Amarna letter EA 364, titled ''Justified War,'' is a
clay tablet
In the Ancient Near East, clay tablets (Akkadian ) were used as a writing medium, especially for writing in cuneiform, throughout the Bronze Age and well into the Iron Age.
Cuneiform characters were imprinted on a wet clay tablet with a stylu ...
letter from
Ayyab
Ayyab was a ruler of Aštartu (present day Tell Ashtara) south of Damascus. According to the Amarna letters, cities/city-states and their kings in the region — just like countries to the north, such as Hatti of the Hittites, fell prey to a w ...
, ruler of Aštartu, to Pharaoh
Akhenaten
Akhenaten (pronounced ), also spelled Echnaton, Akhenaton, ( egy, ꜣḫ-n-jtn ''ʾŪḫə-nə-yātəy'', , meaning "Effective for the Aten"), was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh reigning or 1351–1334 BC, the tenth ruler of the Eighteenth Dy ...
(1350s–1330s BC).
It is one of the
Amarna letters
The Amarna letters (; sometimes referred to as the Amarna correspondence or Amarna tablets, and cited with the abbreviation EA, for "El Amarna") are an archive, written on clay tablets, primarily consisting of diplomatic correspondence between t ...
, 382 in total, dating from
c. 1360 – c. 1332 BC. The initial
corpus
Corpus is Latin for "body". It may refer to:
Linguistics
* Text corpus, in linguistics, a large and structured set of texts
* Speech corpus, in linguistics, a large set of speech audio files
* Corpus linguistics, a branch of linguistics
Music
* ...
of letters were found at the city of
Amarna
Amarna (; ar, العمارنة, al-ʿamārnah) is an extensive Egyptian archaeological site containing the remains of what was the capital city of the late Eighteenth Dynasty. The city was established in 1346 BC, built at the direction of the Ph ...
, founded by
Akhenaten
Akhenaten (pronounced ), also spelled Echnaton, Akhenaton, ( egy, ꜣḫ-n-jtn ''ʾŪḫə-nə-yātəy'', , meaning "Effective for the Aten"), was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh reigning or 1351–1334 BC, the tenth ruler of the Eighteenth Dy ...
, in the floor of the
Bureau of Correspondence of Pharaoh
The building known as the Bureau of Correspondence of Pharaoh (also known as the Records Office) is located in the 'Central City' area of the ancient Egyptian city of Akhetaten, known as Amarna in modern times. The city was the short-lived capit ...
.
The letter is a reply to the pharaoh referring to a letter from the pharaoh's messenger
Tahmassi. In it, Ayyab, ''governing-man'' (often—("who/which"-(
ša))-"
man
A man is an adult male human. Prior to adulthood, a male human is referred to as a boy (a male child or adolescent). Like most other male mammals, a man's genome usually inherits an X chromosome from the mother and a Y chromo ...
,
city
A city is a human settlement of notable size.Goodall, B. (1987) ''The Penguin Dictionary of Human Geography''. London: Penguin.Kuper, A. and Kuper, J., eds (1996) ''The Social Science Encyclopedia''. 2nd edition. London: Routledge. It can be def ...
")-
Aštartu, who is in control of one of the
city-state
A city-state is an independent sovereign city which serves as the center of political, economic, and cultural life over its contiguous territory. They have existed in many parts of the world since the dawn of history, including cities such as ...
s in Canaan, is stating his commitment to guarding the city (and the region), after three cities in the region were taken in attacks by
Habiru
Habiru (sometimes written as Hapiru, and more accurately as ʿApiru, meaning "dusty, dirty"; Sumerian: 𒊓𒄤, ''sagaz''; Akkadian: 𒄩𒁉𒊒, ''ḫabiru'' or ''ʿaperu'') is a term used in 2nd-millennium BCE texts throughout the Fertile C ...
raiders.
The tablet measures about 4 in x 2.3 in and is in relatively pristine condition. Because of its narrowness, each line averages only between 4 and 7
cuneiform
Cuneiform is a logo-syllabic script that was used to write several languages of the Ancient Middle East. The script was in active use from the early Bronze Age until the beginning of the Common Era. It is named for the characteristic wedge-sha ...
characters in the
Akkadian language
Akkadian (, Akkadian: )John Huehnergard & Christopher Woods, "Akkadian and Eblaite", ''The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World's Ancient Languages''. Ed. Roger D. Woodard (2004, Cambridge) Pages 218-280 is an extinct East Semitic language th ...
.
Glossenkeil
The ''Winkelhaken'' (, "angular hook"), also simply called a hook, is one of five basic wedge elements appearing in the composition of signs in Akkadian cuneiform. It was realized by pressing the point of the stylus into the clay.
A single Winkelh ...
s used in letter 364:
Text
The following
English language
English is a West Germanic language of the Indo-European language family, with its earliest forms spoken by the inhabitants of early medieval England. It is named after the Angles, one of the ancient Germanic peoples that migrated to the is ...
text, and
Akkadian Akkadian or Accadian may refer to:
* Akkadians, inhabitants of the Akkadian Empire
* Akkadian language, an extinct Eastern Semitic language
* Akkadian literature, literature in this language
* Akkadian cuneiform
Cuneiform is a logo- syllabi ...
is from
Rainey Rainey is a name of British-Irish origin.
People with the surname
* Bobby Rainey (born 1987), American National Football League player
* Chuck Rainey (born 1940), American bassist
* David "Puck" Rainey (born 1968), American reality TV personalit ...
, 1970, ''El Amarna Tablets, 359-379'':
:(Line 1)--To the "King, my Lord",
:(2)--thus (speaks)
Ayyab
Ayyab was a ruler of Aštartu (present day Tell Ashtara) south of Damascus. According to the Amarna letters, cities/city-states and their kings in the region — just like countries to the north, such as Hatti of the Hittites, fell prey to a w ...
:(3)--your servant: at
:(4)--the feet of my lord
:(5)--7 times (and) 7 times
:(6)--I have fallen down. I am the servant
:(7)--of the "King, my Lord", ''"And"''--
Ù_(omitted_by_Rainey).html" ;"title="Ù_(cuneiform).html" ;"title=""and"=
Ù_(omitted_by_Rainey)">Ù_(cuneiform).html"_;"title=""and"=Ù_(cuneiform)">Ù_(omitted_by_Rainey):(8)--(''"and"'')_the_dust_of(at?)_(i.e._beneath)-(dust=_SAHAR_/_:_(–
Ù_(omitted_by_Rainey)">Ù_(cuneiform).html"_;"title=""and"=Ù_(cuneiform)">Ù_(omitted_by_Rainey):(8)--(''"and"'')_the_dust_of(at?)_(i.e._beneath)-(dust=_SAHAR_/_:_(–Glossenkeil_(Amarna_letters)">gl–)_-(
Ù_(omitted_by_Rainey)">Ù_(cuneiform).html"_;"title=""and"=Ù_(cuneiform)">Ù_(omitted_by_Rainey):(8)--(''"and"'')_the_dust_of(at?)_(i.e._beneath)-(dust=_SAHAR_/_:_(–Glossenkeil_(Amarna_letters)">gl–)_-(a_(cuneiform)">a-
Ù_(omitted_by_Rainey)">Ù_(cuneiform).html"_;"title=""and"=Ù_(cuneiform)">Ù_(omitted_by_Rainey):(8)--(''"and"'')_the_dust_of(at?)_(i.e._beneath)-(dust=_SAHAR_/_:_(–Glossenkeil_(Amarna_letters)">gl–)_-(a_(cuneiform)">a-pa_(cuneiform)">pa-
Ù_(omitted_by_Rainey)">Ù_(cuneiform).html"_;"title=""and"=Ù_(cuneiform)">Ù_(omitted_by_Rainey):(8)--(''"and"'')_the_dust_of(at?)_(i.e._beneath)-(dust=_SAHAR_/_:_(–Glossenkeil_(Amarna_letters)">gl–)_-(a_(cuneiform)">a-pa_(cuneiform)">pa-ru_(cuneiform)">ru)-("''And-("dust-and-dust")''"))_(____)
::i.e.((7.7-8))--("''And-("dust-and-dust")''")
:(9)--(at/beneath)-his_two_feet.
:(10)--I_have_obeyed_(lit.:_heard)_the_message
:(11)--of_the_"King,_my_Lord",
:(12)--to_me_from
:(13)--the_hand_of_Tahmassi.html" ;"title="ru_(cuneiform).html" ;"title="pa_(cuneiform).html" ;"title="a_(cuneiform).html" ;"title="Glossenkeil_(Amarna_letters).html" ;"title="Ù (cuneiform)">Ù (omitted by Rainey)">Ù_(cuneiform).html" ;"title=""and"=Ù (cuneiform)">Ù (omitted by Rainey):(8)--(''"and"'') the dust of(at?) (i.e. beneath)-(dust= SAHAR / : (–Glossenkeil (Amarna letters)">gl–) -(a (cuneiform)">a-pa (cuneiform)">pa-ru (cuneiform)">ru)-("''And-("dust-and-dust")''")) ( )
::i.e.((7.7-8))--("''And-("dust-and-dust")''")
:(9)--(at/beneath)-his two feet.
:(10)--I have obeyed (lit.: heard) the message
:(11)--of the "King, my Lord",
:(12)--to me from
:(13)--the hand of Tahmassi">Atahmaya.
:(14)--I will still guard
:(15)--very diligently
:(16)--[the land]s of the "King, my Lord".
:(end photo obverse)
:(17)--Furthermore, see!
:(18)--the king of Hasora
:(19)--has occupied (taken)
:(20)--3 towns from me!
:(21)--On the day that I heard (of it), I commanded (!)
:(22)--to commence hostilities
:(23)--against them
:(24-25)--until the "King, my Lord" may be apprised.
:(26)--And may the "King, my Lord",
:(27)--take counsel
:(28)--concerning his land.
Akkadian:
:(Line 1)--
a-
na LUGAL
Lugal ( Sumerian: ) is the Sumerian term for "king, ruler". Literally, the term means "big man." In Sumerian, ''lu'' "𒇽" is "man" and ''gal'' " 𒃲" is "great," or "big."
It was one of several Sumerian titles that a ruler of a city-state coul ...
EN-
ia_.html"_;"title="ia_(cuneiform).html"_;"title="ia_(cuneiform)">ia_">ia_(cuneiform).html"_;"title="ia_(cuneiform)">ia_:(2)--
ia_.html"_;"title="ia_(cuneiform).html"_;"title="ia_(cuneiform)">ia_">ia_(cuneiform).html"_;"title="ia_(cuneiform)">ia_:(2)--um_(cuneiform)">um-
ia_.html"_;"title="ia_(cuneiform).html"_;"title="ia_(cuneiform)">ia_">ia_(cuneiform).html"_;"title="ia_(cuneiform)">ia_:(2)--um_(cuneiform)">um-ma_(cuneiform)">ma_
ia_.html"_;"title="ia_(cuneiform).html"_;"title="ia_(cuneiform)">ia_">ia_(cuneiform).html"_;"title="ia_(cuneiform)">ia_:(2)--um_(cuneiform)">um-ma_(cuneiform)">ma_a_(cuneiform)">A-
ia_.html"_;"title="ia_(cuneiform).html"_;"title="ia_(cuneiform)">ia_">ia_(cuneiform).html"_;"title="ia_(cuneiform)">ia_:(2)--um_(cuneiform)">um-ma_(cuneiform)">ma_a_(cuneiform)">A-ia_(cuneiform)">iYa-
ia_.html"_;"title="ia_(cuneiform).html"_;"title="ia_(cuneiform)">ia_">ia_(cuneiform).html"_;"title="ia_(cuneiform)">ia_:(2)--um_(cuneiform)">um-ma_(cuneiform)">ma_a_(cuneiform)">A-ia_(cuneiform)">iYa-ab_(cuneiform)">aB
:(3)--
ia_.html"_;"title="ia_(cuneiform).html"_;"title="ia_(cuneiform)">ia_">ia_(cuneiform).html"_;"title="ia_(cuneiform)">ia_:(2)--um_(cuneiform)">um-ma_(cuneiform)">ma_a_(cuneiform)">A-ia_(cuneiform)">iYa-ab_(cuneiform)">aB
:(3)--ARAD_(servant_Sumerogram)">ARAD-
ia_.html"_;"title="ia_(cuneiform).html"_;"title="ia_(cuneiform)">ia_">ia_(cuneiform).html"_;"title="ia_(cuneiform)">ia_:(2)--um_(cuneiform)">um-ma_(cuneiform)">ma_a_(cuneiform)">A-ia_(cuneiform)">iYa-ab_(cuneiform)">aB
:(3)--ARAD_(servant_Sumerogram)">ARAD-ka_(cuneiform)">ka__
a-_na!
:(4)-- ia_.html"_;"title="ia_(cuneiform).html"_;"title="ia_(cuneiform)">ia_">ia_(cuneiform).html"_;"title="ia_(cuneiform)">ia_:(2)--um_(cuneiform)">um-ma_(cuneiform)">ma_a_(cuneiform)">A-ia_(cuneiform)">iYa-ab_(cuneiform)">aB
:(3)--ARAD_(servant_Sumerogram)">ARAD-ka_(cuneiform)">ka__a-_na!
:(4)--GÌR_(foot_Sumerogram)">GÌR. ia_.html"_;"title="ia_(cuneiform).html"_;"title="ia_(cuneiform)">ia_">ia_(cuneiform).html"_;"title="ia_(cuneiform)">ia_:(2)--um_(cuneiform)">um-ma_(cuneiform)">ma_a_(cuneiform)">A-ia_(cuneiform)">iYa-ab_(cuneiform)">aB
:(3)--ARAD_(servant_Sumerogram)">ARAD-ka_(cuneiform)">ka__a-_na!
:(4)--GÌR_(foot_Sumerogram)">GÌR.MEŠ_(cuneiform)">MEŠ__EN-ia_.html"_;"title="ia_(cuneiform).html"_;"title="ia_(cuneiform)">ia_">ia_(cuneiform).html"_;"title="ia_(cuneiform)">ia_:(2)--um_(cuneiform)">um-ma_(cuneiform)">ma_a_(cuneiform)">A-ia_(cuneiform)">iYa-ab_(cuneiform)">aB
:(3)--ARAD_(servant_Sumerogram)">ARAD-ka_(cuneiform)">ka__
a-_na!
:(4)--GÌR_(foot_Sumerogram)">GÌR.MEŠ_(cuneiform)">MEŠ__EN- ia
:(5)--7-šu_(cuneiform).html"__"title="ia_(cuneiform).html"_;"title="MEŠ_(cuneiform).html"_;"title="GÌR_(foot_Sumerogram).html"_;"title="ka_(cuneiform).html"_;"title="ARAD_(servant_Sumerogram).html"_;"title="ab_(cuneiform).html"_;"title="ia_(cuneiform).html"_;"title="a_(cuneiform).html"_;"title="ma_(cuneiform).html"_;"title="um_(cuneiform).html"_;"title="ia_(cuneiform)">ia_.html"_;"title="ia_(cuneiform).html"_;"title="ia_(cuneiform)">ia_">ia_(cuneiform).html"_;"title="ia_(cuneiform)">ia_:(2)--um_(cuneiform)">um-ma_(cuneiform)">ma_a_(cuneiform)">A-ia_(cuneiform)">iYa-ab_(cuneiform)">aB
:(3)--ARAD_(servant_Sumerogram)">ARAD-ka_(cuneiform)">ka__a-_na!
:(4)--GÌR_(foot_Sumerogram)">GÌR.MEŠ_(cuneiform)">MEŠ__EN-ia_(cuneiform)">ia
:(5)--7-šu_(cuneiform)">šu_
The_cuneiform_šu_sign_is_a_common,_multi-use_syllabic_and_alphabetic_sign_for_''šu'',_''š'',_and_''u'';_it_has_a_subsidiary_usage_for_syllabic_''qat'';_it_also_has_a_majuscule-(capital_letter)_Sumerogram_usage_for_ŠU,_for_Akkadian_language__...
_7- ia
:(5)--7-šu_(cuneiform).html"__"title="ia_(cuneiform).html"_;"title="MEŠ_(cuneiform).html"_;"title="GÌR_(foot_Sumerogram).html"_;"title="ka_(cuneiform).html"_;"title="ARAD_(servant_Sumerogram).html"_;"title="ab_(cuneiform).html"_;"title="ia_(cuneiform).html"_;"title="a_(cuneiform).html"_;"title="ma_(cuneiform).html"_;"title="um_(cuneiform).html"_;"title="ia_(cuneiform)">ia_.html"_;"title="ia_(cuneiform).html"_;"title="ia_(cuneiform)">ia_">ia_(cuneiform).html"_;"title="ia_(cuneiform)">ia_:(2)--um_(cuneiform)">um-ma_(cuneiform)">ma_a_(cuneiform)">A-ia_(cuneiform)">iYa-ab_(cuneiform)">aB
:(3)--ARAD_(servant_Sumerogram)">ARAD-ka_(cuneiform)">ka__a-_na!
:(4)--GÌR_(foot_Sumerogram)">GÌR.MEŠ_(cuneiform)">MEŠ__EN-ia_(cuneiform)">ia
:(5)--7-šu_(cuneiform)">šu_
The_cuneiform_šu_sign_is_a_common,_multi-use_syllabic_and_alphabetic_sign_for_''šu'',_''š'',_and_''u'';_it_has_a_subsidiary_usage_for_syllabic_''qat'';_it_also_has_a_majuscule-(capital_letter)_Sumerogram_usage_for_ŠU,_for_Akkadian_language__...
:(5)--7-šu_(cuneiform).html"__"title="ia_(cuneiform).html"_;"title="MEŠ_(cuneiform).html"_;"title="GÌR_(foot_Sumerogram).html"_;"title="ka_(cuneiform).html"_;"title="ARAD_(servant_Sumerogram).html"_;"title="ab_(cuneiform).html"_;"title="ia_(cuneiform).html"_;"title="a_(cuneiform).html"_;"title="ma_(cuneiform).html"_;"title="um_(cuneiform).html"_;"title="ia_(cuneiform)">ia_.html"_;"title="ia_(cuneiform).html"_;"title="ia_(cuneiform)">ia_">ia_(cuneiform).html"_;"title="ia_(cuneiform)">ia_:(2)--um_(cuneiform)">um-ma_(cuneiform)">ma_a_(cuneiform)">A-ia_(cuneiform)">iYa-ab_(cuneiform)">aB
:(3)--ARAD_(servant_Sumerogram)">ARAD-ka_(cuneiform)">ka__