The Trading with the Enemy Act (TWEA) of 1917 (, codified at and et seq.) is a
United States federal law
The law of the United States comprises many levels of codified and uncodified forms of law, of which the most important is the nation's Constitution, which prescribes the foundation of the federal government of the United States, as well as va ...
, enacted on October 6, 1917, that gives the
President of the United States
The president of the United States (POTUS) is the head of state and head of government of the United States of America. The president directs the executive branch of the federal government and is the commander-in-chief of the United Stat ...
the power to oversee or restrict any and all trade between the
United States
The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territorie ...
and its enemies in times of war. TWEA was amended in 1933 by the
Emergency Banking Act
__NOTOC__
The Emergency Banking Act (EBA) (the official title of which was the Emergency Banking Relief Act), Public Law 73-1, 48 Stat. 1 (March 9, 1933), was an act passed by the United States Congress in March 1933 in an attempt to stabilize th ...
to extend the president’s authority also in peace time. It was amended again in 1977 by the
International Emergency Economic Powers Act
The International Emergency Economic Powers Act (IEEPA), Title II of , is a United States federal law authorizing the president to regulate international commerce after declaring a national emergency in response to any unusual and extraordinary t ...
(IEEPA) to restrict the application of TWEA only in times of war, while the IEEPA was intended to be used in peace time.
TWEA is sometimes confused with the IEEPA, which grants somewhat broader powers to the President, and which is invoked during states of emergency when the United States is not at war. The IEEPA was passed in an attempt to rein in perceived abuses by the US President of the TWEA by making the powers subject to the
National Emergencies Act
The National Emergencies Act (NEA) (, codified at –1651) is a United States federal law passed to end all previous national emergencies and to formalize the emergency powers of the President.
The Act empowers the President to activate specia ...
(NEA). The NEA included a
legislative veto
The legislative veto describes features of at least two different forms of government, monarchies and those based on the separation of powers, applied to the authority of the monarch in the first and to the authority of the legislature in the sec ...
to allow Congress to terminate a national emergency with a
concurrent resolution
A concurrent resolution is a resolution (a legislative measure) adopted by both houses of a bicameral legislature that lacks the force of law (is non-binding) and does not require the approval of the chief executive (president). Concurrent resoluti ...
. However, the U.S. Supreme Court found such legislative vetoes unconstitutional in ''
Immigration and Naturalization Service v. Chadha''. Following the Court's decision, Congress amended the NEA to require a
joint resolution
In the United States Congress, a joint resolution is a legislative measure that requires passage by the Senate and the House of Representatives and is presented to the President for their approval or disapproval. Generally, there is no legal differ ...
.
The law set the basis for
sanctions by the United States. As of 2018,
Cuba
Cuba ( , ), officially the Republic of Cuba ( es, República de Cuba, links=no ), is an island country comprising the island of Cuba, as well as Isla de la Juventud and several minor archipelagos. Cuba is located where the northern Caribbea ...
is the only
country restricted under TWEA.
North Korea
North Korea, officially the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK), is a country in East Asia. It constitutes the northern half of the Korea, Korean Peninsula and shares borders with China and Russia to the north, at the Yalu River, Y ...
was removed from the provisions of TWEA in 2008, although restrictions under IEEPA authority remain in effect.
History
The
United States declared war on Germany on April 6, 1917. TWEA was enacted on October 6, 1917 and on October 22, 1917, President
Woodrow Wilson
Thomas Woodrow Wilson (December 28, 1856February 3, 1924) was an American politician and academic who served as the 28th president of the United States from 1913 to 1921. A member of the Democratic Party, Wilson served as the president of ...
by Executive Order 2729-A created the
Office of Alien Property Custodian
The Office of Alien Property Custodian was an office within the government of the United States during World War I and again during World War II, serving as a custodian to property that belonged to US enemies. The office was created in 1917 by E ...
(APC) under TWEA with power to confiscate property from anyone whose actions might be considered a possible threat to the war effort. Initially, the Custodian confiscated the property of
interned natives of Germany and of businesses, such as the
Bayer
Bayer AG (, commonly pronounced ; ) is a German multinational corporation, multinational pharmaceutical and biotechnology company and one of the largest pharmaceutical companies in the world. Headquartered in Leverkusen, Bayer's areas of busi ...
chemical company.
On December 7, 1917, the
United States declared war on the Austria-Hungary Empire, the other
Central Power
The Central Powers, also known as the Central Empires,german: Mittelmächte; hu, Központi hatalmak; tr, İttifak Devletleri / ; bg, Централни сили, translit=Tsentralni sili was one of the two main coalitions that fought in W ...
.
In 1933, newly-elected President
Franklin D. Roosevelt
Franklin Delano Roosevelt (; ; January 30, 1882April 12, 1945), often referred to by his initials FDR, was an American politician and attorney who served as the 32nd president of the United States from 1933 until his death in 1945. As the ...
issued
Proclamation 2039
A proclamation (Lat. ''proclamare'', to make public by announcement) is an official declaration issued by a person of authority to make certain announcements known. Proclamations are currently used within the governing framework of some nations ...
, which declared a national emergency and imposed a bank holiday. The proclamation cited TWEA (obliquely referenced as the "Act of October 6, 1917") as the basis of his authority. Aware that such action was legally dubious since the United States was not at war, Roosevelt asked Congress to ratify his actions by passing the
Emergency Banking Relief Act
__NOTOC__
The Emergency Banking Act (EBA) (the official title of which was the Emergency Banking Relief Act), Public Law 73-1, 48 Stat. 1 (March 9, 1933), was an act passed by the United States Congress in March 1933 in an attempt to stabilize th ...
, which amended TWEA to enable its use during any "period of national emergency declared by the President." President
Franklin D. Roosevelt
Franklin Delano Roosevelt (; ; January 30, 1882April 12, 1945), often referred to by his initials FDR, was an American politician and attorney who served as the 32nd president of the United States from 1933 until his death in 1945. As the ...
, using these new authorities, issued
Executive Order 6102
Executive Order 6102 is an executive order signed on April 5, 1933, by US President Franklin D. Roosevelt "forbidding the hoarding of gold coin, gold bullion, and gold certificates within the continental United States." The executive order was ...
to limit gold ownership. These restrictions continued until January 1, 1975. The TWEA has been amended several other times.
During and after both World Wars, property frozen by the United States, belonging to neutral or allied nations, was returned and property belonging to enemy nations was continuously confiscated until hostilities ceased. Some of the confiscated enemy property would not be returned later. Agreements to return some or most assets in exchange for seized American assets and reparations for war-damaged American interests by the new governments of the former enemy nations were later concluded. Nations or organizations that were deemed less responsible for starting the wars receive much more favorable treatment.
The United States instituted the Italian Enemy Act of 1947 to deal with former members of the Mussolini regime from controlling interest in U.S. based businesses under the TWEA Act of 1917.
On December 16, 1950, the United States imposed economic sanctions against North Korea under TWEA, which lasted until 2008.
On May 13, 1966, President
Lyndon B. Johnson
Lyndon Baines Johnson (; August 27, 1908January 22, 1973), often referred to by his initials LBJ, was an American politician who served as the 36th president of the United States from 1963 to 1969. He had previously served as the 37th vice ...
abolished the
Office of Alien Property Custodian
The Office of Alien Property Custodian was an office within the government of the United States during World War I and again during World War II, serving as a custodian to property that belonged to US enemies. The office was created in 1917 by E ...
by
Executive Order 11281
Executive ( exe., exec., execu.) may refer to:
Role or title
* Executive, a senior management role in an organization
** Chief executive officer (CEO), one of the highest-ranking corporate officers (executives) or administrators
** Executive dir ...
, effective June 30 of that year.
On August 15, 1971, President
Richard M. Nixon issued
Proclamation 4074
A proclamation (Lat. ''proclamare'', to make public by announcement) is an official declaration issued by a person of authority to make certain announcements known. Proclamations are currently used within the governing framework of some nations ...
, which declared a national emergency under TWEA and imposed a 10% ad valorem supplemental duty on all dutiable articles imported into the United States.
Countries sanctioned under the Trading with the Enemy Act
Albania
Albania
Albania ( ; sq, Shqipëri or ), or , also or . officially the Republic of Albania ( sq, Republika e Shqipërisë), is a country in Southeastern Europe. It is located on the Adriatic and Ionian Seas within the Mediterranean Sea and shares ...
was invaded by the Central Powers during WW1. While the Central Powers occupied Albania, its assets from the areas they occupied were frozen to prevent the Central Powers from using Albanian assets. Because of this policy, once Central Powers occupation ended the sanctions were effectively lifted.
During WW2,
Albania
Albania ( ; sq, Shqipëri or ), or , also or . officially the Republic of Albania ( sq, Republika e Shqipërisë), is a country in Southeastern Europe. It is located on the Adriatic and Ionian Seas within the Mediterranean Sea and shares ...
was listed in 1941, to prevent its assets from being used first by the invading fascist Italy and then by the invading Nazi Germany,
and was delisted in 1946.
Andorra
Andorra
, image_flag = Flag of Andorra.svg
, image_coat = Coat of arms of Andorra.svg
, symbol_type = Coat of arms
, national_motto = la, Virtus Unita Fortior, label=none (Latin)"United virtue is stro ...
remained officially neutral during WW2. However, it was a tiny country between Axis-friendly Spain and the German puppet state
Vichy France
Vichy France (french: Régime de Vichy; 10 July 1940 – 9 August 1944), officially the French State ('), was the fascist French state headed by Marshal Philippe Pétain during World War II. Officially independent, but with half of its ter ...
. Andorra was listed in 1941, to prevent its assets from being used by Nazi Germany and Vichy France,
and was delisted in 1946.
Austria
Austria
Austria, , bar, Östareich officially the Republic of Austria, is a country in the southern part of Central Europe, lying in the Eastern Alps. It is a federation of nine states, one of which is the capital, Vienna, the most populous ...
was invaded and annexed by Germany. It was listed in 1941, to prevent its assets from being used by the invading Nazi Germany,
and was delisted in 1946.
Austro-Hungarian Empire
The
Austro-Hungarian Empire
Austria-Hungary, often referred to as the Austro-Hungarian Empire,, the Dual Monarchy, or Austria, was a constitutional monarchy and great power in Central Europe between 1867 and 1918. It was formed with the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of ...
was sanctioned in 1917 as an enemy state.
It continued to be sanctioned until after its defeat and dissolution in 1918 into Austria and Hungary. The United States remained at "war" with the then-nonexistent dissolved country for several years until deciding to ratify peace treaties with Austria and Hungary separately 1921. No actual combat is known to have taken place between the United States and Austria or Hungary after the empire's dissolution and before the ratification of the peace treaties.
Belgium
Belgium
Belgium, ; french: Belgique ; german: Belgien officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a country in Northwestern Europe. The country is bordered by the Netherlands to the north, Germany to the east, Luxembourg to the southeast, France to th ...
's property was frozen in the event the property was from the areas the invading Central Powers occupied during WW1 to prevent the Central powers from using its assets. If the area was not occupied, the assets were not frozen. Because of this policy, once Central Power occupation ended the sanctions were effectively lifted.
Belgium was listed again in 1940, to prevent its assets from being used by the invading Nazi Germany,
and was delisted in 1946.
Bulgaria
Bulgaria
Bulgaria (; bg, България, Bǎlgariya), officially the Republic of Bulgaria,, ) is a country in Southeast Europe. It is situated on the eastern flank of the Balkans, and is bordered by Romania to the north, Serbia and North Macedon ...
was a German and Austro-Hungarian ally during WW1 and some of its property was frozen or confiscated by the United States.
The United States and Bulgaria avoided declaring war on each other during WW1.
During WW2 Bulgaria was an axis power and was sanctioned again in 1941.
Sanctions were lifted in 1945.
In 1963 the government of Bulgaria agreed to accept American claims for lost property and war damages so the Bulgarians were allowed to reclaim the property America seized during WW2.
Cambodia
Cambodia
Cambodia (; also Kampuchea ; km, កម្ពុជា, UNGEGN: ), officially the Kingdom of Cambodia, is a country located in the southern portion of the Indochinese Peninsula in Southeast Asia, spanning an area of , bordered by Thailand t ...
was sanctioned in 1975 as a result of the Vietnam War.
Trading With the Enemy Act sanctions were lifted in 1992.
China
China was listed on two occasions.
The Republic of China
Taiwan, officially the Republic of China (ROC), is a country in East Asia, at the junction of the East and South China Seas in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, with the People's Republic of China (PRC) to the northwest, Japan to the northeast ...
was first listed in 1941 to prevent invading Japan from using Chinese assets during WW2. China was delisted in 1946.
After WW2 the
People's Republic of China
China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, slightly ahead of India. China spans the equivalent of five time zones and ...
was sanctioned and listed in 1950 for aggression in the Korean War.
After President Richard Nixon's "opening with China" sanctions were lifted in 1975.
Cuba
Following the
Cuban missile crisis
The Cuban Missile Crisis, also known as the October Crisis (of 1962) ( es, Crisis de Octubre) in Cuba, the Caribbean Crisis () in Russia, or the Missile Scare, was a 35-day (16 October – 20 November 1962) confrontation between the United S ...
, the
Bay of Pigs invasion
The Bay of Pigs Invasion (, sometimes called ''Invasión de Playa Girón'' or ''Batalla de Playa Girón'' after the Playa Girón) was a failed military landing operation on the southwestern coast of Cuba in 1961 by Cuban exiles, covertly fina ...
, and the
nationalization of U.S. property by the Castro regime, the United States imposed sanctions on
Cuba
Cuba ( , ), officially the Republic of Cuba ( es, República de Cuba, links=no ), is an island country comprising the island of Cuba, as well as Isla de la Juventud and several minor archipelagos. Cuba is located where the northern Caribbea ...
in 1963.
TWEA sanctions continued throughout the Cold War because the US and Cuba often found themselves on opposite sides in various proxy conflicts throughout Latin America and Africa. The sanctions on Cuba were increased after the Cuban air force killed American protesters who were known to violate Cuban airspace. Cuba is currently the only state still under sanctions under TWEA.
Czechoslovakia
Czechoslovakia
, rue, Чеськословеньско, , yi, טשעכאסלאוואקיי,
, common_name = Czechoslovakia
, life_span = 1918–19391945–1992
, p1 = Austria-Hungary
, image_p1 ...
was invaded and annexed by Germany. In 1941 it was listed to prevent its assets from being used by the invading Nazi Germany.
Czechoslovakia was delisted in 1946.
Czechoslovakian assets were held until the government of Czechoslovakia agreed to return assets its German installed occupation government expropriated during WW2. These restrictions were lifted sometime between 1964 and 1967 after an agreement was reached.
Danzig
Danzig was listed in 1941 to prevent its assets from being used by the Nazi Germany.
Germany was forced to give up the city of Danzig after WWI. As a result of it being a former German city, there was a considerable amount of support for Nazi Germany to re-annex the territory within the mostly ethnic German Free City of Danzig. The annexation of Danzig happened early in WWII. Sanctions were continued until Danzig ceased to exist. Danzig was made part of Poland and renamed
Gdańsk
Gdańsk ( , also ; ; csb, Gduńsk;Stefan Ramułt, ''Słownik języka pomorskiego, czyli kaszubskiego'', Kraków 1893, Gdańsk 2003, ISBN 83-87408-64-6. , Johann Georg Theodor Grässe, ''Orbis latinus oder Verzeichniss der lateinischen Benen ...
. Danzig's German inhabitants were expelled to Germany as part of the Soviet proposal to prevent the German diaspora outside German borders after WWI from helping start another world war by requesting annexation.
Denmark
Denmark
)
, song = ( en, "King Christian stood by the lofty mast")
, song_type = National and royal anthem
, image_map = EU-Denmark.svg
, map_caption =
, subdivision_type = Sovereign state
, subdivision_name = Danish Realm, Kingdom of Denmark
...
was listed in 1940 to prevent its assets from being used by the invading Nazi Germany,
and was delisted in 1946.
East Germany
East Germany
East Germany, officially the German Democratic Republic (GDR; german: Deutsche Demokratische Republik, , DDR, ), was a country that existed from its creation on 7 October 1949 until its dissolution on 3 October 1990. In these years the state ...
, or eastern Germany before 1949, and East Berlin origin assets were held until the government of East German agreed to return assets the Nazi German government expropriated during WW2. These restrictions were lifted sometime between 1964 and 1967 after an agreement was reached.
Estonia
Estonia
Estonia, formally the Republic of Estonia, is a country by the Baltic Sea in Northern Europe. It is bordered to the north by the Gulf of Finland across from Finland, to the west by the sea across from Sweden, to the south by Latvia, a ...
was listed in 1940, to prevent its assets from being used by the invading Nazi Germany,
and was delisted in 1946.
Estonian assets were held until the government of Estonia agreed to return assets its German installed occupation government expropriated during WW2. These restrictions were lifted sometime between 1964 and 1967 after an agreement was reached.
Finland
Finland
Finland ( fi, Suomi ; sv, Finland ), officially the Republic of Finland (; ), is a Nordic country in Northern Europe. It shares land borders with Sweden to the northwest, Norway to the north, and Russia to the east, with the Gulf of B ...
was invaded in 1939 by the Soviet Union. As a result of this it allied itself with Germany against the Soviet Union during most of WW2. It was consequently sanctioned in 1941.
Finland was considered an ally of an enemy under TWTEA until the Lapland war in which Finland changed sides. Finland would have then been eligible for the classification of "allies or neutrals" and delisted with the rest of that group in 1946.
France
During WW1,
France
France (), officially the French Republic ( ), is a country primarily located in Western Europe. It also comprises of Overseas France, overseas regions and territories in the Americas and the Atlantic Ocean, Atlantic, Pacific Ocean, Pac ...
's property was frozen in the event the property was from the areas occupied by the invading Central Powers to prevent the Central powers from using its assets. If the area was not occupied, the assets were not frozen. Because of this policy, once central power occupation ended the sanctions were effectively lifted.
During WW2, France was listed in 1940 to prevent its assets from being used by the invading Nazi Germany.
France was delisted in 1946.
Germany
The
Empire of Germany
The German Empire (),Herbert Tuttle wrote in September 1881 that the term "Reich" does not literally connote an empire as has been commonly assumed by English-speaking people. The term literally denotes an empire – particularly a hereditary ...
was first sanctioned in 1917 for its role in WW1. Germany remained sanctioned until a U.S.-German peace treaty was ratified in 1921.
Nazi Germany
Nazi Germany (lit. "National Socialist State"), ' (lit. "Nazi State") for short; also ' (lit. "National Socialist Germany") (officially known as the German Reich from 1933 until 1943, and the Greater German Reich from 1943 to 1945) was ...
was sanctioned again in 1941 for its role in WW2.
Sanctions were lifted in 1946.
As Germany was judged to have a primary role in starting both world wars, the United States policy was to confiscate and sell off German assets that Germans acquired before 1946.
Greece
Greece
Greece,, or , romanized: ', officially the Hellenic Republic, is a country in Southeast Europe. It is situated on the southern tip of the Balkans, and is located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, and Africa. Greece shares land borders with ...
was listed in 1941, to prevent assets from being used by the invading Nazi Germany,
and was delisted in 1946.
Hong Kong
Hong Kong
Hong Kong ( (US) or (UK); , ), officially the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China ( abbr. Hong Kong SAR or HKSAR), is a city and special administrative region of China on the eastern Pearl River Delt ...
was listed in 1941, to prevent its assets from being used by invading Japan,
and was delisted in 1946.
Haiti
The military government of
Haiti
Haiti (; ht, Ayiti ; French: ), officially the Republic of Haiti (); ) and formerly known as Hayti, is a country located on the island of Hispaniola in the Greater Antilles archipelago of the Caribbean Sea, east of Cuba and Jamaica, and ...
led by General
Raoul Cedras and affiliated members such as the CIA-created FRAPH was listed under the International Economic Powers Act (IEPA Act), now with the Trading With the Enemy Act that has its roots in World War I and the EIPA Act during the Cold War between the US and the former Soviet Union. Many members of the
Haitian Army
The Armed Forces of Haiti (french: Forces Armées d'Haïti—FAd'H), consisted of the Haitian Army, Haitian Navy (at times), the Haitian Air Force, Haitian Coast Guard, (ANI) and some police forces (Port-au-Prince Police). The Army was always ...
who had properties in the US, their properties were either frozen or confiscated by the Bill Clinton administration until they agree with the return of deposed President Haitian President
Jean-Bertrand Aristide
Jean-Bertrand Aristide (born 15 July 1953) is a Haitian former Salesian priest and politician who became Haiti's first democratically elected president. A proponent of liberation theology, Aristide was appointed to a parish in Port-au-Prince in ...
.
Hungary
Hungary
Hungary ( hu, Magyarország ) is a landlocked country in Central Europe. Spanning of the Carpathian Basin, it is bordered by Slovakia to the north, Ukraine to the northeast, Romania to the east and southeast, Serbia to the south, Croatia a ...
was an axis power and sanctioned in 1941.
Sanctions were lifted in 1945.
Hungarian assets were held until the government of Hungary agreed to return assets its government expropriated during WW2 and accept claims for war damages caused by Hungary.
Italy
Italy
Italy ( it, Italia ), officially the Italian Republic, ) or the Republic of Italy, is a country in Southern Europe. It is located in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea, and its territory largely coincides with the homonymous geographical re ...
was an axis power until Italy was invaded and Mussolini's government deposed. Italy was sanctioned in 1941.
Sanctions were lifted in 1943 after the allies installed a friendly government and it switched sides.
Italy accepted an agreement to return expropriated American property and accept claims for war damages so it was allowed to reclaim its seized property.
Japan
In 1940 US President
Franklin D. Roosevelt
Franklin Delano Roosevelt (; ; January 30, 1882April 12, 1945), often referred to by his initials FDR, was an American politician and attorney who served as the 32nd president of the United States from 1933 until his death in 1945. As the ...
sanctioned
Japan
Japan ( ja, 日本, or , and formally , ''Nihonkoku'') is an island country in East Asia. It is situated in the northwest Pacific Ocean, and is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan, while extending from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north ...
to punish it for invading
China
China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, slightly ahead of India. China spans the equivalent of five time zones and ...
and
French Indochina
French Indochina (previously spelled as French Indo-China),; vi, Đông Dương thuộc Pháp, , lit. 'East Ocean under French Control; km, ឥណ្ឌូចិនបារាំង, ; th, อินโดจีนฝรั่งเศส, ...
under the Export Control Act. In 1941, Roosevelt imposed sanctions under TWEA.
Some claim that this was the reason for the
attack on Pearl Harbor
The attack on Pearl HarborAlso known as the Battle of Pearl Harbor was a surprise military strike by the Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service upon the United States against the naval base at Pearl Harbor in Honolulu, Territory of Hawaii, j ...
later in 1941.
Sanctions were lifted in 1946.
Japan was widely unpopular for the surprise attack on Pearl Harbor. Because Japan was the reason for the United States entering World War II, and due to the fact many Americans wanted to stay out of European wars during both wartime periods, Japanese assets that the Japanese acquired before 1946 were confiscated and sold.
Latvia
Latvia
Latvia ( or ; lv, Latvija ; ltg, Latveja; liv, Leţmō), officially the Republic of Latvia ( lv, Latvijas Republika, links=no, ltg, Latvejas Republika, links=no, liv, Leţmō Vabāmō, links=no), is a country in the Baltic region of ...
was listed in 1940, to prevent its assets from being used by the invading Nazi Germany,
and was delisted in 1946.
Latvian assets were held until the government of Latvia agreed to return assets its German installed occupation government expropriated during WW2. These restrictions were lifted sometime between 1964 and 1967 after an agreement was reached.
Liechtenstein
Liechtenstein
Liechtenstein (), officially the Principality of Liechtenstein (german: link=no, Fürstentum Liechtenstein), is a German-speaking microstate located in the Alps between Austria and Switzerland. Liechtenstein is a semi-constitutional monarchy ...
was listed in 1941. Liechtenstein was perceived to be on Germany's side by some allies even though it remained neutral.
Liechtenstein was delisted in 1946.
Lithuania
Lithuania
Lithuania (; lt, Lietuva ), officially the Republic of Lithuania ( lt, Lietuvos Respublika, links=no ), is a country in the Baltic region of Europe. It is one of three Baltic states and lies on the eastern shore of the Baltic Sea. Lithuania ...
was listed in 1940, to prevent assets from being used by the invading Nazi Germany,
and was delisted in 1946.
Lithuanian assets were held until the government of Lithuania agreed to return assets its German installed occupation government expropriated during WW2. These restrictions were lifted sometime between 1964 and 1967 after an agreement was reached.
Luxembourg
Luxembourg
Luxembourg ( ; lb, Lëtzebuerg ; french: link=no, Luxembourg; german: link=no, Luxemburg), officially the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, ; french: link=no, Grand-Duché de Luxembourg ; german: link=no, Großherzogtum Luxemburg is a small lan ...
was listed in 1940, to prevent its assets from being used by the invading Nazi Germany,
and was delisted in 1946.
Monaco
Monaco
Monaco (; ), officially the Principality of Monaco (french: Principauté de Monaco; Ligurian: ; oc, Principat de Mónegue), is a sovereign city-state and microstate on the French Riviera a few kilometres west of the Italian region of Lig ...
was listed in 1940, to prevent its assets from being used by the invading Nazi Germany,
and was delisted in 1946.
Montenegro
Montenegro
)
, image_map = Europe-Montenegro.svg
, map_caption =
, image_map2 =
, capital = Podgorica
, coordinates =
, largest_city = capital
, official_languages = M ...
was invaded by the central powers during WWI. While the central powers occupied Montenegro, its assets from the areas they occupied were frozen to prevent the central powers from using Montenegrin assets. Because of this policy, once central power occupation ended the sanctions were effectively lifted.
North Korea
North Korea
North Korea, officially the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK), is a country in East Asia. It constitutes the northern half of the Korea, Korean Peninsula and shares borders with China and Russia to the north, at the Yalu River, Y ...
was sanctioned in 1950 for aggression in the Korean War. The war is still officially in effect, with no peace treaty signed, and the sanctions has been kept due to North Korean terrorism, nuclear proliferation, and continued aggression towards the United States.
Trading with the Enemy Act sanctions were lifted in 2008 in response to North Korea's steps toward nuclear disarmament and commitments to continue dismantling its nuclear weapons program. However, North Korea later developed and tested several more nuclear weapons indicating that it was lying. North Korea's designation was grandfathered from an old version of the law that allowed it to be used absent a declaration of war. Because there is no declaration of war between the United States and North Korea, TWEA sanctions cannot be reapplied but it was re-sanctioned for reneging on its commitments through the IEEPA, along with other laws, and through UN Security Council resolutions.
North Vietnam
North Vietnam
North Vietnam, officially the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV; vi, Việt Nam Dân chủ Cộng hòa), was a socialist state supported by the Soviet Union (USSR) and the People's Republic of China (PRC) in Southeast Asia that existed f ...
was sanctioned in 1964 during the Vietnam war.
Sanctions were continued until North Vietnam ceased to exist and were inherited by the Socialist Republic of Vietnam.
Norway
Norway
Norway, officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Nordic country in Northern Europe, the mainland territory of which comprises the western and northernmost portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula. The remote Arctic island of Jan Mayen and t ...
was listed in 1940 to prevent its assets from being used by the invading Nazi Germany.
Norway was delisted in 1946.
Ottoman Empire
The
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire, * ; is an archaic version. The definite article forms and were synonymous * and el, Оθωμανική Αυτοκρατορία, Othōmanikē Avtokratoria, label=none * info page on book at Martin Luther University) ...
was in the Central Powers, an ally of the German Empire, Austro-Hungary and Kingdom of Bulgaria, which was sanctioned alongside its allies in 1917 with the act, though entering the war later on. The Ottoman Empire and the United States are not known to have fought each other during the war, except smaller-scaled
naval conflicts and bombardments. And little, if any, property was seized from
Ottomans
The Ottoman Turks ( tr, Osmanlı Türkleri), were the Turkic founding and sociopolitically the most dominant ethnic group of the Ottoman Empire ( 1299/1302–1922).
Reliable information about the early history of Ottoman Turks remains scarce, ...
as the Ottoman Empire had few resources to be seized that would contribute to the war and economic effort within the United States.
It was judged by the Office of the Alien Property Custodian that seizing the small amount of non-war related Ottoman property that was present in the United States at that time was counter-productive and would later on likely invite the Ottoman Empire onto seizing a larger amount of American property back as in-advance. Thus, the United States didn't want to provoke the Ottomans in such a way that would result in them possibly targeting US affiliates, companies, property and citizens living within the lands & areas they controlled in many ways, and prompt unnecessary mutual declarations of war.
They remained sanctioned even after their defeat by signing the
Mudros Armistice
Concluded on 30 October 1918 and taking effect at noon the next day, the Armistice of Mudros ( tr, Mondros Mütarekesi) ended hostilities in the Middle Eastern theatre between the Ottoman Empire and the Allies of World War I. It was signed by t ...
in 1918 until their dissolution with the later-to-be
revoked Peace Treaty of Sevrés in 1921, when the sanctions were no longer in-effect.
The Americans were not going to be directly involved in the
Turkish War of Independence
The Turkish War of Independence "War of Liberation", also known figuratively as ''İstiklâl Harbi'' "Independence War" or ''Millî Mücadele'' "National Struggle" (19 May 1919 – 24 July 1923) was a series of military campaigns waged by th ...
which would follow after the signing of Sevrés, nor implement any official sanctions but would support Ententé and
Greek
Greek may refer to:
Greece
Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe:
*Greeks, an ethnic group.
*Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family.
**Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor ...
forces. Although not officially, a significant portion of the American Congress would later go on-to criticizing and proclaiming the
Lausanne Declaration Treaty that would follow after the independence war as invalid, rejecting it by still supporting the post-European and colonial claims on Turkish lands in the
Balkans
The Balkans ( ), also known as the Balkan Peninsula, is a geographical area in southeastern Europe with various geographical and historical definitions. The region takes its name from the Balkan Mountains that stretch throughout the who ...
and the
Anatoli
Anatoli ( el, Ανατολή) is a town and a former municipality in the Ioannina regional unit, Epirus, Greece
Greece,, or , romanized: ', officially the Hellenic Republic, is a country in Southeast Europe. It is situated on the southe ...
.
These rejections would later be disregarded, and the United States of America formally established normal & friendly relations with the newly established modern, and more
Western-sided Turkish Republic
Turkey ( tr, Türkiye ), officially the Republic of Türkiye ( tr, Türkiye Cumhuriyeti, links=no ), is a transcontinental country located mainly on the Anatolian Peninsula in Western Asia, with a small portion on the Balkan Peninsula in ...
in 1927.
Thus, the new Republic of Turkey was not affected by any American or Allied sanctions anymore shortly after the end of the Independence War and the signing of the Lausanne Treaty, nor during WWII.
Poland
Poland
Poland, officially the Republic of Poland, is a country in Central Europe. It is divided into 16 administrative provinces called voivodeships, covering an area of . Poland has a population of over 38 million and is the fifth-most populous ...
was listed in 1941 to prevent its assets from being used by the invading Nazi Germany.
Poland was delisted in 1946.
Portugal
Portugal
Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic ( pt, República Portuguesa, links=yes ), is a country whose mainland is located on the Iberian Peninsula of Southwestern Europe, and whose territory also includes the Atlantic archipelagos of ...
was listed in 1941. Portugal was a British ally, however it was officially neutral as a part of an allied strategy to avoid costly and pyrrhic military commitments to defend the Iberian peninsula during WW2. Spain would have likely declared war on the axis side if Portugal entered on the allied side opening a large unnecessary front. While a neutral it traded raw materials used in military production with Germany though it gave much more assistance and trade to the allies than the axis.
Portugal was delisted in 1948.
Rumania
Romania
Romania ( ; ro, România ) is a country located at the crossroads of Central Europe, Central, Eastern Europe, Eastern, and Southeast Europe, Southeastern Europe. It borders Bulgaria to the south, Ukraine to the north, Hungary to the west, S ...
was invaded by the central powers during WW1. While the central powers occupied Romania, its assets from the areas they occupied were frozen to prevent the central powers from using Romanian assets. Because of this policy, once central power occupation ended the sanctions were effectively lifted.
In WW2 Romania was an axis power and sanctioned in 1940.
Sanctions were lifted in 1945.
Romanian assets were held until the government of Romania agreed to return assets its government expropriated during WW2 and accept claims for war damage caused by Romania.
Romania has a long history of being misspelled by previous members of the government of the United States. Rumania and Roumania are common misspellings used in government documents.
Russia
Russian Empire
The Russian Empire was an empire and the final period of the Russian monarchy from 1721 to 1917, ruling across large parts of Eurasia. It succeeded the Tsardom of Russia following the Treaty of Nystad, which ended the Great Northern War. ...
property was frozen in the event the property was from the areas the invading Central Powers occupied during WW1 to prevent the Central powers from using Russian assets. If the area was not occupied, the assets were not frozen. Because of this policy, once central power occupation ended the sanctions were effectively lifted.
San Marino
San Marino
San Marino (, ), officially the Republic of San Marino ( it, Repubblica di San Marino; ), also known as the Most Serene Republic of San Marino ( it, Serenissima Repubblica di San Marino, links=no), is the fifth-smallest country in the world an ...
was listed in 1941. San Marino was perceived to be part of the axis though it remained neutral.
San Marino was delisted in 1946.
Serbia
Serbia
Serbia (, ; Serbian language, Serbian: , , ), officially the Republic of Serbia (Serbian language, Serbian: , , ), is a landlocked country in Southeast Europe, Southeastern and Central Europe, situated at the crossroads of the Pannonian Bas ...
was invaded by the central powers during WWI. While the central powers occupied Serbia, its assets from the areas they occupied were frozen to prevent the central powers from using Serb assets. Because of this policy, once central power occupation ended the sanctions were effectively lifted.
Spain
Spain
, image_flag = Bandera de España.svg
, image_coat = Escudo de España (mazonado).svg
, national_motto = ''Plus ultra'' (Latin)(English: "Further Beyond")
, national_anthem = (English: "Royal March")
, i ...
was listed in 1941 for aiding the Axis though officially remaining neutral.
Spain was delisted in 1946.
Sweden
Sweden
Sweden, formally the Kingdom of Sweden,The United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names states that the country's formal name is the Kingdom of SwedenUNGEGN World Geographical Names, Sweden./ref> is a Nordic country located on ...
was listed in 1941. While Sweden was officially neutral, it aided both sides during WWII to avoid being at war with either.
Sweden was delisted in 1946.
Switzerland
Switzerland
). Swiss law does not designate a ''capital'' as such, but the federal parliament and government are installed in Bern, while other federal institutions, such as the federal courts, are in other cities (Bellinzona, Lausanne, Luzern, Neuchâtel ...
was listed in 1941. Although neutral during WWII, it engaged in combat against both sides for infringing on its airspace or territory.
Switzerland was delisted in 1946.
Thailand
Thailand
Thailand ( ), historically known as Siam () and officially the Kingdom of Thailand, is a country in Southeast Asia, located at the centre of the Indochinese Peninsula, spanning , with a population of almost 70 million. The country is bo ...
was sanctioned in 1941. Thailand was invaded by the Japanese and as a negotiated settlement to the conflict they became a Japanese ally during WW2. After Japan was defeated, Thailand's subsequent prime minister said the previous government didn't get a valid declaration of war and the previous prime ministers unilateral declaration was null and void.
The Office of Alien Property considered Thailand enemy-occupied instead of an enemy power so it was delisted in 1946 and eligible to get its property back.
The Netherlands
The Netherlands
)
, anthem = ( en, "William of Nassau")
, image_map =
, map_caption =
, subdivision_type = Sovereign state
, subdivision_name = Kingdom of the Netherlands
, established_title = Before independence
, established_date = Spanish Netherl ...
was listed in 1940 to prevent its assets from being used by the invading Nazi Germany.
The Netherlands was delisted in 1946.
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
The
Soviet Union
The Soviet Union,. officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR),. was a transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 to 1991. A flagship communist state, it was nominally a federal union of fifteen national ...
was sanctioned several times under this act, though for a relatively short period of time. It was first listed in 1941 to prevent assets from being used by the invading Nazi Germany and other invading axis powers.
The Soviet Union was delisted in 1946.
Later it was sanctioned during four brief periods from 1972 to 1976 when other Presidential economic powers lapsed due to not being renewed by Congress during the cold war.
United States
Franklin D. Roosevelt used the Trading with the Enemy Act to shut financial institutions and declare a "bank holiday" to prevent runs on the banks during the Great Depression in 1933. It was also used to outlaw most ownership of gold in an attempt to prop up the gold-backed dollar. The gold ownership ban was lifted by congressional amendment and gold was no longer used to back printed dollars. In 1968 Lyndon Johnson used the law to restrict capital exports. In 1971 Nixon used the TWEA for currency manipulation in an attempt to boost US exports.
In 1982 the United States Treasury Department announced the termination of the Presidential Proclamations and executive orders for the emergencies relating to the 1933 Great Depression ending all domestically oriented Trading with the Enemy Act related programs.
Vietnam
The Socialist Republic of Vietnam was sanctioned in 1975 as a result of the Vietnam War.
Trading With the Enemy Act sanctions were lifted in 1994.
Yugoslavia
Yugoslavia
Yugoslavia (; sh-Latn-Cyrl, separator=" / ", Jugoslavija, Југославија ; sl, Jugoslavija ; mk, Југославија ;; rup, Iugoslavia; hu, Jugoszlávia; rue, label=Pannonian Rusyn, Югославия, translit=Juhoslavija ...
was listed in 1941 to prevent assets from being used by the invading Nazi Germany.
Yugoslavia was delisted in 1946.
See also
*
Espionage Act of 1917
The Espionage Act of 1917 is a United States federal law enacted on June 15, 1917, shortly after the United States entered World War I. It has been amended numerous times over the years. It was originally found in Title 50 of the U.S. Code (War ...
*
International Emergency Economic Powers Act
The International Emergency Economic Powers Act (IEEPA), Title II of , is a United States federal law authorizing the president to regulate international commerce after declaring a national emergency in response to any unusual and extraordinary t ...
*
Trading with the Enemy Act
Trading with the Enemy Act is a stock short title used for legislation in the United Kingdom and the United States relating to trading with the enemy.
''Trading with the Enemy Acts'' is also a generic name for a class of legislation generally pas ...
– an overview of such acts in several countries
*
Senate Report 93-549 The Report of the Special Committee on the Termination of the National Emergency, also known as Senate Report 93-549, was a document issued by the "Special Committee on the Termination of the National Emergency" of the 93rd Congress (hence the "93" ...
*
War Powers Act (disambiguation) Several acts passed by the United States Congress are known as the War Powers Act:
* the Trading with the Enemy Act of 1917
* the War Powers Act of 1941
* the War Powers Clause
* the War Powers Resolution
...
– links to other related acts
External links
U.S. TreasuryUS House Code1947 to 1979 reports of the Office of the Alien Property Custodian
References
{{Authority control
1917 in law
United States federal criminal legislation
United States federal trade legislation
1917 in international relations
1917 in the United States
United States foreign relations legislation
Economic warfare
Sanctions legislation