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Ackermann Function
In computability theory, the Ackermann function, named after Wilhelm Ackermann, is one of the simplest and earliest-discovered examples of a total computable function that is not primitive recursive. All primitive recursive functions are total and computable, but the Ackermann function illustrates that not all total computable functions are primitive recursive. After Ackermann's publication of his function (which had three non-negative integer arguments), many authors modified it to suit various purposes, so that today "the Ackermann function" may refer to any of numerous variants of the original function. One common version is the two-argument Ackermann–Péter function developed by Rózsa Péter and Raphael Robinson. Its value grows very rapidly; for example, \operatorname(4, 2) results in 2^ - 3, an integer of 19,729 decimal digits. History In the late 1920s, the mathematicians Gabriel Sudan and Wilhelm Ackermann, students of David Hilbert, were studying the foundations ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Computability Theory
Computability theory, also known as recursion theory, is a branch of mathematical logic, computer science, and the theory of computation that originated in the 1930s with the study of computable functions and Turing degrees. The field has since expanded to include the study of generalized computability and definability. In these areas, computability theory overlaps with proof theory and effective descriptive set theory. Basic questions addressed by computability theory include: * What does it mean for a function on the natural numbers to be computable? * How can noncomputable functions be classified into a hierarchy based on their level of noncomputability? Although there is considerable overlap in terms of knowledge and methods, mathematical computability theorists study the theory of relative computability, reducibility notions, and degree structures; those in the computer science field focus on the theory of subrecursive hierarchies, formal methods, and formal languages. I ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Robert Creighton Buck
Robert Creighton Buck (30 August 1920 Cincinnati – 1 February 1998 Wisconsin), usually cited as R. Creighton Buck, was an American mathematician who, with Ralph Boas, introduced Boas–Buck polynomials. He taught at University of Wisconsin–Madison for 40 years. In addition, he was a writer. Biography Buck was born in Cincinnati. He studied at the University of Cincinnati and then earned his PhD in 1947 at Harvard University under David Widder and Ralph Boas with dissertation ''Uniqueness, Interpolation and Characterization Theorems for Functions of Exponential Type''. For three years he was an assistant professor at Brown University, before he became in 1950 an associate professor at the University of Wisconsin, Madison, where he was promoted to professor in 1954. In 1973, he became the acting director of the University of Wisconsin Army Mathematics Research Center when J. Barkley Rosser retired. At Madison he became in 1980 "Hilldale Professor" and from 1964 to 1966 he w ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Graham's Number
Graham's number is an immense number that arose as an upper bound on the answer of a problem in the mathematical field of Ramsey theory. It is much larger than many other large numbers such as Skewes's number and Moser's number, both of which are in turn much larger than a googolplex. As with these, it is so large that the observable universe is far too small to contain an ordinary digital representation of Graham's number, assuming that each digit occupies one Planck volume, possibly the smallest measurable space. But even the number of digits in this digital representation of Graham's number would itself be a number so large that its digital representation cannot be represented in the observable universe. Nor even can the number of digits of ''that'' number—and so forth, for a number of times far exceeding the total number of Planck volumes in the observable universe. Thus Graham's number cannot be expressed even by physical universe-scale power towers of the form a ^. How ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Memoization
In computing, memoization or memoisation is an optimization technique used primarily to speed up computer programs by storing the results of expensive function calls and returning the cached result when the same inputs occur again. Memoization has also been used in other contexts (and for purposes other than speed gains), such as in simple mutually recursive descent parsing. Although related to caching, memoization refers to a specific case of this optimization, distinguishing it from forms of caching such as buffering or page replacement. In the context of some logic programming languages, memoization is also known as tabling. Etymology The term "memoization" was coined by Donald Michie in 1968 and is derived from the Latin word "memorandum" ("to be remembered"), usually truncated as "memo" in American English, and thus carries the meaning of "turning he results ofa function into something to be remembered". While "memoization" might be confused with "memorization" (becaus ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Rosetta Code
Rosetta Code is a wiki-based programming website with implementations of common algorithms and solutions to various programming problems in many different programming languages. It is named for the Rosetta Stone, which has the same text inscribed on it in three languages, and thus allowed Egyptian hieroglyphs to be deciphered for the first time. Website Rosetta Code was created in 2007 by Michael Mol. The site's content is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License 1.2, though some components may be dual-licensed under more permissive terms. The Rosetta Code web repository illustrates how desired functionality is implemented very differently in various programming paradigms, and how "the same" task is accomplished in different programming languages. , Rosetta Code has: ::* 1,121 computer programming tasks (or problems) ::* 303 additional draft programming tasks ::* 810 computer programming languages that are used to solve tasks ::* 83,043 computer programming ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Pseudocode
In computer science, pseudocode is a plain language description of the steps in an algorithm or another system. Pseudocode often uses structural conventions of a normal programming language, but is intended for human reading rather than machine reading. It typically omits details that are essential for machine understanding of the algorithm, such as variable declarations and language-specific code. The programming language is augmented with natural language description details, where convenient, or with compact mathematical notation. The purpose of using pseudocode is that it is easier for people to understand than conventional programming language code, and that it is an efficient and environment-independent description of the key principles of an algorithm. It is commonly used in textbooks and scientific publications to document algorithms and in planning of software and other algorithms. No broad standard for pseudocode syntax exists, as a program in pseudocode is not an executa ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Stack (abstract Data Type)
In computer science, a stack is an abstract data type that serves as a collection of elements, with two main operations: * Push, which adds an element to the collection, and * Pop, which removes the most recently added element that was not yet removed. Additionally, a peek operation can, without modifying the stack, return the value of the last element added. Calling this structure a ''stack'' is by analogy to a set of physical items stacked one atop another, such as a stack of plates. The order in which an element added to or removed from a stack is described as last in, first out, referred to by the acronym LIFO. As with a stack of physical objects, this structure makes it easy to take an item off the top of the stack, but accessing a datum deeper in the stack may require taking off multiple other items first. Considered as a linear data structure, or more abstractly a sequential collection, the push and pop operations occur only at one end of the structure, referred to ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Reduction Strategy
In rewriting, a reduction strategy or rewriting strategy is a relation specifying a rewrite for each object or term, compatible with a given reduction relation. Some authors use the term to refer to an evaluation strategy. Definitions Formally, for an abstract rewriting system (A, \to), a reduction strategy \to_S is a binary relation on A with \to_S \subseteq \overset , where \overset is the transitive closure of \to (but not the reflexive closure). In addition the normal forms of the strategy must be the same as the normal forms of the original rewriting system, i.e. for all a, there exists a b with a\to b iff \exists b'. a\to_S b'. A ''one step'' reduction strategy is one where \to_S \subseteq \to. Otherwise it is a ''many step'' strategy. A ''deterministic'' strategy is one where \to_S is a partial function, i.e. for each a\in A there is at most one b such that a \to_S b. Otherwise it is a ''nondeterministic'' strategy. Term rewriting In a term rewriting system a rewriti ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Rewriting
In mathematics, computer science, and logic, rewriting covers a wide range of methods of replacing subterms of a well-formed formula, formula with other terms. Such methods may be achieved by rewriting systems (also known as rewrite systems, rewrite engines, or reduction systems). In their most basic form, they consist of a set of objects, plus relations on how to transform those objects. Rewriting can be non-deterministic algorithm, non-deterministic. One rule to rewrite a term could be applied in many different ways to that term, or more than one rule could be applicable. Rewriting systems then do not provide an algorithm for changing one term to another, but a set of possible rule applications. When combined with an appropriate algorithm, however, rewrite systems can be viewed as computer programs, and several automated theorem proving, theorem provers and declarative programming languages are based on term rewriting. Example cases Logic In logic, the procedure for obtaini ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Currying
In mathematics and computer science, currying is the technique of translating the evaluation of a function that takes multiple arguments into evaluating a sequence of functions, each with a single argument. For example, currying a function f that takes three arguments creates a nested unary function g, so that the code :\textx=f(a,b,c) gives x the same value as the code : \begin \texth = g(a) \\ \texti = h(b) \\ \textx = i(c), \end or called in sequence, :\textx = g(a)(b)(c). In a more mathematical language, a function that takes two arguments, one from X and one from Y, and produces outputs in Z, by currying is translated into a function that takes a single argument from X and produces as outputs ''functions'' from Y to Z. This is a natural one-to-one correspondence between these two types of functions, so that the sets together with functions between them form a Cartesian closed category. The currying of a function with more than two arguments can then be defined by induction. Cur ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Associative In mathematics, the associative property is a property of some binary operations, which means that rearranging the parentheses in an expression will not change the result. In propositional logic, associativity is a valid rule of replacement for expressions in logical proofs. Within an expression containing two or more occurrences in a row of the same associative operator, the order in which the operations are performed does not matter as long as the sequence of the operands is not changed. That is (after rewriting the expression with parentheses and in infix notation if necessary), rearranging the parentheses in such an expression will not change its value. Consider the following equations: \begin (2 + 3) + 4 &= 2 + (3 + 4) = 9 \,\\ 2 \times (3 \times 4) &= (2 \times 3) \times 4 = 24 . \end Even though the parentheses were rearranged on each line, the values of the expressions were not altered. Since this holds true when performing addition and multiplication on any real ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] |
