariano di Jacopo Taccola, Pellegrino Prisciani and
Francesco di Giorgio Martini and finally
Leonardo da Vinci based the illustration of the
Vitruvian Man.
Vitruvius described the human figure as being the principal source of proportion.
The drawing itself is often used as an implied symbol of the essential
symmetry
Symmetry (from grc, συμμετρία "agreement in dimensions, due proportion, arrangement") in everyday language refers to a sense of harmonious and beautiful proportion and balance. In mathematics, "symmetry" has a more precise definit ...
of the human body, and by extension, of the
universe as a whole.
Lists of names given in Book VII Introduction
In the introduction to book seven, Vitruvius goes to great lengths to present why he is qualified to write ''De Architectura''. This is the only location in the work where Vitruvius specifically addresses his personal breadth of knowledge. Similar to a modern reference section, the author's position as one who is knowledgeable and educated is established. The topics range across many fields of expertise reflecting that in Roman times as today construction is a diverse field. Vitruvius is clearly a well-read man.
In addition to providing his qualification, Vitruvius summarizes a recurring theme throughout the 10 books, a non-trivial and core contribution of his treatise beyond simply being a construction book. Vitruvius makes the point that the work of some of the most talented is unknown, while many of those of lesser talent but greater political position are famous.
This theme runs through Vitruvius's ten books repeatedly – echoing an implicit prediction that he and his works will also be forgotten.
Vitruvius illustrates this point by naming what he considers the most talented individuals in history.
Implicitly challenging the reader that they have never heard of some of these people, Vitruvius goes on and predicts that some of these individuals will be forgotten and their works
lost
Lost may refer to getting lost, or to:
Geography
*Lost, Aberdeenshire, a hamlet in Scotland
* Lake Okeechobee Scenic Trail, or LOST, a hiking and cycling trail in Florida, US
History
*Abbreviation of lost work, any work which is known to have bee ...
, while other, less deserving political characters of history will be forever remembered with pageantry.
*''List of physicists:''
Thales,
Democritus,
Anaxagoras
Anaxagoras (; grc-gre, Ἀναξαγόρας, ''Anaxagóras'', "lord of the assembly"; 500 – 428 BC) was a Pre-Socratic Greek philosopher. Born in Clazomenae at a time when Asia Minor was under the control of the Persian Empire, ...
,
Xenophanes
*''List of philosophers:''
Socrates,
Plato,
Aristotle,
Zeno,
Epicurus
Epicurus (; grc-gre, Ἐπίκουρος ; 341–270 BC) was an ancient Greek philosopher and sage who founded Epicureanism, a highly influential school of philosophy. He was born on the Greek island of Samos to Athenian parents. Influenced ...
*''List of kings:''
Croesus
Croesus ( ; Lydian: ; Phrygian: ; grc, Κροισος, Kroisos; Latin: ; reigned: c. 585 – c. 546 BC) was the king of Lydia, who reigned from 585 BC until his defeat by the Persian king Cyrus the Great in 547 or 546 BC.
Croesus was ...
,
Alexander the Great,
Darius
Darius may refer to:
Persian royalty
;Kings of the Achaemenid Empire
* Darius I (the Great, 550 to 487 BC)
* Darius II (423 to 404 BC)
* Darius III (Codomannus, 380 to 330 BC)
;Crown princes
* Darius (son of Xerxes I), crown prince of Persia, ma ...
*''On plagiarism:''
Aristophanes,
Ptolemy I Soter, a person named
Attalus Attalus or Attalos may refer to:
People
*Several members of the Attalid dynasty of Pergamon
** Attalus I, ruled 241 BC–197 BC
** Attalus II Philadelphus, ruled 160 BC–138 BC
** Attalus III, ruled 138 BC–133 BC
*Attalus, father of ...
*''On abusing dead authors:''
Zoilus Homeromastix,
Ptolemy II Philadelphus
; egy, Userkanaenre Meryamun Clayton (2006) p. 208
, predecessor = Ptolemy I
, successor = Ptolemy III
, horus = ''ḥwnw-ḳni'Khunuqeni''The brave youth
, nebty = ''wr-pḥtj'Urpekhti''Great of strength
, gol ...
*''On divergence of the visual rays:''
Agatharchus
Agatharchus or Agatharch ( grc, Ἀγάθαρχος) was a self-taught painter from Samos, who lived in the 5th century BC. His father was named Eudemos (Εὔδημος).
He is said by Vitruvius to have invented scenic painting, and to have pain ...
,
Aeschylus,
Democritus,
Anaxagoras
Anaxagoras (; grc-gre, Ἀναξαγόρας, ''Anaxagóras'', "lord of the assembly"; 500 – 428 BC) was a Pre-Socratic Greek philosopher. Born in Clazomenae at a time when Asia Minor was under the control of the Persian Empire, ...
*''List of writers on temples:'' Silenus, ''Theodorus'',
Chersiphron and
Metagenes,
Ictinus and
Carpion
Karpion was an ancient Greek architect and architectural theorist active in the fifth century BC. On the testimony of Vitruvius (7, praefatio 12) he and Iktinos co-authored a treatise on the proportions of the Parthenon, the major Periklean Temp ...
, ''Theodorus the Phocian'',
Hermogenes
Hermogenes is a Greek name (), meaning "born of Hermes". It may refer to:
* Hermogenes (potter) (fl. c. 550 BC), Attic Greek potter
* Hermogenes (philosopher) (fl. c. 400 BC), Greek
* Hermogenes of Priene (fl. c. 200 BC), Greek architect
* Hermog ...
,
Arcesius,
Satyrus and a person named
Pytheos
*''List of artists:''
Leochares
Leochares () was a Greek sculptor from Athens, who lived in the 4th century BC.
Works
Leochares worked at the construction of the Mausoleum of Mausolos at Halicarnassus, one of the "Seven Wonders of the Ancient World". The ''Diana of Versaille ...
,
Bryaxis
Bryaxis ( grc, Βρύαξις or Βρύασσις; fl. 350 BC) was a Greek sculptor. He created the sculptures on the north side of the mausoleum of Maussollos at Halicarnassus which was commissioned by the queen Artemisia II of Caria in memory o ...
,
Scopas,
Praxiteles, Timotheos
*''List of writers on laws of symmetry:'' ''Nexaris'', ''Theocydes'', a person named
Demophilus, ''Pollis'', a person named
Leonidas,
Silanion,
Melampus, ''Sarnacus'',
Euphranor
*''List of writers on machinery:''
Diades of Pella Diades of Pella ( grc, Διάδης Πελλαίος ''Diadis Pelleos''), surnamed the "Besieger" ( ''Poliorkitis''), was a Thessalian inventor of many siege engines, student of Philip II's military engineer Polyidus of Thessaly.
He lived in the 4t ...
,
Archytas
Archytas (; el, Ἀρχύτας; 435/410–360/350 BC) was an Ancient Greek philosopher, mathematician, music theorist, astronomer, statesman, and strategist. He was a scientist of the Pythagorean school and famous for being the reputed founder ...
,
Archimedes
Archimedes of Syracuse (;; ) was a Greek mathematician, physicist, engineer, astronomer, and inventor from the ancient city of Syracuse in Sicily. Although few details of his life are known, he is regarded as one of the leading scientists ...
,
Ctesibius, ''
Nymphodorus'',
Philo of Byzantium
Philo of Byzantium ( el, , ''Phílōn ho Byzántios'', ca. 280 BC – ca. 220 BC), also known as Philo Mechanicus, was a Greek engineer, physicist and writer on mechanics, who lived during the latter half of the 3rd century BC. Although he was f ...
,
Diphilus
Diphilus (Greek: Δίφιλος), of Sinope, was a poet of the new Attic comedy and a contemporary of Menander (342–291 BC). He is frequently listed together with Menander and Philemon, considered the three greatest poets of New Comedy. He was ...
,
Democles
Democles ( grc-gre, Δημοκλῆς; fl. 4th century BC) was an Athenian orator, and a contemporary of Demochares, among whose opponents he is mentioned.
He was a disciple of Theophrastus, and was chiefly known as the defender of the children ...
, ''Charias'',
Polyidus of Thessaly,
Pyrrus
Pyrrhus (; grc-gre, Πύρρος ; 319/318–272 BC) was a Greeks, Greek king and wikt:statesman, statesman of the Hellenistic period.Plutarch. ''Parallel Lives'',Pyrrhus... He was king of the List of ancient Greek tribes#Epirus, Greek tribe o ...
, ''Agesistratus''
*''List of writers on architecture:'' ''Fuficius'',
Terentius Varro The Terentii Varrones a branch of the '' gens Terentia'' in ancient Rome.
Members
* Gaius Terentius Varro (d. sometime after 200 BC), the surviving commander of the defeated Roman army at the Battle of Cannae.
* Aulus Terentius Varro, an envoy '' ...
, ''Publius Septimius (writer)''
*''List of architects:'' ''Antistates'', ''Callaeschrus'', ''Antimachides'', ''Pormus'', ''Cossutius''
*''List of greatest temple architects:'' ''Chersiphron of Gnosus'',
Metagenes,
Demetrius, ''Paeonius the Milesian'', ''Ephesian Daphnis'',
Ictinus,
Philo, ''Cossutius'', ''Gaius Mucianus''
Rediscovery
Vitruvius' ''
De architectura
(''On architecture'', published as ''Ten Books on Architecture'') is a treatise on architecture written by the Roman architect and military engineer Marcus Vitruvius Pollio and dedicated to his patron, the emperor Caesar Augustus, as a guide f ...
'' was "rediscovered" in 1414 by the Florentine humanist
Poggio Bracciolini in the
library of Saint Gall Abbey.
Leon Battista Alberti (1404–1472) publicised it in his seminal treatise on architecture, ''
De re aedificatoria'' (c. 1450). The first known Latin printed edition was by Fra Giovanni Sulpitius in Rome, 1486. Translations followed in Italian (
Cesare Cesariano, 1521), French (Jean Martin, 1547), English, German (
Walther H. Ryff, 1543) and Spanish and several other languages. The original illustrations had been lost and the first illustrated edition was published in
Venice
Venice ( ; it, Venezia ; vec, Venesia or ) is a city in northeastern Italy and the capital of the Veneto Regions of Italy, region. It is built on a group of 118 small islands that are separated by canals and linked by over 400 ...
in 1511 by
Fra Giovanni Giocondo, with
woodcut illustrations based on descriptions in the text. Later in the 16th-century
Andrea Palladio provided illustrations for
Daniele Barbaro's commentary on Vitruvius, published in Italian and Latin versions. The most famous illustration is probably Da Vinci's ''
Vitruvian Man''.
The surviving ruins of Roman antiquity, the
Roman Forum
The Roman Forum, also known by its Latin name Forum Romanum ( it, Foro Romano), is a rectangular forum (plaza) surrounded by the ruins of several important ancient government buildings at the center of the city of Rome. Citizens of the ancient ...
, temples, theatres, triumphal arches and their reliefs and statues offered visual examples of the descriptions in the Vitruvian text. Printed and illustrated editions of ''De Architectura'' inspired
Renaissance,
Baroque
The Baroque (, ; ) is a style of architecture, music, dance, painting, sculpture, poetry, and other arts that flourished in Europe from the early 17th century until the 1750s. In the territories of the Spanish and Portuguese empires including t ...
and
Neoclassical architecture.
Filippo Brunelleschi
Filippo Brunelleschi ( , , also known as Pippo; 1377 – 15 April 1446), considered to be a founding father of Renaissance architecture, was an Italian architect, designer, and sculptor, and is now recognized to be the first modern engineer, p ...
, for example, invented a new type of
hoist to lift the large stones for the dome of the cathedral in
Florence and was inspired by ''De Architectura'' as well as surviving Roman monuments such as the
Pantheon
Pantheon may refer to:
* Pantheon (religion), a set of gods belonging to a particular religion or tradition, and a temple or sacred building
Arts and entertainment Comics
*Pantheon (Marvel Comics), a fictional organization
* ''Pantheon'' (Lone St ...
and the
Baths of Diocletian.
Notable editions
Latin
* 1495–1496
* 1543
* 1800 Augustus Rode, Berlin
* 1857
Teubner Edition by Valentin Rose
* 1899
Teubner Edition
* 1912
Teubner edition at
The Latin Library
* Bill Thayer, transcription of the 1912
Teubner Edition
Italian
*
Cesare Cesariano, 1521,
Como, Italy
Como (, ; lmo, Còmm, label= Comasco , or ; lat, Novum Comum; rm, Com; french: Côme) is a city and ''comune'' in Lombardy, Italy. It is the administrative capital of the Province of Como.
Its proximity to Lake Como and to the Alps h ...
, includes illustrations by
Cesare Cesariano
* Danielle Barbaro, includes illustration by
Andrea Palladio
French
* Jean Martin, 1547
*
Claude Perrault
Claude Perrault (25 September 1613 – 9 October 1688) was a French physician and an amateur architect, best known for his participation in the design of the east façade of the Louvre in Paris.[Auguste Choisy
Auguste Choisy (7 February 1841 – 18 September 1909) was a French architectural historian and author of ''Histoire de l'Architecture''.
Biography
Choisy was born in Vitry-le-François. He studied architecture in Paris at the École Polytechniq ...]
, 1909
English
*
Henry Wotton, 1624
*
Joseph Gwilt
Joseph Gwilt (11 January 1784 – 14 September 1863) was an English architect and writer.
He was the son of George Gwilt, architect surveyor to the county of Surrey, and was born at Southwark. George Gwilt the Younger, was his elder brother.
...
, 1826
* Bill Thayer transcription of the Gwilt 1826 Edition
*
, with illustrations prepared by
Herbert Langford Warren
Herbert Langford Warren (29 March 1857 – 27 June 1917) was an architect who practiced in New England. He is noted for his involvement in the American Arts and Crafts movement, and as the founder of the School of Architecture at Harvard Unive ...
, 1914,
Harvard University Press
* Frank Granger,
Loeb Edition, 1931
*
Ingrid Rowland
Ingrid D. Rowland (b. August 19, 1953) is a professor at the University of Notre Dame School of Architecture. She is a frequent contributor to ''The New York Review of Books''.
Biography
She is the daughter of Nobel Chemistry Prize laureate Fra ...
, 2001
* Thomas Gordon Smith, The Monacelli Press (5 January 2004)
Roman technology
Books VIII, IX and X form the basis of much of what we know about Roman technology, now augmented by archaeological studies of extant remains, such as the
water mills at
Barbegal in France. The other major source of information is the ''
Naturalis Historia'' compiled by
Pliny the Elder much later in c. 75 AD.
Machines
The work is important for its descriptions of the many different machines used for engineering structures such as
hoists,
cranes
Crane or cranes may refer to:
Common meanings
* Crane (bird), a large, long-necked bird
* Crane (machine), industrial machinery for lifting
** Crane (rail), a crane suited for use on railroads
People and fictional characters
* Crane (surname), ...
and
pulley
A pulley is a wheel on an axle or shaft that is designed to support movement and change of direction of a taut cable or belt, or transfer of power between the shaft and cable or belt. In the case of a pulley supported by a frame or shell that ...
s, as well as war machines such as
catapult
A catapult is a ballistic device used to launch a projectile a great distance without the aid of gunpowder or other propellants – particularly various types of ancient and medieval siege engines. A catapult uses the sudden release of stored p ...
s, ''
ballistae
The ballista (Latin, from Greek βαλλίστρα ''ballistra'' and that from βάλλω ''ballō'', "throw"), plural ballistae, sometimes called bolt thrower, was an ancient missile weapon that launched either bolts or stones at a distant ta ...
,'' and
siege engines. As a practising engineer, Vitruvius must be speaking from personal experience rather than simply describing the works of others. He also describes the construction of
sundials and
water clocks
A water clock or clepsydra (; ; ) is a timepiece by which time is measured by the regulated flow of liquid into (inflow type) or out from (outflow type) a vessel, and where the amount is then measured.
Water clocks are one of the oldest time-m ...
, and the use of an
aeolipile (the first
steam engine
A steam engine is a heat engine that performs mechanical work using steam as its working fluid. The steam engine uses the force produced by steam pressure to push a piston back and forth inside a cylinder. This pushing force can be trans ...
) as an experiment to demonstrate the nature of atmospheric air movements (wind).
Aqueducts
His description of
aqueduct construction includes the way they are surveyed, and the careful choice of materials needed, although
Frontinus (a general who was appointed in the late 1st century AD to administer the many aqueducts of Rome), writing a century later, gives much more detail of the practical problems involved in their construction and maintenance. Surely Vitruvius' book would have been of great assistance in this. Vitruvius was writing in the 1st century BC when many of the finest
Roman aqueducts were built, and survive to this day, such as those at
Segovia and the
Pont du Gard. The use of the
inverted siphon is described in detail, together with the problems of high pressures developed in the pipe at the base of the siphon, a practical problem with which he seems to be acquainted.
Materials
He describes many different
construction materials used for a wide variety of different structures, as well as such details as
stucco
Stucco or render is a construction material made of aggregates, a binder, and water. Stucco is applied wet and hardens to a very dense solid. It is used as a decorative coating for walls and ceilings, exterior walls, and as a sculptural and a ...
painting. Concrete and
lime receive in-depth descriptions.
Vitruvius is cited as one of the earliest sources to connect lead mining and manufacture, its use in drinking water pipes, and its adverse effects on health. For this reason, he recommended the use of clay pipes and masonry channels in the provision of piped drinking-water.
Vitruvius is the source for the anecdote that credits
Archimedes
Archimedes of Syracuse (;; ) was a Greek mathematician, physicist, engineer, astronomer, and inventor from the ancient city of Syracuse in Sicily. Although few details of his life are known, he is regarded as one of the leading scientists ...
with the discovery of the
mass-to-volume ratio while relaxing in his bath. Having been asked to investigate the suspected adulteration of the gold used to make a crown, Archimedes realised that the crown's volume could be measured exactly by its displacement of water, and ran into the street with the cry of''
Eureka!''
Dewatering machines
He describes the construction of
Archimedes' screw in Chapter X (without mentioning Archimedes by name). It was a device widely used for raising water to irrigate fields and drain mines. Other lifting machines he mentions include the endless chain of buckets and the
reverse overshot water-wheel
Frequently used in mines and probably elsewhere (such as agricultural drainage), the reverse overshot water wheel was a Roman innovation to help remove water from the lowest levels of underground workings. It is described by Vitruvius in his work ' ...
. Remains of the water wheels used for lifting water were discovered when old mines were re-opened at
Rio Tinto in Spain,
Rosia Montana Rosia may refer to:
*Rosia, the Greek name for Rus' (region)
* Rosia, Sovicille, a village in Tuscany, Italy
* Roșia (disambiguation), villages in Romania
*Roșia Montană, a commune in Romania
*Roșia, a tributary of the river Dorna in Romania
* ...
in Romania and
Dolaucothi in west
Wales. The Rio Tinto wheel is now shown in the
British Museum, and the Dolaucothi specimen in the
National Museum of Wales.
Surveying instruments
That he must have been well practised in surveying is shown by his descriptions of surveying instruments, especially the water level or ''
chorobates
The chorobates, described by Vitruvius in Book VIII of the '' De architectura'', was used to measure horizontal planes and was especially important in the construction of aqueducts.
Similar to modern spirit levels, the chorobates consisted of ...
,'' which he compares favourably with the ''
groma,'' a device using
plumb lines. They were essential in all building operations, but especially in aqueduct construction, where a uniform gradient was important to the provision of a regular supply of water without damage to the walls of the channel. He also developed one of the first
odometer
An odometer or odograph is an instrument used for measuring the distance traveled by a vehicle, such as a bicycle or car. The device may be electronic, mechanical, or a combination of the two (electromechanical). The noun derives from ancient Gr ...
s, consisting of a wheel of known circumference that dropped a pebble into a container on every rotation.
Central heating
He describes the many innovations made in building design to improve the living conditions of the inhabitants. Foremost among them is the development of the ''
hypocaust,'' a type of
central heating where hot air developed by a fire was channelled under the floor and inside the walls of
public baths and
villas. He gives explicit instructions how to design such buildings so that
fuel efficiency
Fuel efficiency is a form of thermal efficiency, meaning the ratio of effort to result of a process that converts chemical potential energy contained in a carrier (fuel) into kinetic energy or work. Overall fuel efficiency may vary per device, wh ...
is maximised, so that for example, the ''
caldarium'' is next to the ''
tepidarium'' followed by the ''
frigidarium''. He also advises on using a type of regulator to control the heat in the hot rooms, a
bronze
Bronze is an alloy consisting primarily of copper, commonly with about 12–12.5% tin and often with the addition of other metals (including aluminium, manganese, nickel, or zinc) and sometimes non-metals, such as phosphorus, or metalloids such ...
disc set into the roof under a circular aperture which could be raised or lowered by a
pulley
A pulley is a wheel on an axle or shaft that is designed to support movement and change of direction of a taut cable or belt, or transfer of power between the shaft and cable or belt. In the case of a pulley supported by a frame or shell that ...
to adjust the ventilation. Although he does not suggest it himself, it is likely that his dewatering devices such as the
reverse overshot water-wheel
Frequently used in mines and probably elsewhere (such as agricultural drainage), the reverse overshot water wheel was a Roman innovation to help remove water from the lowest levels of underground workings. It is described by Vitruvius in his work ' ...
were used in the larger baths to lift water to header tanks at the top of the larger ''thermae'', such as the
Baths of Diocletian. The one which was used in Bath of Caracalla for grinding flour.
Legacy
*
Vitruvian Man – a drawing by
Leonardo da Vinci
*
''Vitruvius Britannicus'' – 18th century work on British architecture named after Vitruvius.
*''
Den Danske Vitruvius
''Den Danske Vitruvius'' (English: ''The Danish Vitruvius'') is a richly illustrated 18th-century architectural work on Danish monumental buildings of the period, written by the Danish Baroque architect Lauritz de Thurah. It was commissioned by C ...
'' – 18th century work on Danish architecture – inspired by Vitruvius Britannicus.
* ''The American Vitruvius'' – 20th century work on civil architecture by
Werner Hegemann
Werner Hegemann (June 15, 1881, Mannheim – April 12, 1936, New York City) was an internationally known city planner, architecture critic, and author. A leading German intellectual during the Weimar Republic, his criticism of Hitler and the Naz ...
*
William Vitruvius Morrison (1794–1838), the son of Irish architect
Sir Richard Morrison and himself a noted architect of great houses, bridges, court houses and prisons.
*A small
lunar crater
Lunar craters are impact craters on Earth's Moon. The Moon's surface has many craters, all of which were formed by impacts. The International Astronomical Union currently recognizes 9,137 craters, of which 1,675 have been dated.
History
The wor ...
has been named after Vitruvius and also an elongated lunar mountain
Mons Vitruvius
Mons Vitruvius is a mountain on the Moon that is located in the Montes Taurus region just to the north of Mare Tranquillitatis and to the southeast of Mare Serenitatis. This massif is located at selenographic coordinates of 19.4° N, 30.8° E, an ...
close by.
*The
Design Quality Indicator (DQI) tool for buildings uses Vitruvius's principles.
See also
*
Aristotle
*
Ctesibius
*
Colen Campbell
Colen Campbell (15 June 1676 – 13 September 1729) was a pioneering Scottish architect and architectural writer, credited as a founder of the Georgian style. For most of his career, he resided in Italy and England. As well as his architectural ...
*
Frontinus
*
Pliny the Elder
*
Roman architecture
*
Roman aqueducts
*
Roman engineering
The ancient Romans were famous for their advanced engineering accomplishments. Technology for bringing running water into cities was developed in the east, but transformed by the Romans into a technology inconceivable in Greece. The architecture ...
*
Roman technology
Roman technology is the collection of antiques, skills, methods, processes, and engineering practices which supported Roman civilization and made possible the expansion of the economy and military of ancient Rome (753 BC – 476 AD).
The Roma ...
*
Vitruvian man
*
Vitruvian scroll
The Vitruvian scroll is a scroll pattern used in architectural moldings and borders in other media. It is also known as the Vitruvian wave, wave scroll, or running dog pattern. The pattern resembles waves in water or a series of parchment scrol ...
*
Lucius Vitruvius Cordo
References
Sources
* Indra Kagis McEwen, ''Vitruvius: Writing the Body of Architecture''. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2004.
* B. Baldwin, "The Date, Identity, and Career of Vitruvius". In ''Latomus'' 49 (1990), 425–34.
*
Kai Brodersen
Kai Brodersen (born 6 June 1958) is a contemporary ancient historian and classicist on the faculty of the University of Erfurt. He has edited, and translated, both ancient works and modern classical studies. His research focuses on "Applied Scie ...
& Christiane Brodersen: Cetius Faventinus. Das römische Eigenheim / De architectura privata, Latin and German. Wiesbaden: Marix 2015,
Further reading
* Clarke, Georgia. 2002. "Vitruvian Paradigms". ''Papers of the British School at Rome'' 70:319–346.
* De Angelis, Francesco. 2015. "Greek and Roman Specialized Writing on Art and Architecture". In ''The Oxford Handbook of Greek and Roman Art and Architecture''. Edited by Clemente Marconi, 41–69. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
* König, Alice. 2009. "From Architect to Imperator: Vitruvius and his Addressee in the De Architectura". In ''Authorial Voices in Greco-Roman Technical Writing''. Edited by Liba Chaia Taub and Aude Doody, 31–52. Trier, Germany: WVT Wissenschaftlicher Verlag Trier.
* Milnor, Kristina L. 2005. "Other Men's Wives". In ''Gender, Domesticity and the Age of Augustus: Inventing Private Life''. By
Kristina Milnor Kristina Milnor is Professor of Classics in the Department of Classics and Ancient Studies at Barnard College, Columbia University. She specialises in Latin literature, Roman history, feminist theory and gender studies.
Education
Milnor received ...
, 94–139. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
* Nichols, Marden Fitzpatrick. 2017".Author and Audience in Vitruvius’ De Architectura". Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
* Rowland, Ingrid D. 2014. "Vitruvius and His Influence". In ''A Companion to Roman Architecture''. Edited by Roger B. Ulrich and Caroline K. Quenemoen, 412–425. Malden, MA, and Oxford: Blackwell.
* Sear, Frank B. 1990. "Vitruvius and Roman Theater Design". ''American Journal of Archaeology'' 94.2: 249–258.
* Smith, Thomas Gordon. 2004. ''Vitruvius on Architecture''. New York: Monacelli Press.
* Wallace-Hadrill, Andrew. 1994. "The Articulation of the House". In ''Houses and Society in Pompeii and Herculaneum''. By Andrew Wallace-Hadrill, 38–61. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.
* Wallace-Hadrill, Andrew. 2008. "Vitruvius: Building Roman Identity". In ''Rome's Cultural Revolution''. By Andrew Wallace-Hadrill, 144–210. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
External links
*
*
*
''The Ten Books on Architecture''online: cross-linked Latin text and English translation
''The Ten Books on Architecture''at the Perseus Classics Collection. Latin and English text. Latin text has hyperlinks to pop-up dictionary.
An Abridgment of the Architecture of Vitruvius (Morris Hicky Morgan translation with illustrations)
Vitruvius online*
ttp://www.bl.uk/learning/cult/bodies/vitruvius/proportion.html Vitruvius' theories of beauty– a learning resource from the British Library
Animation: The Odometer of VitruvOnline Galleries, History of Science Collections, University of Oklahoma LibrariesHigh resolution images of works by Vitruvius in .jpg and .tiff format.
digital scans in high resolution of 73 editions of Vitruvius from 1497 to 1909from th
Werner Oechslin Library, Einsiedeln, Switzerland* VITRUVII, M
''De architectura'' Naples, (c. 1480). A
Somni
{{Authority control
1st-century BC births
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Classical antiquarian architecture writers
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Year of death unknown