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Sulodexide
Sulodexide, traded as Aterina, is a highly purified mixture of glycosaminoglycans composed of heparan sulfate (80%) and dermatan sulfate (20%). Pharmacology The low molecular weight of both sulodexide fractions allows for extensive oral absorption compared to unfractionated heparin. The pharmacological effects of sulodexide differ substantially from other glycosaminoglycans and are mainly characterized by a prolonged half-life and reduced effect on global coagulation and bleeding parameters. Due to the presence of both glycosaminoglycan fractions, sulodexide potentiates the antiprotease activities of both antithrombin III and heparin cofactor II simultaneously. Uses Clinically, sulodexide is used for the prophylaxis and treatment of thromboembolic diseases. Research has also demonstrated the beneficial effects of sulodexide in animal models of reperfusion injury and the treatment of diabetic nephropathy. In combination with melatonin, sulodexide has been shown to be a viable t ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Dermatan Sulfate
Dermatan sulfate is a glycosaminoglycan (formerly called a mucopolysaccharide) found mostly in skin, but also in blood vessels, heart valves, tendons, and lungs. It is also referred to as chondroitin sulfate B, although it is no longer classified as a form of chondroitin sulfate by most sources. The formula is C14H21NO15S. This carbohydrate is composed of linear polymers of disaccharide units that contain, N-acetyl galactosamine (GalNAc) and iduronic acid (IdoA). These repeating units are sulfated at a variety of positions. Dermatan sulfate is a component of the compound sulodexide. Function Dermatan sulfate may have roles in coagulation, cardiovascular disease, carcinogenesis, infection, wound repair, maintaining the shape of galactosamine 4-sulfate, skin, and fibrosis. Pathology Dermatan sulfate accumulates abnormally in several of the mucopolysaccharidosis disorders. An excess of dermatan sulfate in the mitral valve is characteristic of myxomatous degeneration of the ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Glycosaminoglycans
Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) or mucopolysaccharides are long, linear polysaccharides consisting of repeating disaccharide units (i.e. two-sugar units). The repeating two-sugar unit consists of a uronic acid, uronic sugar and an amino sugar, except in the case of the sulfated glycosaminoglycan keratan sulfate, keratan, where, in place of the uronic sugar there is a galactose unit. GAGs are found in vertebrates, invertebrates and bacteria. Because GAGs are highly polar molecules and attract water; the body uses them as lubricants or shock absorbers. Mucopolysaccharidosis, Mucopolysaccharidoses are a group of metabolic disorders in which abnormal accumulations of glycosaminoglycans occur due to enzyme deficiencies. Production Glycosaminoglycans vary greatly in molecular mass, disaccharide structure, and sulfation. This is because GAG synthesis is not template driven, as are proteins or nucleic acids, but constantly altered by processing enzymes. GAGs are classified into four groups, b ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Heparan Sulfate
Heparan sulfate (HS) is a linear polysaccharide found in all animal tissues. It occurs in a proteoglycan (HSPG, i.e. Heparan Sulfate ProteoGlycan) in which two or three HS chains are attached in close proximity to cell surface or extracellular matrix proteins. In this form, HS binds to a variety of protein ligands, including Wnt signaling pathway, Wnt, and regulates a wide range of biological activities, including developmental processes, angiogenesis, blood coagulation, abolishing detachment activity by GrB (Granzyme B), and tumour metastasis. HS has also been shown to serve as cellular receptor for a number of viruses, including the respiratory syncytial virus. One study suggests that cellular heparan sulfate has a role in SARS-CoV-2 infection, particularly when the virus attaches with ACE2. Proteoglycans The major cell membrane HSPGs are the transmembrane syndecans and the glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchored glypicans. Other minor forms of membrane HSPG include betaglyc ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Heparin
Heparin, also known as unfractionated heparin (UFH), is a medication and naturally occurring glycosaminoglycan. Heparin is a blood anticoagulant that increases the activity of antithrombin. It is used in the treatment of myocardial infarction, heart attacks and unstable angina. It can be given intravenously or by subcutaneous injection, injection under the skin. Its anticoagulant properties make it useful to prevent blood clotting in blood specimen test tubes and kidney dialysis machines. Common side effects include bleeding, pain at the injection site, and thrombocytopenia, low blood platelets. Serious side effects include heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. Greater care is needed in those with poor kidney function. Heparin is contraindicated for suspected cases of Post-vaccination embolic and thrombotic events, vaccine-induced pro-thrombotic immune thrombocytopenia (VIPIT) secondary to SARS-CoV-2 vaccination, as heparin may further increase the risk of bleeding in an anti-PF4 ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Antithrombin III
Antithrombin (AT) is a small glycoprotein that inactivates several enzymes of the coagulation system. It is a 464-amino-acid protein produced by the liver. It contains three disulfide bonds and a total of four possible glycosylation sites. α-Antithrombin is the dominant form of antithrombin found in blood plasma and has an oligosaccharide occupying each of its four glycosylation sites. A single glycosylation site remains consistently un-occupied in the minor form of antithrombin, β-antithrombin. Its activity is increased manyfold by the anticoagulant drug heparin, which enhances the binding of antithrombin to thrombin, factor IIa (thrombin) and factor Xa. Structure Antithrombin is also termed antithrombin III (AT III). The designations antithrombin I through to antithrombin IV originate in early studies carried out in the 1950s by Seegers, Johnson and Fell. Antithrombin I (AT I) refers to the binding of thrombin to fibrin, after thrombin has activated fibrinogen, at a non-ca ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Heparin Cofactor II
Heparin cofactor II (HCII), a protein encoded by the SERPIND1 gene, is a coagulation factor that inhibits IIa, and is a cofactor for heparin and dermatan sulfate ("minor antithrombin"). The product encoded by this gene is a serine protease inhibitor which rapidly inhibits thrombin in the presence of dermatan sulfate or heparin. The gene contains five exons and four introns. This protein shares homology with antithrombin III and other members of the alpha-1 antitrypsin superfamily. Mutations in this gene are associated with heparin cofactor II deficiency. Heparin cofactor II deficiency can lead to increased thrombin generation and a hypercoagulable state. A purification experiment of heparin cofactor II was performed in 1981, in which it was discovered that the purified version of the protein consists of a single polypeptide chain. Further experimentation demonstrated that whether β-Mercaptoethanol is present does not affect HCII's activity in gel electrophoresis. β-Mercapto ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Reperfusion Injury
Reperfusion injury, sometimes called ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI) or reoxygenation injury, is the tissue damage caused when blood supply returns to tissue ('' re-'' + ''perfusion'') after a period of ischemia or lack of oxygen (anoxia or hypoxia). The absence of oxygen and nutrients from blood during the ischemic period creates a condition in which the restoration of circulation results in inflammation and oxidative damage through the induction of oxidative stress rather than (or along with) restoration of normal function. Reperfusion injury is distinct from cerebral hyperperfusion syndrome (sometimes called "Reperfusion syndrome"), a state of abnormal cerebral vasodilation. Mechanisms Reperfusion of ischemic tissues is often associated with microvascular injury, particularly due to increased permeability of capillaries and arterioles that lead to an increase of diffusion and fluid filtration across the tissues. Activated endothelial cells produce more reactive oxygen sp ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Diabetic Nephropathy
Diabetic nephropathy, also known as diabetic kidney disease, is the chronic loss of kidney function occurring in those with diabetes mellitus. Diabetic nephropathy is the leading cause of chronic kidney disease (CKD) and end-stage renal disease (ESRD) globally. The triad of protein leaking into the urine (proteinuria or albuminuria), rising blood pressure with hypertension and then falling renal function is common to many forms of CKD. Protein loss in the urine due to damage of the glomeruli may become massive, and cause a low serum albumin with resulting generalized body swelling (edema) so called nephrotic syndrome. Likewise, the estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) may progressively fall from a normal of over 90 ml/min/1.73m2 to less than 15, at which point the patient is said to have end-stage renal disease. It usually is slowly progressive over years. Pathophysiologic abnormalities in diabetic nephropathy usually begin with long-standing poorly controlled blood ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Melatonin
Melatonin, an indoleamine, is a natural compound produced by various organisms, including bacteria and eukaryotes. Its discovery in 1958 by Aaron B. Lerner and colleagues stemmed from the isolation of a substance from the pineal gland of cows that could induce skin lightening in common frogs. This compound was later identified as a hormone secreted in the brain during the night, playing a crucial role in regulating the sleep-wake cycle, also known as the circadian rhythm, in vertebrates. In vertebrates, melatonin's functions extend to Entrainment (chronobiology), synchronizing sleep-wake cycles, encompassing sleep-wake timing and blood pressure regulation, as well as controlling seasonal rhythmicity (circannual cycle), which includes reproduction, fattening, molting, and hibernation. Its effects are mediated through the activation of melatonin receptors and its role as an antioxidant. In plants and bacteria, melatonin primarily serves as a defense mechanism against oxidative ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Tinnitus
Tinnitus is a condition when a person hears a ringing sound or a different variety of sound when no corresponding external sound is present and other people cannot hear it. Nearly everyone experiences faint "normal tinnitus" in a completely quiet room; but this is of concern only if it is bothersome, interferes with normal hearing, or is associated with other problems. The word ''tinnitus'' comes from the Latin language, Latin ''wikt:en:tinnitus#Latin, tinnire'', "to ring." In some people, it interferes with concentration, and can be associated with anxiety and Depression (mood), depression. Tinnitus is usually associated with hearing loss and decreased comprehension of speech in noisy environments. It is common, affecting about 10–15% of people. Most tolerate it well, and it is a significant (severe) problem in only 1–2% of people. It can trigger a fight-or-flight response, as the brain may perceive it as dangerous and important. Rather than a disease, tinnitus is a sy ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Chronic Venous Insufficiency
Chronic venous insufficiency (CVI) is a medical condition characterized by blood pooling in the veins, leading to increased pressure and strain on the vein walls. The most common cause of CVI is superficial venous reflux, which often results in the formation of varicose veins, a treatable condition. Since functional venous valves are necessary to facilitate efficient Venous return, blood return from the lower extremities, CVI primarily affects the legs. When impaired vein function leads to significant symptoms such as oedema (swelling) or venous ulcer formation, the condition is referred to as chronic venous disease. It is also known as ''chronic peripheral venous insufficiency'' and should not be confused with post-thrombotic syndrome, a separate condition caused by damage to the deep veins following deep vein thrombosis (DVT). Most cases of CVI can be managed or improved through treatments targeting the superficial venous system or stenting the deep venous system. For instanc ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
