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Direct Method In The Calculus Of Variations
In mathematics, the direct method in the calculus of variations is a general method for constructing a proof of the existence of a minimizer for a given functional, introduced by Stanisław Zaremba and David Hilbert around 1900. The method relies on methods of functional analysis and topology. As well as being used to prove the existence of a solution, direct methods may be used to compute the solution to desired accuracy. The method The calculus of variations deals with functionals J:V \to \bar, where V is some function space and \bar = \mathbb \cup \. The main interest of the subject is to find ''minimizers'' for such functionals, that is, functions v \in V such that:J(v) \leq J(u)\forall u \in V. The standard tool for obtaining necessary conditions for a function to be a minimizer is the Euler–Lagrange equation. But seeking a minimizer amongst functions satisfying these may lead to false conclusions if the existence of a minimizer is not established beforehand. The ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Mathematics
Mathematics is an area of knowledge that includes the topics of numbers, formulas and related structures, shapes and the spaces in which they are contained, and quantities and their changes. These topics are represented in modern mathematics with the major subdisciplines of number theory, algebra, geometry, and analysis, respectively. There is no general consensus among mathematicians about a common definition for their academic discipline. Most mathematical activity involves the discovery of properties of abstract objects and the use of pure reason to prove them. These objects consist of either abstractions from nature orin modern mathematicsentities that are stipulated to have certain properties, called axioms. A ''proof'' consists of a succession of applications of deductive rules to already established results. These results include previously proved theorems, axioms, andin case of abstraction from naturesome basic properties that are considered true starting points of ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Weak Topology
In mathematics, weak topology is an alternative term for certain initial topologies, often on topological vector spaces or spaces of linear operators, for instance on a Hilbert space. The term is most commonly used for the initial topology of a topological vector space (such as a normed vector space) with respect to its continuous dual. The remainder of this article will deal with this case, which is one of the concepts of functional analysis. One may call subsets of a topological vector space weakly closed (respectively, weakly compact, etc.) if they are closed (respectively, compact, etc.) with respect to the weak topology. Likewise, functions are sometimes called weakly continuous (respectively, weakly differentiable, weakly analytic, etc.) if they are continuous (respectively, differentiable, analytic, etc.) with respect to the weak topology. History Starting in the early 1900s, David Hilbert and Marcel Riesz made extensive use of weak convergence. The early pioneers o ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Quasiconvexity (Calculus Of Variations)
In mathematics, a quasiconvex function is a real-valued function defined on an interval or on a convex subset of a real vector space such that the inverse image of any set of the form (-\infty,a) is a convex set. For a function of a single variable, along any stretch of the curve the highest point is one of the endpoints. The negative of a quasiconvex function is said to be quasiconcave. All convex functions are also quasiconvex, but not all quasiconvex functions are convex, so quasiconvexity is a generalization of convexity. ''Univariate'' unimodal functions are quasiconvex or quasiconcave, however this is not necessarily the case for functions with multiple arguments. For example, the 2-dimensional Rosenbrock function is unimodal but not quasiconvex and functions with star-convex sublevel sets can be unimodal without being quasiconvex. Definition and properties A function f:S \to \mathbb defined on a convex subset S of a real vector space is quasiconvex if for all x, y \i ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Almost Every
In measure theory (a branch of mathematical analysis), a property holds almost everywhere if, in a technical sense, the set for which the property holds takes up nearly all possibilities. The notion of "almost everywhere" is a companion notion to the concept of measure zero, and is analogous to the notion of ''almost surely'' in probability theory. More specifically, a property holds almost everywhere if it holds for all elements in a set except a subset of measure zero, or equivalently, if the set of elements for which the property holds is conull. In cases where the measure is not complete, it is sufficient that the set be contained within a set of measure zero. When discussing sets of real numbers, the Lebesgue measure is usually assumed unless otherwise stated. The term ''almost everywhere'' is abbreviated ''a.e.''; in older literature ''p.p.'' is used, to stand for the equivalent French language phrase ''presque partout''. A set with full measure is one whose complement is ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Frobenius Inner Product
In mathematics, the Frobenius inner product is a binary operation that takes two matrices and returns a scalar. It is often denoted \langle \mathbf,\mathbf \rangle_\mathrm. The operation is a component-wise inner product of two matrices as though they are vectors, and satisfies the axioms for an inner product. The two matrices must have the same dimension - same number of rows and columns, but are not restricted to be square matrices. Definition Given two complex number-valued ''n''×''m'' matrices A and B, written explicitly as : \mathbf = \,, \quad \mathbf = the Frobenius inner product is defined as, : \langle \mathbf, \mathbf \rangle_\mathrm =\sum_\overline B_ \, = \mathrm\left(\overline \mathbf\right) \equiv \mathrm\left(\mathbf^ \mathbf\right) where the overline denotes the complex conjugate, and \dagger denotes Hermitian conjugate. Explicitly this sum is :\begin \langle \mathbf, \mathbf \rangle_\mathrm = & \overline_ B_ + \overline_ B_ + \cdots + \overline_ B_ \\ & + ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Hölder Conjugate
In mathematics, two real numbers p, q>1 are called conjugate indices (or Hölder conjugates) if : \frac + \frac = 1. Formally, we also define q = \infty as conjugate to p=1 and vice versa References Additional references * * {{Latin phrases V ca:Locució llatina#V da:Latinske ord og vendinger#V fr:Liste de locutions latines#V id:Daftar frasa Latin#V it:Locuzioni latine#V nl:Lijst van Latijnse spreekwoorden en ui .... Conjugate indices are used in Hölder's inequality. If p, q>1 are conjugate indices, the spaces ''L''''p'' and ''L''''q'' are dual to each other (see ''L''''p'' space). See also * Beatty's theorem References * Antonevich, A. ''Linear Functional Equations'', Birkhäuser, 1999. . Functional analysis {{mathanalysis-stub ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Carathéodory Function
In mathematical analysis, a Carathéodory function (or Carathéodory integrand) is a multivariable function that allows us to solve the following problem effectively: A composition of two Lebesgue-measurable functions does not have to be Lebesgue-measurable as well. Nevertheless, a composition of a measurable function with a continuous function is indeed Lebesgue-measurable, but in many situations, continuity is a too restrictive assumption. Carathéodory functions are more general than continuous functions, but still allow a composition with Lebesgue-measurable function to be measurable. Carathéodory functions play a significant role in calculus of variation, and it is named after the Greek mathematician Constantin Carathéodory. Definition W:\Omega\times\mathbb^\rightarrow\mathbb\cup\left\ , for \Omega\subseteq\mathbb^ endowed with the Lebesgue measure, is a Carathéodory function if: 1. The mapping x\mapsto W\left(x,\xi\right) is Lesbegue-measurable for every \xi\in\m ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Trace Operator
In mathematics, the trace operator extends the notion of the restriction of a function to the boundary of its domain to "generalized" functions in a Sobolev space. This is particularly important for the study of partial differential equations with prescribed boundary conditions ( boundary value problems), where weak solutions may not be regular enough to satisfy the boundary conditions in the classical sense of functions. Motivation On a bounded, smooth domain \Omega \subset \mathbb R^n, consider the problem of solving Poisson's equation with inhomogeneous Dirichlet boundary conditions: :\begin -\Delta u &= f &\quad&\text \Omega,\\ u &= g &&\text \partial \Omega \end with given functions f and g with regularity discussed in the application section below. The weak solution u \in H^1(\Omega) of this equation must satisfy :\int_\Omega \nabla u \cdot \nabla \varphi \,\mathrm dx = \int_\Omega f \varphi \,\mathrm dx for all \varphi \in H^1_0(\Omega). The H^1(\Omega)-regularity of u ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Weak Derivative
In mathematics, a weak derivative is a generalization of the concept of the derivative of a function (''strong derivative'') for functions not assumed differentiable, but only integrable, i.e., to lie in the L''p'' space L^1( ,b. The method of integration by parts holds that for differentiable functions u and \varphi we have :\begin \int_a^b u(x) \varphi'(x) \, dx & = \Big (x) \varphi(x)\Biga^b - \int_a^b u'(x) \varphi(x) \, dx. \\ pt \end A function ''u''' being the weak derivative of ''u'' is essentially defined by the requirement that this equation must hold for all infinitely differentiable functions ''φ'' vanishing at the boundary points (\varphi(a)=\varphi(b)=0). Definition Let u be a function in the Lebesgue space L^1( ,b. We say that v in L^1( ,b is a weak derivative of u if :\int_a^b u(t)\varphi'(t) \, dt=-\int_a^b v(t)\varphi(t) \, dt for ''all'' infinitely differentiable functions \varphi with \varphi(a)=\varphi(b)=0. Generalizing to n dimensions, ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Sobolev Space
In mathematics, a Sobolev space is a vector space of functions equipped with a norm that is a combination of ''Lp''-norms of the function together with its derivatives up to a given order. The derivatives are understood in a suitable weak sense to make the space complete, i.e. a Banach space. Intuitively, a Sobolev space is a space of functions possessing sufficiently many derivatives for some application domain, such as partial differential equations, and equipped with a norm that measures both the size and regularity of a function. Sobolev spaces are named after the Russian mathematician Sergei Sobolev. Their importance comes from the fact that weak solutions of some important partial differential equations exist in appropriate Sobolev spaces, even when there are no strong solutions in spaces of continuous functions with the derivatives understood in the classical sense. Motivation In this section and throughout the article \Omega is an open subset of \R^n. There are many c ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Supremum Norm
In mathematical analysis, the uniform norm (or ) assigns to real- or complex-valued bounded functions defined on a set the non-negative number :\, f\, _\infty = \, f\, _ = \sup\left\. This norm is also called the , the , the , or, when the supremum is in fact the maximum, the . The name "uniform norm" derives from the fact that a sequence of functions converges to under the metric derived from the uniform norm if and only if converges to uniformly. If is a continuous function on a closed and bounded interval, or more generally a compact set, then it is bounded and the supremum in the above definition is attained by the Weierstrass extreme value theorem, so we can replace the supremum by the maximum. In this case, the norm is also called the . In particular, if is some vector such that x = \left(x_1, x_2, \ldots, x_n\right) in finite dimensional coordinate space, it takes the form: :\, x\, _\infty := \max \left(\left, x_1\ , \ldots , \left, x_n\\right). Metric and ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Jacobian Matrix And Determinant
In vector calculus, the Jacobian matrix (, ) of a vector-valued function of several variables is the matrix of all its first-order partial derivatives. When this matrix is square, that is, when the function takes the same number of variables as input as the number of vector components of its output, its determinant is referred to as the Jacobian determinant. Both the matrix and (if applicable) the determinant are often referred to simply as the Jacobian in literature. Suppose is a function such that each of its first-order partial derivatives exist on . This function takes a point as input and produces the vector as output. Then the Jacobian matrix of is defined to be an matrix, denoted by , whose th entry is \mathbf J_ = \frac, or explicitly :\mathbf J = \begin \dfrac & \cdots & \dfrac \end = \begin \nabla^ f_1 \\ \vdots \\ \nabla^ f_m \end = \begin \dfrac & \cdots & \dfrac\\ \vdots & \ddots & \vdots\\ \dfrac & \cdots ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
