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ﾄstika And Nﾄ《tika
''ﾄstika'' and ''nﾄ《tika'' are concepts that have been used to classify Indian philosophies by modern scholars, as well as some Hindu, Buddhist and Jain texts. The various definitions for ''ﾄ《tika'' and ''nﾄ《tika'' philosophies have been disputed since ancient times, and there is no consensus.Nicholson, Andrew J. 2013. ''Unifying Hinduism: Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History''. Columbia University Press. . ch. 9.Doniger, Wendy. 2014. ''On Hinduism''. Oxford University Press. . p. 46. In current Indian languages like Hindi and Bengali, ''ﾄ《tika'' and its derivatives usually mean 'theist', and ''nﾄ《tika'' and its derivatives denote an 'atheist'; however, the two terms in ancient- and medieval-era Sanskrit literature do not refer to 'theism' or 'atheism'. The terms are used differently in Hindu philosophy. For example, '' Sﾄ≪ｹヌhya'' is both an atheist (as it does not explicitly affirm the existence of God in its classical formulation) and ''ﾄ《tika'' ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Indian Philosophies
Indian philosophy refers to philosophical traditions of the Indian subcontinent. A traditional Hindu classification divides ﾄ《tika and nﾄ《tika schools of philosophy, depending on one of three alternate criteria: whether it believes the Vedas as a valid source of knowledge; whether the school believes in the premises of Brahman and Atman; and whether the school believes in afterlife and Devas. There are six major schools of Vedic philosophy窶 Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Mﾄｫmﾄ≪ｹピﾄ and Vedanta, and five major heterodox (sramanic) schools窶寧ain, Buddhist, Ajivika, Ajﾃｱana, and Charvaka. However, there are other methods of classification; Vidyaranya for instance identifies sixteen schools of Indian philosophy by including those that belong to the ﾅ啾iva and Raseﾅ孥ara traditions.Cowell and Gough, p. xii.Nicholson, pp. 158-162. The main schools of Indian philosophy were formalised and recognised chiefly between 500 BCE and the late centuries of the Common Era. Com ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Avatar
Avatar (, ; ), is a concept within Hinduism that in Sanskrit literally means "descent". It signifies the material appearance or incarnation of a powerful deity, goddess or spirit on Earth. The relative verb to "alight, to make one's appearance" is sometimes used to refer to any guru or revered human being. The word ''avatar'' does not appear in the Vedic literature; however, it appears in developed forms in post-Vedic literature, and as a noun particularly in the Puranic literature after the 6th century CE. Despite that, the concept of an avatar is compatible with the content of the Vedic literature like the Upanishads as it is symbolic imagery of the Saguna Brahman concept in the philosophy of Hinduism. The ''Rigveda'' describes Indra as endowed with a mysterious power of assuming any form at will. The ''Bhagavad Gita'' expounds the doctrine of Avatara but with terms other than ''avatar''. Theologically, the term is most often associated with the Hindu god Vishnu, though th ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Heterodoxy
In religion, heterodoxy (from Ancient Greek: , "other, another, different" + , "popular belief") means "any opinions or doctrines at variance with an official or orthodox position". Under this definition, heterodoxy is similar to unorthodoxy, while the adjective 'heterodox' could be applied to a dissident. Heterodoxy is also an ecclesiastical term of art, defined in various ways by different religions and churches. For example, in the apostolic churches (the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Roman Catholic Church, the Church of the East, the Anglican Communion, and the Oriental Orthodox Churches), heterodoxy may describe beliefs that differ from strictly orthodox views, but that fall short either of formal or of material heresy. Christianity Eastern Orthodoxy In the Eastern Orthodox Church, the term is used primarily in reference to Christian churches and denominations not belonging to the communion of Eastern Orthodox churches and espousing doctrines contrary to the received Holy T ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Vedanta
''Vedanta'' (; sa, 爨ｵ爭爨ｦ爨ｾ爨ｨ爭財､､, ), also ''Uttara Mﾄｫmﾄ≪ｹピﾄ'', is one of the six (''ﾄ《tika'') schools of Hindu philosophy. Literally meaning "end of the Vedas", Vedanta reflects ideas that emerged from, or were aligned with, the speculations and philosophies contained in the Upanishads, specifically, knowledge and liberation. Vedanta contains many sub-traditions, all of which are based on a common group of texts called the "Three Sources" ('' prasthﾄ］atrayﾄｫ''): ''the Upanishads'', the ''Brahma Sutras'' and the '' Bhagavad Gita''. All Vedanta traditions contain extensive discussions on ontology, soteriology and epistemology, though there is much disagreement among the various schools. The main traditions of Vedanta are: ''Advaita'' (non-dualism), ''Bhedabheda'' (difference and non-difference), '' Suddhadvaita'' (pure non-dualism), ''Tattvavada ( Dvaita)'' (dualism), and ''Vishishtadvaita'' (qualified non-dualism). Modern developments in Vedanta include Neo-V ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Mﾄｫmﾄ≪ｹピﾄ
''Mﾄｫmﾄ≪ｹ《ﾄ'' (Sanskrit: 爨ｮ爭爨ｮ爨ｾ爨も､ｸ爨ｾ) is a Sanskrit word that means "reflection" or "critical investigation" and thus refers to a tradition of contemplation which reflected on the meanings of certain Vedic texts.Mimamsa Encyclopﾃｦdia Britannica (2014) This tradition is also known as Pﾅｫrva-Mﾄｫmﾄ≪ｹ《ﾄ because of its focus on the earlier (''pﾅｫrva'') Vedic texts dealing with ritual actions, and similarly as Karma-Mﾄｫmﾄ≪ｹ《ﾄ due to its focus on ritual action (''karma'').Chris Bartley (2013), Purva Mimamsa, in ''Encyclopaedia of Asian Philosophy'' (Editor: Oliver Leaman), Routledge, 978-0415862530, page 443-445 It is one of six Vedic "affirming" ( ﾄ《tika) schools of |
Yoga
Yoga (; sa, 爨ｯ爭金､, lit=yoke' or 'union ) is a group of physical, mental, and spiritual practices or disciplines which originated in ancient India and aim to control (yoke) and still the mind, recognizing a detached witness-consciousness untouched by the mind ('' Chitta'') and mundane suffering (''Du盧･kha''). There is a wide variety of schools of yoga, practices, and goals in Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism,Stuart Ray Sarbacker, ''Samﾄ‥hi: The Numinous and Cessative in Indo-Tibetan Yoga''. SUNY Press, 2005, pp. 1窶2.Tattvarthasutra .1 see Manu Doshi (2007) Translation of Tattvarthasutra, Ahmedabad: Shrut Ratnakar p. 102. and traditional and modern yoga is practiced worldwide. Two general theories exist on the origins of yoga. The linear model holds that yoga originated in the Vedic period, as reflected in the Vedic textual corpus, and influenced Buddhism; according to author Edward Fitzpatrick Crangle, this model is mainly supported by Hindu scholars. According ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Samkhya
''Samkhya'' or ''Sankya'' (; Sanskrit 爨ｸ爨ｾ爨も､籾･財､ｯ), IAST: ') is a Dualism (Indian philosophy), dualistic ﾄstika and nﾄ《tika, school of Indian philosophy. It views reality as composed of two independent principles, ''purusha, puru盪｣a'' ('consciousness' or spirit); and ''prak盪孚i'', (nature or matter, including the human mind and emotions). ''Puru盪｣a'' is the witness-consciousness. It is absolute, independent, free, beyond perception, above any experience by mind or senses, and impossible to describe in words. Unmanifest ''prakriti'' is matter or nature. It is inactive, unconscious, and is a balance of the three ''gu盪as'' (qualities or innate tendencies), namely ''sattva'' , ''rajas'', and ''Tamas (philosophy), tamas''. When prak盪孚i comes into contact with Purusha this balance is disturbed, and Prakriti becomes manifest, evolving twenty-three tattvas, namely intellect (buddhi, mahat), ego (ahamkara) mind (Manas (early Buddhism), manas); the five sensory capacitie ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Vaisheshika
Vaisheshika or Vaiﾅ嫺盪｣ika ( sa, 爨ｵ爭謂､ｶ爭爨ｷ爨ｿ爨) is one of the six schools of Indian philosophy (Vedic systems) from ancient India. In its early stages, the Vaiﾅ嫺盪｣ika was an independent philosophy with its own metaphysics, epistemology, logic, ethics, and soteriology. Over time, the Vaiﾅ嫺盪｣ika system became similar in its philosophical procedures, ethical conclusions and soteriology to the Nyﾄ【a school of Hinduism, but retained its difference in epistemology and metaphysics. The epistemology of the Vaiﾅ嫺盪｣ika school of Hinduism, like Buddhism, accepted only two reliable means to knowledge: direct observation and inference. the Vaiﾅ嫺盪｣ika school and Buddhism both consider their respective scriptures as indisputable and valid means to knowledge, the difference being that the scriptures held to be a valid and reliable source by Vaiﾅ嫺盪｣ikas were the Vedas. The Vaisheshika school is known for its insights in naturalism.Kak, S. 'Matter and Mind: The Vaisheshika S ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Nyaya
(Sanskrit: 爨ｨ爭財､ｯ爨ｾ爨ｯ, ''nyﾄ-yﾃ｡''), literally meaning "justice", "rules", "method" or "judgment",Nyaya: Indian Philosophy Encyclopﾃｦdia Britannica (2014) is one of the six '' astika'' schools of . This school's most significant contributions to Indian philosophy were systematic development of the theory of , methodology, and its treatises on epistemology. |
Orthodoxy
Orthodoxy (from Greek: ) is adherence to correct or accepted creeds, especially in religion. Orthodoxy within Christianity refers to acceptance of the doctrines defined by various creeds and ecumenical councils in Antiquity, but different Churches accept different creeds and councils. Such differences of opinion have developed for numerous reasons, including language and cultural barriers. In some English-speaking countries, Jews who adhere to all the traditions and commandments as legislated in the Talmud are often called Orthodox Jews. Eastern Orthodoxy and/or Oriental Orthodoxy are sometimes referred to simply as 窶廾rthodoxy窶. Sunni Islam is sometimes referred to as "orthodox Islam". Religions Buddhism The historical Buddha was known to denounce mere attachment to scriptures or dogmatic principles, as it was mentioned in the Kalama Sutta. Moreover, the Theravada school of Buddhism follows strict adherence to the Pﾄ〕i Canon (''tripi盪ｭaka'') and the commentaries such ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Ishvara
''Ishvara'' () is a concept in Hinduism, with a wide range of meanings that depend on the era and the school of Hinduism.Monier Monier Williams, Sanskrit-English dictionarySearch for Izvara University of Cologne, Germany In ancient texts of Hindu philosophy, depending on the context, ''Ishvara'' can mean supreme Self, ruler, lord, king, queen or husband. In medieval era Hindu texts, depending on the school of Hinduism, ''Ishvara'' means God, Supreme Being, personal God, or special Self. ''Ishvara'' is primarily an epithet of Shiva.James Lochtefeld, "Ishvara", The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A窶溺, Rosen Publishing. , page 306 In Shaivism, ''Ishvara'' is an epithet of Shiva. For many Vaishnavas, it is synonymous with Vishnu, like in his epithet of Venkateswara. In traditional Bhakti movements, ''Ishvara'' is one or more deities of an individual's preference ( I盪｣盪ｭa-devatﾄ) from Hinduism's polytheistic canon of deities. In modern-day sectarian movements suc ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Pramana
''Pramana'' (Sanskrit: 爨ｪ爭財､ｰ爨ｮ爨ｾ爨｣, ) literally means " proof" and "means of knowledge".pramANa Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Koeln University, GermanyJames Lochtefeld, "Pramana" in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 2: N-Z, Rosen Publishing. , pages 520-521 In Indian philosophies, pramana are the means which can lead to knowledge, and serve as one of the core concepts in Indian . It has been one of the key, much debated fields of study in , |
