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Navicert
The navicert, short for navigation certificate, also known as a "Letter of Assurance", was a form of commercial passport issued to allow ships to pass through blockades without inspection. This was of particular relevance during the British naval blockades of Germany in Blockade of Germany (1914–1919), World War I and Blockade of Germany (1939–1945), World War II. Background Navicerts were introduced at the suggestion of US Consul General in Embassy of the United States, London, London Robert Peet Skinner and first issued in March 1916, as a method of reducing the inconvenience of the blockade to neutral trade. The system was reintroduced for World War II starting 1 December 1939. A notice on 17 November 1939 explained the system: Navicerts were approached legally as the British authorities voluntarily refraining from their rights of visit and search. This meant that these ships whose entire cargoes were navicerted could avoid delays and uncertainty from being stopped and ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Blockade Of Germany (1939–1945)
The Blockade of Germany (1939–1945), also known as the Economic War, involved operations carried out during World War II by the British Empire and by France during World War II, France in order to restrict the supplies of minerals, Oil campaign of World War II, fuel, metals, food and textiles needed by Nazi Germany – and later by Fascist Italy – in order to sustain their war efforts. The economic war consisted mainly of a naval blockade, which formed part of the wider Battle of the Atlantic, but also included the Strategic bombing during World War II, bombing of economically important targets and the preclusive buying of war materials from neutral countries in order to prevent their sale to the Axis powers. * The first period, from the beginning of European hostilities in September 1939 to the end of the "Phoney War", saw both the Allies of World War II, Allies and the Axis powers intercepting neutral merchant ships to seize deliveries ''en route'' to their respective enem ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Blockade
A blockade is the act of actively preventing a country or region from receiving or sending out food, supplies, weapons, or communications, and sometimes people, by military force. A blockade differs from an embargo or sanction, which are legal barriers to trade rather than physical barriers. It is also distinct from a siege in that a blockade is usually directed at an entire country or region, rather than a fortress or city and the objective may not always be to conquer the area. A blockading power can seek to cut off all maritime transport from and to the blockaded country, although stopping all land transport to and from an area may also be considered a blockade. Blockades restrict the trading rights of neutrals, who must submit for inspection for contraband, which the blockading power may define narrowly or broadly, sometimes including food and medicine. In the 20th century, air power has also been used to enhance the effectiveness of blockades by halting air traffic w ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Blockade Of Germany (1914–1919)
The Blockade of Germany, or the Blockade of Europe, occurred from 1914 to 1919. The prolonged naval blockade was conducted by the Allies of World War I, Allies during and after World War I in an effort to restrict the maritime supply of goods to the Central Powers, which included German Empire, Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire. The blockade is considered one of the key elements in the eventual Allied victory in the war. The restricted supply of strategic materials such as metal ores and oil had a detrimental effect on the Central Powers' war effort, despite ingenious efforts to find other sources or substitutes. However, through a sequence of events, the Allies declared foodstuffs contraband and it is this aspect of the blockade that remains most controversial. In December 1918, the German Board of Public Health claimed that 763,000 German civilians had already died from starvation and disease caused by the blockade.C. Paul Vincent, ''The Politics of Hunger: the ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Blockades Of World War II
A blockade is the act of actively preventing a country or region from receiving or sending out food, supplies, weapons, or communications, and sometimes people, by military force. A blockade differs from an embargo or sanction, which are legal barriers to trade rather than physical barriers. It is also distinct from a siege in that a blockade is usually directed at an entire country or region, rather than a fortress or city and the objective may not always be to conquer the area. A blockading power can seek to cut off all maritime transport from and to the blockaded country, although stopping all land transport to and from an area may also be considered a blockade. Blockades restrict the trading rights of neutrals, who must submit for inspection for contraband, which the blockading power may define narrowly or broadly, sometimes including food and medicine. In the 20th century, air power has also been used to enhance the effectiveness of blockades by halting air traffic with ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Robert Peet Skinner
Robert Peet Skinner (February 24, 1866 – July 1, 1960) was an American diplomat, editor, and publisher. Early life Skinner was born on February 24, 1866, in Massillon, Ohio, to Augustus T. Skinner and Cecelia van Rensselaer. His father was a native of Massillon, his grandfather Charles K. Skinner was an early settler of Kendal and his great-grandfather was a veteran of the Revolutionary War. He attended common schools, including a school in Cincinnati. Career At the age of 19, he became the editor and owner of a local paper called ''The Evening Independent.'' Through his work with the paper he would become acquainted with William McKinley, whom Skinner would support for the presidency. He worked for the ''New York World'' as a telegraph editor. He worked as a political correspondent. On June 17, 1897, he married Helen Wales, daughter of Arvine C. Wales. Through his wife's family and his own connections, Skinner would be awarded for his support for President McKinley with a wed ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Visit And Search
In the international maritime law, right of visit (also right of visitation, right of search) allows a belligerent warship during wartime to stop and board neutral merchant ship in order to verify that the ship nationality matches the declared one and its operation does not break the naval blockade, does not involve contraband, and does not provide non-neutral services to the enemy. The use of word "visit" probably refers to a misunderstanding of the French word , which in this context simply means ''search''. The visit is customarily made by warship boat that brings onboard of the merchant vessel an officer in charge and his assistant, armed with no more than sidearms. Alternatively, the commander of the warship might summon the merchant shipmaster aboard the warship with requested paperwork. During the wartime, the right can be exercised by any commissioned ship or aircraft of a belligerent in both high seas and territorial waters of the belligerent or its enemies. During the ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Prize Court
A prize court is a court (or even a single individual, such as an ambassador or consul) authorized to consider whether prizes have been lawfully captured, typically whether a ship has been lawfully captured or seized in time of war or under the terms of the seizing ship's letters of marque and reprisal. A prize court may order the sale or destruction of the seized ship, and the distribution of any proceeds to the captain and crew of the seizing ship. A prize court may also order the return of a seized ship to its owners if the seizure was unlawful, such as if seized from a country which had proclaimed its neutrality. History/jurisdiction in various countries Prize courts were common in the 17th through 19th centuries, during times of American or European naval warfare. The United States in 1780 established the Federal Court of Appeals in Cases of Capture to hear appeals of prize cases from state prize courts; this court was ended in 1787, after conclusion of the war. Under cur ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Neutral Country
A neutral country is a sovereign state, state that is neutral towards belligerents in a specific war or holds itself as permanently neutral in all future conflicts (including avoiding entering into military alliances such as NATO, Collective Security Treaty Organization, CSTO or the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation, SCO). As a type of non-combatant status, nationals of neutral countries enjoy protection under the law of war from belligerent actions to a greater extent than other non-combatants such as enemy civilians and Prisoner of war, prisoners of war. Different countries interpret their neutrality differently: some, such as Costa Rica have Demilitarization, demilitarized, while Switzerland holds to "armed neutrality", to deter aggression with a sizeable military, while barring itself from foreign deployment. Not all neutral countries avoid any foreign deployment or alliances, as Austria and Republic of Ireland, Ireland have active UN peacekeeping forces and a political allia ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
American Entry Into World War I
The United States entered into World War I on 6 April 1917, more than two and a half years after the war began in Europe. Apart from an Anglophile element urging early support for the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, British and an anti-Tsarist element sympathizing with German Empire, Germany's war against Russian Empire, Russia, American public opinion had generally reflected a desire to stay out of the war. Over time, especially after reports of The Rape of Belgium, German atrocities in Belgium in 1914 and after the Sinking of the RMS Lusitania, sinking attack by the Imperial German Navy submarine (U-boat) torpedoing of the trans-Atlantic ocean liner off the southern coast of Ireland in May 1915, Americans increasingly came to see Imperial Germany as the aggressor in Europe. While the country was at peace, American banks made huge loans to the Allies of World War I, Entente powers (Allies), which were used mainly to buy munitions, raw materials, and food from acros ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Trading With The Enemy Act Of 1917
The Trading with the Enemy Act (TWEA) of 1917 (, codified at and et seq.) is a United States federal law, enacted on October 6, 1917, in response to the United States declaration of war on Germany on April 6, 1917. It continues to give the President of the United States the power to oversee or restrict any and all trade between the United States and its enemies in times of war. TWEA was amended in 1933 by the Emergency Banking Act to extend the president’s authority also in peace time. It was amended again in 1977 by the International Emergency Economic Powers Act (IEEPA) to restrict again the application of TWEA only to times of war, while the IEEPA was intended to be used in peace time. TWEA is sometimes confused with the IEEPA, which grants somewhat broader powers to the President, and which is invoked during states of emergency when the United States is not at war. The IEEPA was passed in an attempt to rein in perceived abuses by the US President of the TWEA by making ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
