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Volume Form
In mathematics, a volume form or top-dimensional form is a differential form of degree equal to the differentiable manifold dimension. Thus on a manifold M of dimension n, a volume form is an n-form. It is an element of the space of sections of the line bundle \textstyle^n(T^*M), denoted as \Omega^n(M). A manifold admits a nowhere-vanishing volume form if and only if it is orientable. An orientable manifold has infinitely many volume forms, since multiplying a volume form by a function yields another volume form. On non-orientable manifolds, one may instead define the weaker notion of a density. A volume form provides a means to define the integral of a function on a differentiable manifold. In other words, a volume form gives rise to a measure with respect to which functions can be integrated by the appropriate Lebesgue integral. The absolute value of a volume form is a volume element, which is also known variously as a ''twisted volume form'' or ''pseudo-volume form''. It als ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Mathematics
Mathematics is an area of knowledge that includes the topics of numbers, formulas and related structures, shapes and the spaces in which they are contained, and quantities and their changes. These topics are represented in modern mathematics with the major subdisciplines of number theory, algebra, geometry, and analysis, respectively. There is no general consensus among mathematicians about a common definition for their academic discipline. Most mathematical activity involves the discovery of properties of abstract objects and the use of pure reason to prove them. These objects consist of either abstractions from nature orin modern mathematicsentities that are stipulated to have certain properties, called axioms. A ''proof'' consists of a succession of applications of deductive rules to already established results. These results include previously proved theorems, axioms, andin case of abstraction from naturesome basic properties that are considered true starting points of ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Orientable
In mathematics, orientability is a property of some topological spaces such as real vector spaces, Euclidean spaces, surfaces, and more generally manifolds that allows a consistent definition of "clockwise" and "counterclockwise". A space is orientable if such a consistent definition exists. In this case, there are two possible definitions, and a choice between them is an orientation of the space. Real vector spaces, Euclidean spaces, and spheres are orientable. A space is non-orientable if "clockwise" is changed into "counterclockwise" after running through some loops in it, and coming back to the starting point. This means that a geometric shape, such as , that moves continuously along such a loop is changed into its own mirror image . A Möbius strip is an example of a non-orientable space. Various equivalent formulations of orientability can be given, depending on the desired application and level of generality. Formulations applicable to general topological manifolds oft ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Borel Set
In mathematics, a Borel set is any set in a topological space that can be formed from open sets (or, equivalently, from closed sets) through the operations of countable union, countable intersection, and relative complement. Borel sets are named after Émile Borel. For a topological space ''X'', the collection of all Borel sets on ''X'' forms a σ-algebra, known as the Borel algebra or Borel σ-algebra. The Borel algebra on ''X'' is the smallest σ-algebra containing all open sets (or, equivalently, all closed sets). Borel sets are important in measure theory, since any measure defined on the open sets of a space, or on the closed sets of a space, must also be defined on all Borel sets of that space. Any measure defined on the Borel sets is called a Borel measure. Borel sets and the associated Borel hierarchy also play a fundamental role in descriptive set theory. In some contexts, Borel sets are defined to be generated by the compact sets of the topological spac ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Pseudotensor
In physics and mathematics, a pseudotensor is usually a quantity that transforms like a tensor under an orientation-preserving coordinate transformation (e.g. a proper rotation) but additionally changes sign under an orientation-reversing coordinate transformation (e.g., an improper rotation), which is a transformation that can be expressed as a proper rotation followed by reflection. This is a generalization of a pseudovector. To evaluate a tensor or pseudotensor sign, it has to be contracted with some vectors, as many as its rank is, belonging to the space where the rotation is made while keeping the tensor coordinates unaffected (differently from what one does in the case of a base change). Under improper rotation a pseudotensor and a proper tensor of the same rank will have different sign which depends on the rank being even or odd. Sometimes inversion of the axes is used as an example of an improper rotation to see the behaviour of a pseudotensor, but it works only if vector s ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Positive Reals
In mathematics, the set of positive real numbers, \R_ = \left\, is the subset of those real numbers that are greater than zero. The non-negative real numbers, \R_ = \left\, also include zero. Although the symbols \R_ and \R^ are ambiguously used for either of these, the notation \R_ or \R^ for \left\ and \R_^ or \R^_ for \left\ has also been widely employed, is aligned with the practice in algebra of denoting the exclusion of the zero element with a star, and should be understandable to most practicing mathematicians. In a complex plane, \R_ is identified with the positive real axis, and is usually drawn as a horizontal ray. This ray is used as reference in the polar form of a complex number. The real positive axis corresponds to complex numbers z = , z, \mathrm^, with argument \varphi = 0. Properties The set \R_ is closed under addition, multiplication, and division. It inherits a topology from the real line and, thus, has the structure of a multiplicative topological group or ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Deformation Retract
In topology, a branch of mathematics, a retraction is a continuous mapping from a topological space into a subspace that preserves the position of all points in that subspace. The subspace is then called a retract of the original space. A deformation retraction is a mapping that captures the idea of ''continuously shrinking'' a space into a subspace. An absolute neighborhood retract (ANR) is a particularly well-behaved type of topological space. For example, every topological manifold is an ANR. Every ANR has the homotopy type of a very simple topological space, a CW complex. Definitions Retract Let ''X'' be a topological space and ''A'' a subspace of ''X''. Then a continuous map :r\colon X \to A is a retraction if the restriction of ''r'' to ''A'' is the identity map on ''A''; that is, r(a) = a for all ''a'' in ''A''. Equivalently, denoting by :\iota\colon A \hookrightarrow X the inclusion, a retraction is a continuous map ''r'' such that :r \circ \iota = \operatorname_A, ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
G-structure
In differential geometry, a ''G''-structure on an ''n''- manifold ''M'', for a given structure group ''G'', is a principal ''G''- subbundle of the tangent frame bundle F''M'' (or GL(''M'')) of ''M''. The notion of ''G''-structures includes various classical structures that can be defined on manifolds, which in some cases are tensor fields. For example, for the orthogonal group, an O(''n'')-structure defines a Riemannian metric, and for the special linear group an SL(''n'',R)-structure is the same as a volume form. For the trivial group, an -structure consists of an absolute parallelism of the manifold. Generalising this idea to arbitrary principal bundles on topological spaces, one can ask if a principal G-bundle over a group G "comes from" a subgroup H of G. This is called reduction of the structure group (to H). Several structures on manifolds, such as a complex structure, a symplectic structure, or a Kähler structure, are ''G''-structures with an additional integrabilit ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Linear Frame Bundle
In mathematics, a frame bundle is a principal fiber bundle F(''E'') associated to any vector bundle ''E''. The fiber of F(''E'') over a point ''x'' is the set of all ordered bases, or ''frames'', for ''E''''x''. The general linear group acts naturally on F(''E'') via a change of basis, giving the frame bundle the structure of a principal GL(''k'', R)-bundle (where ''k'' is the rank of ''E''). The frame bundle of a smooth manifold is the one associated to its tangent bundle. For this reason it is sometimes called the tangent frame bundle. Definition and construction Let ''E'' → ''X'' be a real vector bundle of rank ''k'' over a topological space ''X''. A frame at a point ''x'' ∈ ''X'' is an ordered basis for the vector space ''E''''x''. Equivalently, a frame can be viewed as a linear isomorphism :p : \mathbf^k \to E_x. The set of all frames at ''x'', denoted ''F''''x'', has a natural right action by the general linear group GL(''k'', R) of invertible ''k'' × ''k'' matrices: a ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Principal Bundle
In mathematics, a principal bundle is a mathematical object that formalizes some of the essential features of the Cartesian product X \times G of a space X with a group G. In the same way as with the Cartesian product, a principal bundle P is equipped with # An action of G on P, analogous to (x, g)h = (x, gh) for a product space. # A projection onto X. For a product space, this is just the projection onto the first factor, (x,g) \mapsto x. Unlike a product space, principal bundles lack a preferred choice of identity cross-section; they have no preferred analog of (x,e). Likewise, there is not generally a projection onto G generalizing the projection onto the second factor, X \times G \to G that exists for the Cartesian product. They may also have a complicated topology that prevents them from being realized as a product space even if a number of arbitrary choices are made to try to define such a structure by defining it on smaller pieces of the space. A common example of a principal ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
General Linear Group
In mathematics, the general linear group of degree ''n'' is the set of invertible matrices, together with the operation of ordinary matrix multiplication. This forms a group, because the product of two invertible matrices is again invertible, and the inverse of an invertible matrix is invertible, with identity matrix as the identity element of the group. The group is so named because the columns (and also the rows) of an invertible matrix are linearly independent, hence the vectors/points they define are in general linear position, and matrices in the general linear group take points in general linear position to points in general linear position. To be more precise, it is necessary to specify what kind of objects may appear in the entries of the matrix. For example, the general linear group over R (the set of real numbers) is the group of invertible matrices of real numbers, and is denoted by GL''n''(R) or . More generally, the general linear group of degree ''n'' over any ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Group (mathematics)
In mathematics, a group is a Set (mathematics), set and an Binary operation, operation that combines any two Element (mathematics), elements of the set to produce a third element of the set, in such a way that the operation is Associative property, associative, an identity element exists and every element has an Inverse element, inverse. These three axioms hold for Number#Main classification, number systems and many other mathematical structures. For example, the integers together with the addition operation form a group. The concept of a group and the axioms that define it were elaborated for handling, in a unified way, essential structural properties of very different mathematical entities such as numbers, geometric shapes and polynomial roots. Because the concept of groups is ubiquitous in numerous areas both within and outside mathematics, some authors consider it as a central organizing principle of contemporary mathematics. In geometry groups arise naturally in the study of ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Group Action (mathematics)
In mathematics, a group action on a space is a group homomorphism of a given group into the group of transformations of the space. Similarly, a group action on a mathematical structure is a group homomorphism of a group into the automorphism group of the structure. It is said that the group ''acts'' on the space or structure. If a group acts on a structure, it will usually also act on objects built from that structure. For example, the group of Euclidean isometries acts on Euclidean space and also on the figures drawn in it. For example, it acts on the set of all triangles. Similarly, the group of symmetries of a polyhedron acts on the vertices, the edges, and the faces of the polyhedron. A group action on a vector space is called a representation of the group. In the case of a finite-dimensional vector space, it allows one to identify many groups with subgroups of , the group of the invertible matrices of dimension over a field . The symmetric group acts on any set wit ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
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