The Taupō Volcanic Zone (TVZ) is a

volcanic A volcano is commonly defined as a vent or fissure in the crust of a planetary-mass object, such as Earth, that allows hot lava, volcanic ash, and gases to escape from a magma chamber below the surface. On Earth, volcanoes are most often fo ...

area in the

North Island The North Island ( , 'the fish of Māui', historically New Ulster) is one of the two main islands of New Zealand, islands of New Zealand, separated from the larger but less populous South Island by Cook Strait. With an area of , it is the List ...

New Zealand New Zealand () is an island country in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. It consists of two main landmasses—the North Island () and the South Island ()—and List of islands of New Zealand, over 600 smaller islands. It is the List of isla ...

. It has been active for at least the past two million years and is still highly active.

Mount Ruapehu Mount Ruapehu (; English ) is an active stratovolcano at the southern end of the Taupō Volcanic Zone and North Island North Island Volcanic Plateau, volcanic plateau in New Zealand. It is northeast of Ohakune and southwest of the southern s ...

marks its south-western end and the zone runs north-eastward through the

Taupō Taupō (), sometimes written Taupo, is a town located in the central North Island of New Zealand. It is situated on the edge of Lake Taupō, which is the largest freshwater lake in New Zealand. Taupō was constituted as a borough in 1953. It h ...

and

Rotorua Rotorua () is a city in the Bay of Plenty region of New Zealand's North Island. It is sited on the southern shores of Lake Rotorua, from which it takes its name. It is the seat of the Rotorua Lakes District, a territorial authorities of New Zea ...

areas and offshore into the

Bay of Plenty The Bay of Plenty () is a large bight (geography), bight along the northern coast of New Zealand's North Island. It stretches from the Coromandel Peninsula in the west to Cape Runaway in the east. Called ''Te Moana-a-Toitehuatahi'' (the Ocean ...

. It is part of a larger Central Volcanic Region that extends to the

Coromandel Peninsula The Coromandel Peninsula () on the North Island of New Zealand extends north from the western end of the Bay of Plenty, forming a natural barrier protecting the Hauraki Gulf and the Firth of Thames in the west from the Pacific Ocean ...

and has been active for four million years. The zone is contained within the

tectonic Tectonics ( via Latin ) are the processes that result in the structure and properties of the Earth's crust and its evolution through time. The field of ''planetary tectonics'' extends the concept to other planets and moons. These processes ...

intra-arc continental

Taupō Rift The Taupō Rift is the seismically active rift valley containing the Taupō Volcanic Zone, central North Island of New Zealand. Geology The Taupō Rift (Taupo Rift) is a intra-arc continental rift resulting from an oblique convergence in the H ...

and this

rift In geology, a rift is a linear zone where the lithosphere is being pulled apart and is an example of extensional tectonics. Typical rift features are a central linear downfaulted depression, called a graben, or more commonly a half-graben ...

volcanic zone is widening unevenly east–west, with the greatest rate of widening at the Bay of Plenty coast, the least at Mount Ruapehu and a rate of about per year at Taupō. The zone is named after

Lake Taupō Lake Taupō (also spelled Taupo; or ) is a large crater lake in New Zealand's North Island, located in the caldera of Taupō Volcano. The lake is the namesake of the town of Taupō, which sits on a bay in the lake's northeastern shore. With ...

, the flooded

caldera A caldera ( ) is a large cauldron-like hollow that forms shortly after the emptying of a magma chamber in a volcanic eruption. An eruption that ejects large volumes of magma over a short period of time can cause significant detriment to the str ...

of the largest volcano in the zone, the

Taupō Volcano Lake Taupō, in the centre of New Zealand's North Island, fills the caldera of the Taupō Volcano, a large rhyolitic supervolcano. This huge volcano has produced two of the world's most powerful eruptions in geologically recent times. The vol ...

and contains a large central

volcanic plateau A volcanic plateau is a plateau produced by volcanic activity. There are two main types: lava plateaus and pyroclastic plateaus. Lava plateau Lava plateaus are formed by highly fluid basaltic lava during numerous successive eruptions thro ...

as well as other landforms.

Activity

There are numerous volcanic vents and geothermal fields in the zone, with

Mount Ngauruhoe Mount Ngauruhoe () is a volcanic cone in New Zealand. It is the youngest vent in the Mount Tongariro, Tongariro stratovolcano complex on the Central Plateau, New Zealand, Central Plateau of the North Island and first erupted about 2,500 y ...

and

Whakaari / White Island Whakaari / White Island (, , lit. "the dramatic volcano"), also known as White Island or Whakaari, is an active andesite stratovolcano situated from the east coast of the North Island of New Zealand, in the Bay of Plenty. The island covers a ...

erupting most frequently. Whakaari has been in continuous activity since 1826 counting steaming fumaroles, but the same applies to say the

Okataina volcanic centre Taupō Volcanic Zone Tourist attractions in the Bay of Plenty Region VEI-7 volcanoes {{main, Ōkataina Caldera ...

. The Taupō Volcanic Zone has produced in the last 350,000 years over material, more than anywhere else on Earth, from over 300 silicic eruptions, with 12 of these eruptions being caldera-forming. Detailed

stratigraphy Stratigraphy is a branch of geology concerned with the study of rock layers (strata) and layering (stratification). It is primarily used in the study of sedimentary and layered volcanic rocks. Stratigraphy has three related subfields: lithost ...

in the zone is only available from the Ōkataina Rotoiti eruption but including this event, the zone has been more productive than any other rhyolite predominant volcanic area over the last 50,000 odd years at per thousand years. Comparison of large events in the Taupō volcanic zone over the last 1.6 million years at per thousand years with

Yellowstone Caldera The Yellowstone Caldera, also known as the Yellowstone Plateau Volcanic Field, is a Quaternary caldera complex and volcanic plateau spanning parts of Wyoming, Idaho, and Montana. It is driven by the Yellowstone hotspot and is largely within Yel ...

's 2.1 million year productivity at per thousand years favours Taupo. Both the

and the

Ōkataina Caldera Ōkataina Caldera (Ōkataina Volcanic Centre, also spelled Okataina) is a volcano, volcanic caldera and its associated volcanoes located in Taupō Volcanic Zone of New Zealand's North Island. It has several actual or postulated sub calderas. The ...

have had multiple eruptions in the last 25,000 years. The zone's largest eruption since the arrival of Europeans was that of

Mount Tarawera Mount Tarawera is a volcano on the North Island of New Zealand within the older but volcanically productive Ōkataina Caldera. Located 24 kilometres southeast of Rotorua, it consists of a series of rhyolitic lava domes that were fissured ...

(within the Ōkataina Caldera) in 1886, which killed over 100 people. Early

Māori Māori or Maori can refer to: Relating to the Māori people * Māori people of New Zealand, or members of that group * Māori language, the language of the Māori people of New Zealand * Māori culture * Cook Islanders, the Māori people of the Co ...

would also have been affected by the much larger Kaharoa eruption from Tarawera around 1315 CE. The last major eruption from Lake Taupō, the

Hatepe eruption The Hatepe eruption, named for the Hatepe Plinian pumice tephra layer, sometimes referred to as the Taupō eruption or Horomatangi Reef Unit Y eruption, is dated to 232 CE ± 10 and was Taupō Volcano's most recent major eruption. It is ...

, occurred in 232 CE. It is believed to have first emptied the lake, then followed that feat with a

pyroclastic flow A pyroclastic flow (also known as a pyroclastic density current or a pyroclastic cloud) is a fast-moving current of hot gas and volcanic matter (collectively known as tephra) that flows along the ground away from a volcano at average speeds of b ...

that covered about of land with

volcanic ash Volcanic ash consists of fragments of rock, mineral crystals, and volcanic glass, produced during volcanic eruptions and measuring less than 2 mm (0.079 inches) in diameter. The term volcanic ash is also often loosely used to r ...

. A total of of material expressed as

dense-rock equivalent Dense-rock equivalent (DRE) is a volcanologic calculation used to estimate volcanic eruption volume. One of the widely accepted measures of the size of a historic or prehistoric eruption is the volume of magma ejected as pumice and volcanic ash, k ...

(DRE) is believed to have been ejected, and over of material is estimated to have been ejected in just a few minutes. The date of this activity was previously thought to be 186 AD as the ash expulsion was thought to be sufficiently large to turn the sky red over

Rome Rome (Italian language, Italian and , ) is the capital city and most populated (municipality) of Italy. It is also the administrative centre of the Lazio Regions of Italy, region and of the Metropolitan City of Rome. A special named with 2, ...

and

China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. With population of China, a population exceeding 1.4 billion, it is the list of countries by population (United Nations), second-most populous country after ...

(as documented in

Hou Han Shu The ''Book of the Later Han'', also known as the ''History of the Later Han'' and by its Chinese name ''Hou Hanshu'' (), is one of the Twenty-Four Histories and covers the history of the Han dynasty from 6 to 189 CE, a period known as the Late ...

), but this has since been disproven. White Island cropped

had a major, edifice failure collapse of its volcano dated to 946 BCE ± 52 years. It has been suggested that this was the cause of the tsunami tens of metres tall that went up to inland in the Bay of Plenty at about this time. Although significant tsunamis can be associated with volcanic eruptions, it is unknown if the cause was a relatively small eruption of Whakaari or another cause such as a large local earthquake Taupō erupted an estimated of DRE material in its

Oruanui eruption The Oruanui eruption (also known as the Kawakawa eruption or Kawakawa/Oruanui event) of Taupō Volcano in New Zealand around 25,700 years before present was the world's most recent supereruption, and its largest phreatomagmatic eruption charact ...

25,580 years ago. This was Earth's most recent eruption reaching VEI-8, the highest level on the

Volcanic Explosivity Index The volcanic explosivity index (VEI) is a scale used to measure the size of explosive volcanic eruptions. It was devised by Christopher G. Newhall of the United States Geological Survey and Stephen Self in 1982. Volume of products, eruption c ...

. The

Rotorua caldera The Rotorua Caldera is a large rhyolitic caldera that is filled by Lake Rotorua. It was formed by an eruption 240,000 years ago that produced extensive Pyroclastic rock, pyroclastic deposits. Smaller eruptions have occurred in the caldera since ...

has been dormant longer, with its main eruption occurring about 225,000 years ago, although

lava dome In volcanology, a lava dome is a circular, mound-shaped protrusion resulting from the slow extrusion of viscous lava from a volcano. Dome-building eruptions are common, particularly in convergent plate boundary settings. Around 6% of eruptions ...

extrusion has occurred within the last 25,000 years.

Extent and geological context

The Taupō volcanic zone is approximately long by wide. Mount Ruapehu marks its southwestern end, while Whakaari / White Island is considered its northeastern limit. It forms a southern portion of the active Lau-Havre-Taupō

back-arc basin A back-arc basin is a type of geologic Structural basin, basin, found at some convergent boundary, convergent plate boundaries. Presently all back-arc basins are submarine features associated with island arcs and subduction zones, with many found ...

, which lies behind the Kermadec-Tonga Subduction Zone. Mayor Island and Mount Taranaki are recently active back arc volcanoes on the New Zealand extension of this arc.

Mayor Island / Tūhua Mayor Island / Tūhua is a dormant shield volcano located off the Bay of Plenty coast of New Zealand's North Island. It lies north of Tauranga and covers . Geography The island is quite steep along its coast and rises to above sea level. A ...

is the northern-most shield volcano adjacent to the New Zealand coast, and is believed to have been active in the last 1000 years. It is formed from

rhyolite Rhyolite ( ) is the most silica-rich of volcanic rocks. It is generally glassy or fine-grained (aphanitic) in texture (geology), texture, but may be porphyritic, containing larger mineral crystals (phenocrysts) in an otherwise fine-grained matri ...

magma. It has a quite complex eruptive history but only with one definite significant

Plinian eruption Plinian eruptions or Vesuvian eruptions are volcanic eruptions characterized by their similarity to the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD, which destroyed the ancient Roman cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii. The eruption was described in a le ...

Mount Taranaki Mount Taranaki (), officially Taranaki Maunga and also known as Mount Egmont, is a dormant stratovolcano in the Taranaki region on the west coast of New Zealand's North Island. At , it is the second highest mountain in the North Island, afte ...

is an

andesite Andesite () is a volcanic rock of intermediate composition. In a general sense, it is the intermediate type between silica-poor basalt and silica-rich rhyolite. It is fine-grained (aphanitic) to porphyritic in texture, and is composed predomina ...

cone and the most recent of four Taranaki volcanoes about west of the Taupō Volcanic Zone. Associated with the Taupō volcanic zone, intra-arc extension is expressed as normal faulting within a zone known as the Taupō Rift. Volcanic activity continues to the north-northeast, along the line of the Taupō Volcanic Zone, through several undersea volcanoes in the

South Kermadec Ridge Seamounts The South Kermadec Ridge Seamounts are a continuation of the volcanic island arc, formed at the convergent boundary where the Pacific Plate subducts under the Indo-Australian Plate. The subducting Pacific Plate created the Kermadec Trench, th ...

, then shifts eastward to the parallel

volcanic arc A volcanic arc (also known as a magmatic arc) is a belt of volcanoes formed above a subducting oceanic tectonic plate, with the belt arranged in an arc shape as seen from above. Volcanic arcs typically parallel an oceanic trench, with the arc ...

of the

Kermadec Islands The Kermadec Islands ( ; ) are a subtropical island arc in the South Pacific Ocean northeast of New Zealand's North Island, and a similar distance southwest of Tonga. The islands are part of New Zealand. They are in total area and uninhabit ...

and

Tonga Tonga, officially the Kingdom of Tonga, is an island country in Polynesia, part of Oceania. The country has 171 islands, of which 45 are inhabited. Its total surface area is about , scattered over in the southern Pacific Ocean. accordin ...

. Although the back-arc basin continues to propagate to the south-west, with the South Wanganui Basin forming an initial back-arc basin, volcanic activity has not yet begun in this region. South of

Kaikōura Kaikōura (; ) is a town on the east coast of the South Island of New Zealand, located on New Zealand State Highway 1, State Highway 1, north of Christchurch. The town has an estimated permanent resident population of as of . Kaikōura is th ...

the plate boundary changes to a

transform boundary A transform fault or transform boundary, is a fault along a plate boundary where the motion is predominantly horizontal. It ends abruptly where it connects to another plate boundary, either another transform, a spreading ridge, or a subductio ...

with oblique

continental collision In geology, continental collision is a phenomenon of plate tectonics that occurs at Convergent boundary, convergent boundaries. Continental collision is a variation on the fundamental process of subduction, whereby the subduction zone is destroy ...

uplifting the

Southern Alps The Southern Alps (; officially Southern Alps / Kā Tiritiri o te Moana) are a mountain range extending along much of the length of New Zealand, New Zealand's South Island, reaching its greatest elevations near the range's western side. The n ...

in the

South Island The South Island ( , 'the waters of Pounamu, Greenstone') is the largest of the three major islands of New Zealand by surface area, the others being the smaller but more populous North Island and Stewart Island. It is bordered to the north by ...

. A subduction zone reappears south-west of

Fiordland Fiordland (, "The Pit of Tattooing", and also translated as "the Shadowlands"), is a non-administrative geographical region of New Zealand in the south-western corner of the South Island, comprising the western third of Southland. Most of F ...

, at the south-western corner of the South Island, although here the subduction is in the opposite direction. Solander Island / Hautere is an extinct volcano associated with this subduction zone, and the only one that protrudes above the sea.

ImageSize = width:370 height:1000 PlotArea = right:50 top:10 left:50 bottom:10 Dateformat = dd/mm/yyyy # European date format Period = from:01/01/1835 till:01/01/2035 TimeAxis = orientation:vertical AlignBars = early ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:5 start:1835 Colors = id:canvas value:rgb(1,1,0.85) BackgroundColors = canvas:canvas PlotData = width:15 color:white bar:test from:01/01/1835 till:01/01/2035 # PlotData = at:01/01/1835 shift:(100,-5) textcolor:tan2 fontsize:XS text: Gray text indicates suspected data inaccuracy at:01/01/1835 shift:(265,-5) textcolor:red text: 5 4 3 2 1 at:01/01/2035 shift:(20,-4) text: Recent eruptions Taupō Volcanic Zone at:01/01/2033 shift:(240,-4) textcolor:red text: Eruptive Index at:01/01/2031 shift:(265,-4) textcolor:red text: 5 4 3 2 1 at:01/01/2033 shift:(30,-4) textcolor:tan2 text: NOTE – most E.I. from https://volcano.si.edu at:01/01/2031 shift:(30,-4) textcolor:tan2 text: Corrected E.I. from https://www.gns.cri.nz at:01/06/1836 shift:(10,-5) textcolor:tan2 fontsize:XS text: 1836 Whakaari bar:test at:01/06/1836 mark:(line,pink) at:01/01/1836 shift:(10,5) textcolor:tan2 fontsize:XS text: 1836 Ngauruhoe bar:test at:01/01/1836 mark:(line,coral) at:01/02/1839 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: Feb 1839 Tongariro bar:test at:01/02/1839 mark:(line,magenta) at:01/06/1841 shift:(10,-3) textcolor:tan2 fontsize:XS text: 1841 Tongariro bar:test at:01/06/1841 mark:(line,magenta) at:01/10/1844 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: Oct 1844 Tongariro bar:test at:01/10/1844 mark:(line,magenta) at:01/06/1855 shift:(100,-3) fontsize:XS text: 1855 Te Māri bar:test at:01/06/1855 mark:(line,magenta) at:01/06/1856 shift:(10,-7) textcolor:tan2 fontsize:XS text: 1856 Whakaari bar:test at:01/06/1856 mark:(line,pink) at:01/02/1857 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: Feb 1857 Tongariro bar:test at:01/02/1857 mark:(line,magenta) at:21/04/1859 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: 21 Apr 1859 Tongariro bar:test at:21/04/1859 mark:(line,magenta) at:16/05/1861 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: 16 May 1861 Ruapehu bar:test at:16/05/1861 mark:(line,red) at:01/01/1862 shift:(100,-3) fontsize:XS text: Jan 1862 Tongariro bar:test at:01/01/1862 mark:(line,magenta) at:01/06/1863 shift:(10,-4) textcolor:tan2 fontsize:XS text: 1863 Tongariro bar:test at:01/06/1863 mark:(line,magenta) at:01/12/1864 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: Dec 1864 Tongariro bar:test at:01/12/1864 mark:(line,magenta) at:01/01/1869 shift:(190,-3) textcolor:tan2 fontsize:XS text: 1869 Tongariro bar:test at:01/01/1869 mark:(line,magenta) at:01/08/1869 shift:(100,-3) fontsize:XS text: Aug 1869 Te Māri bar:test at:01/08/1869 mark:(line,magenta) at:01/04/1870 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: Apr 1870 Tongariro bar:test at:01/04/1870 mark:(line,magenta) at:01/10/1875 shift:(10,-3) textcolor:tan2 fontsize:XS text: 1 Oct 1875 Tongariro bar:test at:01/10/1875 mark:(line,magenta) at:01/09/1878 shift:(10,-6) fontsize:XS text: 1 Sep 1878 Tongariro bar:test at:01/09/1878 mark:(line,magenta) at:06/07/1881 shift:(10,-6) fontsize:XS text: 6 Jul 1881 Tongariro bar:test at:06/07/1881 mark:(line,magenta) at:25/04/1883 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: 25 Apr 1883 Tongariro bar:test at:25/04/1883 mark:(line,magenta) at:01/01/1885 shift:(100,-11) textcolor:tan2 fontsize:XS text: Jan 1885 Whakaari bar:test at:01/01/1885 mark:(line,pink) at:01/06/1885 shift:(100,-6) textcolor:tan2 fontsize:XS text: 1885 Tongariro bar:test at:01/06/1885 mark:(line,magenta) at:01/10/1885 shift:(10,-6) fontsize:XS text: Oct 1885 Whakaari bar:test at:01/10/1885 mark:(line,pink) at:01/06/1886 shift:(190,-8) fontsize:XS text: June 1886 Tongariro bar:test at:01/06/1886 mark:(line,magenta) at:10/06/1886 shift:(100,-3) fontsize:XS text: 10 Jun 1886 Tarawera bar:test at:10/06/1886 mark:(line,orange) at:16/09/1886 shift:(10,-1) fontsize:XS text: 16 Sep 1886 Whakaari bar:test at:16/09/1886 mark:(line,pink) at:01/05/1889 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: 1 May 1889 Ruapehu bar:test at:01/05/1889 mark:(line,red) at:01/03/1890 shift:(100,-5) fontsize:XS text: Mar 1890 Tongariro bar:test at:01/03/1890 mark:(line,magenta) at:01/11/1892 shift:(100,-5) fontsize:XS text: Nov 1892 Te Māri bar:test at:01/11/1892 mark:(line,magenta) at:30/11/1892 shift:(10,-5) fontsize:XS text: 30 Nov 1892 Te Māri bar:test at:30/11/1892 mark:(line,magenta) at:10/03/1895 shift:(10,-5) fontsize:XS text: 10 Mar 1895 Ruapehu bar:test at:10/03/1895 mark:(line,red) at:01/06/1896 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: 1896 Okataina bar:test at:01/06/1896 mark:(line,orange) at:01/11/1896 shift:(190,-3) fontsize:XS text: Nov 1896 Te Māri bar:test at:01/11/1896 mark:(line,magenta) at:01/06/1897 shift:(100,-3) textcolor:tan2 fontsize:XS text: 1897 Te Māri bar:test at:01/06/1897 mark:(line,magenta) at:01/01/1898 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: Jan 1898 Te Māri bar:test at:01/01/1898 mark:(line,magenta) at:01/01/1900 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: Jan 1900 Okataina bar:test at:01/01/1900 mark:(line,orange) at:01/06/1903 shift:(100,-8) textcolor:tan2 fontsize:XS text: 1903 Ruapehu bar:test at:01/06/1903 mark:(line,red) at:22/11/1904 shift:(10,-12) fontsize:XS text: 22 Nov 1904 Ngauruhoe bar:test at:22/11/1904 mark:(line,coral) at:01/06/1905 shift:(190,-8) textcolor:tan2 fontsize:XS text: 1905 Ngauruhoe bar:test at:01/06/1905 mark:(line,coral) at:18/02/1905 shift:(100,-7) fontsize:XS text: 18 Feb 1905 Okataina bar:test at:18/02/1905 mark:(line,orange) at:17/06/1905 shift:(10,-8) fontsize:XS text: 17 Jun 1905 Okataina bar:test at:17/06/1905 mark:(line,orange) at:21/02/1906 shift:(190,-5) fontsize:XS text: 21 Feb 1906 Okataina bar:test at:21/02/1906 mark:(line,orange) at:01/03/1906 shift:(100,-5) fontsize:XS text: Mar 1906 Ngauruhoe bar:test at:01/03/1906 mark:(line,coral) at:15/03/1906 shift:(10,-4) fontsize:XS text: 15 Mar 1906 Ruapehu bar:test at:15/03/1906 mark:(line,red) at:01/02/1907 shift:(190,-3) fontsize:XS text: Feb 1907 Ngauruhoe bar:test at:01/02/1907 mark:(line,coral) at:01/11/1907 shift:(100,-4) fontsize:XS text: Nov 1907 Ngauruhoe bar:test at:01/11/1907 mark:(line,coral) at:01/10/1908 shift:(10,-8) fontsize:XS text: 1 Oct 1908 Okataina bar:test at:01/10/1908 mark:(line,orange) at:28/11/1908 shift:(190,-4) textcolor:tan2 fontsize:XS text: 28 Nov 1908 Whakaari bar:test at:28/11/1908 mark:(line,pink) at:01/03/1909 shift:(100,-2) fontsize:XS text: Mar 1909 Ngauruhoe bar:test at:01/03/1909 mark:(line,coral) at:13/05/1909 shift:(10,-4) fontsize:XS text: 13 May 1909 Whakaari bar:test at:13/05/1909 mark:(line,pink) at:01/01/1910 shift:(190,-2) fontsize:XS text: Jan 1910 Ngauruhoe bar:test at:01/01/1910 mark:(line,coral) at:24/07/1910 shift:(100,-1) fontsize:XS text: 24 Jul 1910 Okataina bar:test at:24/07/1910 mark:(line,orange) at:01/10/1910 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: Oct 1910 Ngauruhoe bar:test at:01/10/1910 mark:(line,coral) at:01/04/1912 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: Apr 1912 Okataina bar:test at:01/04/1912 mark:(line,orange) at:01/01/1913 shift:(190,-6) fontsize:XS text: Jan 1913 Ngauruhoe bar:test at:01/01/1913 mark:(line,coral) at:27/01/1913 shift:(100,-6) fontsize:XS text: 27 Jan 1913 Okataina bar:test at:27/01/1913 mark:(line,orange) at:01/05/1913 shift:(190,-2) fontsize:XS text: May 1913 Ngauruhoe bar:test at:01/05/1913 mark:(line,coral) at:28/01/1914 shift:(100,-3) fontsize:XS text: 28 Jan 1914 Okataina bar:test at:28/01/1914 mark:(line,orange) at:01/09/1914 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: Sep 1914 Ngauruhoe bar:test at:01/09/1914 mark:(line,coral) at:04/02/1915 shift:(190,-3) fontsize:XS text: 4 Feb 1915 Okataina bar:test at:04/02/1915 mark:(line,orange) at:05/11/1915 shift:(100,-3) fontsize:XS text: 5 Nov 1915 Okataina bar:test at:05/11/1915 mark:(line,orange) at:24/03/1917 shift:(10,-3) textcolor:tan2 fontsize:XS text: 1918 Okataina bar:test at:24/03/1917 mark:(line,orange) at:01/10/1917 shift:(190,-3) fontsize:XS text: Oct 1917 Ngauruhoe bar:test at:01/10/1917 mark:(line,coral) at:01/09/1918 shift:(100,-3) fontsize:XS text: 1918 Okataina bar:test at:01/09/1918 mark:(line,orange) at:29/06/1918 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: 29 Jun 1918 Ruapehu bar:test at:29/06/1918 mark:(line,red) at:01/10/1921 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: Oct 1921 Ruapehu bar:test at:01/10/1921 mark:(line,red) at:01/06/1922 shift:(190,-6) textcolor:tan2 fontsize:XS text: 1922 Whakaari bar:test at:01/06/1922 mark:(line,pink) at:01/09/1924 shift:(100,-12) fontsize:XS text: 1924 Okataina bar:test at:01/09/1924 mark:(line,orange) at:01/03/1924 shift:(10,-7) fontsize:XS text: 1924 Whakaari bar:test at:01/03/1924 mark:(line,pink) at:09/01/1924 shift:(190,-6) fontsize:XS text: 9 Jan 1924 Ngauruhoe bar:test at:09/01/1924 mark:(line,coral) at:22/05/1924 shift:(100,-4) fontsize:XS text: 22 May 1924 Ngauruhoe bar:test at:22/05/1924 mark:(line,coral) at:01/10/1924 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: Oct 1924 Ngauruhoe bar:test at:01/10/1924 mark:(line,coral) at:22/01/1925 shift:(190,-4) fontsize:XS text: 22 Jan 1925 Ruapehu bar:test at:22/01/1925 mark:(line,red) at:01/11/1925 shift:(100,-2) fontsize:XS text: Nov 1925 Ngauruhoe bar:test at:01/11/1925 mark:(line,coral) at:03/02/1926 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: 3 Feb 1926 Whakaari bar:test at:03/02/1926 mark:(line,pink) at:16/04/1926 shift:(190,-2) fontsize:XS text: 16 Apr 1926 Ngauruhoe bar:test at:16/04/1926 mark:(line,coral) at:17/11/1926 shift:(100,-1) fontsize:XS text: 17 Nov 1926 Okataina bar:test at:17/11/1926 mark:(line,orange) at:21/12/1926 shift:(10,1) fontsize:XS text: 21 Dec 1926 Ngauruhoe bar:test at:21/12/1926 mark:(line,coral) at:01/06/1927 shift:(190,-1) textcolor:tan2 fontsize:XS text: 1927 Ngauruhoe bar:test at:01/06/1927 mark:(line,coral) at:03/03/1928 shift:(100,1) fontsize:XS text: 3 Mar 1928 Ngauruhoe bar:test at:03/03/1928 mark:(line,coral) at:01/07/1928 shift:(10,1) fontsize:XS text: Jul 1928 Ngauruhoe bar:test at:01/07/1928 mark:(line,coral) at:01/09/1928 shift:(190,0) fontsize:XS text: 1 Sep 1928 Whakaari bar:test at:01/09/1928 mark:(line,pink) at:16/03/1930 shift:(100,-1) fontsize:XS text: 16 Mar 1930 Whakaari bar:test at:16/03/1930 mark:(line,pink) at:01/02/1931 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: Feb 1931 Ngauruhoe bar:test at:01/02/1931 mark:(line,coral) at:02/04/1933 shift:(10,-5) fontsize:XS text: 2 Apr 1933 Whakaari bar:test at:02/04/1933 mark:(line,pink) at:01/06/1934 shift:(190,-6) fontsize:XS text: Jun 1934 Ngauruhoe bar:test at:01/06/1934 mark:(line,coral) at:11/08/1934 shift:(100,-3) fontsize:XS text: Aug 1934 Ruapehu bar:test at:11/08/1934 mark:(line,red) at:31/12/1934 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: Dec 1934 Ngauruhoe bar:test at:01/12/1934 mark:(line,coral) at:01/12/1934 shift:(190,-1) fontsize:XS text: Dec 1934 Ruapehu bar:test at:01/12/1934 mark:(line,red) at:09/05/1936 shift:(100,-3) fontsize:XS text: 9 May 1936 Ruapehu bar:test at:09/05/1936 mark:(line,red) at:01/01/1937 shift:(10,-4) fontsize:XS text: Jan 1937 Ngauruhoe bar:test at:01/01/1937 mark:(line,coral) at:01/08/1939 shift:(10,-5) fontsize:XS text: Aug 1939 Ngauruhoe bar:test at:01/08/1939 mark:(line,coral) at:01/04/1940 shift:(100,-3) fontsize:XS text: Apr 1940 Ruapehu bar:test at:01/04/1940 mark:(line,red) at:01/09/1940 shift:(10,-2) fontsize:XS text: Sep 1940 Ngauruhoe bar:test at:01/09/1940 mark:(line,coral) at:10/08/1942 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: 10 Aug 1942 Ruapehu bar:test at:10/08/1942 mark:(line,red) at:01/10/1944 shift:(190,-3) fontsize:XS text: Oct 1944 Ruapehu bar:test at:01/10/1944 mark:(line,red) at:08/03/1945 shift:(100,-3) fontsize:XS text: 8 Mar 1945 Ruapehu bar:test at:08/03/1945 mark:(line,red) at:02/04/1946 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: Apr 1946 Ruapehu bar:test at:02/04/1946 mark:(line,red) at:21/11/1946 shift:(190,-4) fontsize:XS text: 21 Nov 1946 Ruapehu bar:test at:21/11/1946 mark:(line,red) at:02/01/1947 shift:(100,-3) fontsize:XS text: Jan 1947 Whakaari bar:test at:02/01/1947 mark:(line,pink) at:30/04/1948 shift:(10,-6) fontsize:XS text: 30 Apr 1948 Ngauruhoe bar:test at:30/04/1948 mark:(line,coral) at:01/05/1948 shift:(190,-4) fontsize:XS text: 1 May 1948 Ruapehu bar:test at:01/05/1948 mark:(line,red) at:01/09/1948 shift:(100,-3) fontsize:XS text: Sep 1948 Ngauruhoe bar:test at:01/09/1948 mark:(line,coral) at:09/02/1949 shift:(10,-2) fontsize:XS text: 9 Feb 1949 Ngauruhoe bar:test at:09/02/1949 mark:(line,coral) at:16/06/1950 shift:(190,-6) fontsize:XS text: 16 June 1950 Ngauruhoe bar:test at:16/06/1950 mark:(line,coral) at:26/06/1950 shift:(100,-4) fontsize:XS text: 26 Jun 1950 Ruapehu bar:test at:26/06/1950 mark:(line,red) at:19/03/1951 shift:(10,-4) fontsize:XS text: 19 Mar 1951 Ruapehu bar:test at:19/03/1951 mark:(line,red) at:16/05/1951 shift:(190,-3) fontsize:XS text: 16 May 1951 Ngauruhoe bar:test at:16/05/1951 mark:(line,coral) at:16/06/1951 shift:(100,-2) fontsize:XS text: 16 Jun 1951 Okataina bar:test at:16/06/1951 mark:(line,orange) at:16/07/1952 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: 16 Jul 1952 Ruapehu bar:test at:16/07/1952 mark:(line,red) at:29/11/1952 shift:(190,-3) fontsize:XS text: 29 Nov 1952 Ngauruhoe bar:test at:29/11/1952 mark:(line,coral) at:28/12/1953 shift:(100,-4) fontsize:XS text: 28 Dec 1953 Ngauruhoe bar:test at:28/12/1953 mark:(line,coral) at:13/05/1954 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: 13 May 1954 Ngauruhoe bar:test at:13/05/1954 mark:(line,coral) at:16/01/1955 shift:(190,-4) fontsize:XS text: 16 Jan 1955 Whakaari bar:test at:16/01/1955 mark:(line,pink) at:11/01/1956 shift:(100,-4) fontsize:XS text: 11 Jan 1956 Ngauruhoe bar:test at:11/01/1956 mark:(line,coral) at:18/11/1956 shift:(10,-4) fontsize:XS text: 18 Nov 1956 Ruapehu bar:test at:18/11/1956 mark:(line,red) at:11/12/1957 shift:(190,-6) fontsize:XS text: 11 Dec 1957 Whakaari bar:test at:11/12/1957 mark:(line,pink) at:05/11/1958 shift:(100,-6) fontsize:XS text: 5 Nov 1958 Ngauruhoe bar:test at:05/11/1958 mark:(line,coral) at:16/12/1958 shift:(10,-6) fontsize:XS text: 16 Dec 1958 Whakaari bar:test at:16/12/1958 mark:(line,pink) at:21/05/1959 shift:(190,-2) fontsize:XS text: 21 May 1959 Ruapehu bar:test at:21/05/1959 mark:(line,red) at:01/06/1959 shift:(100,-2) fontsize:XS text: 1 Jun 1959 Ngauruhoe bar:test at:01/06/1959 mark:(line,coral) at:14/12/1959 shift:(10,-2) fontsize:XS text: 14 Dec 1959 Whakaari bar:test at:14/12/1959 mark:(line,pink) at:24/05/1962 shift:(100,-3) fontsize:XS text: 24 May 1962 Ngauruhoe bar:test at:24/05/1962 mark:(line,coral) at:15/12/1962 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: 15 Dec 1962 Whakaari bar:test at:15/12/1962 mark:(line,pink) at:04/04/1966 shift:(190,-7) fontsize:XS text: 4 Apr 1966 Ruapehu bar:test at:04/04/1966 mark:(line,red) at:13/11/1966 shift:(100,-10) fontsize:XS text: 13 Nov 1966 Whakaari bar:test at:13/11/1966 mark:(line,pink) at:22/07/1967 shift:(10,-11) fontsize:XS text: 22 Jul 1967 Ruapehu bar:test at:22/07/1967 mark:(line,red) at:27/01/1968 shift:(190,-9) fontsize:XS text: 27 Jan 1968 Whakaari bar:test at:27/01/1968 mark:(line,pink) at:06/04/1968 shift:(100,-9) fontsize:XS text: 6 Apr 1968 Ruapehu bar:test at:06/04/1968 mark:(line,red) at:18/08/1968 shift:(10,-9) fontsize:XS text: 18 Aug 1968 Ngauruhoe bar:test at:18/08/1968 mark:(line,coral) at:21/01/1969 shift:(190,-6) fontsize:XS text: 21 Jan 19692 Ngauruhoe bar:test at:21/01/1969 mark:(line,coral) at:22/06/1969 shift:(100,-8) fontsize:XS text: 22 Jun 1969 Ruapehu bar:test at:22/06/1969 mark:(line,red) at:16/08/1969 shift:(10,-6) fontsize:XS text: 16 Aug 1969 Whakaari bar:test at:16/08/1969 mark:(line,pink) at:30/06/1970 shift:(190,-5) fontsize:XS text: 30 Jun 1970 Whakaari bar:test at:30/06/1970 mark:(line,pink) at:16/09/1970 shift:(100,-8) fontsize:XS text: 16 Sep 1970 Ruapehu bar:test at:16/09/1970 mark:(line,red) at:03/04/1971 shift:(10,-7) fontsize:XS text: 3 Apr 1971 Ruapehu bar:test at:03/04/1971 mark:(line,red) at:09/04/1971 shift:(190,-3) fontsize:XS text: 9 Apr 1971 Whakaari bar:test at:09/04/1971 mark:(line,pink) at:19/07/1971 shift:(100,-5) fontsize:XS text: 19 Jul 1971 Whakaari bar:test at:19/07/1971 mark:(line,pink) at:19/03/1972 shift:(10,-4) fontsize:XS text: 19 Mar 1972 Ngauruhoe bar:test at:19/03/1972 mark:(line,coral) at:22/10/1972 shift:(190,-4) fontsize:XS text: 22 Oct 1972 Ruapehu bar:test at:22/10/1972 mark:(line,red) at:22/11/1972 shift:(100,-4) fontsize:XS text: 22 Nov 1972 Ngauruhoe bar:test at:22/11/1972 mark:(line,coral) at:22/02/1973 shift:(10,-1) fontsize:XS text: 22 Feb 1973 Okataina bar:test at:22/02/1973 mark:(line,orange) at:31/10/1973 shift:(190,-2) fontsize:XS text: 31 Oct 1973 Ruapehu bar:test at:31/10/1973 mark:(line,red) at:08/09/1974 shift:(100,-4) fontsize:XS text: 8 Sep 1974 Whakaari bar:test at:08/09/1974 mark:(line,pink) at:12/02/1975 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: 12 Feb 1975 Ngauruhoe bar:test at:12/02/1975 mark:(line,coral) at:24/04/1975 shift:(190,-2) fontsize:XS text: 24 Apr 1975 Ruapehu bar:test at:24/04/1975 mark:(line,red) at:17/10/1975 shift:(100,-3) fontsize:XS text: 17 Oct 1975 Ruapehu bar:test at:17/10/1975 mark:(line,red) at:06/03/1976 shift:(10,-1) fontsize:XS text: 5 Mar 1976 Ruapehu bar:test at:06/03/1976 mark:(line,red) at:23/08/1976 shift:(190,0) fontsize:XS text: 23 Aug 1976 Ngauruhoe bar:test at:23/08/1976 mark:(line,coral) at:12/09/1976 shift:(100,0) fontsize:XS text: 12 Sep 1976 Ruapehu bar:test at:12/09/1976 mark:(line,red) at:18/12/1976 shift:(10,2) fontsize:XS text: 18 Dec 1976 Whakaari bar:test at:18/12/1976 mark:(line,pink) at:16/07/1977 shift:(190,3) fontsize:XS text: 16 Jul 1977 Ruapehu bar:test at:16/07/1977 mark:(line,red) at:04/07/1977 shift:(100,4) fontsize:XS text: 4 Jul 1977 Ngauruhoe bar:test at:04/07/1977 mark:(line,coral) at:23/02/1978 shift:(10,3) fontsize:XS text: 23 Feb 1978 Okataina bar:test at:23/02/1978 mark:(line,orange) at:30/06/1979 shift:(190,2) fontsize:XS text: 30 Jun 1979 Ruapehu bar:test at:30/06/1979 mark:(line,red) at:15/01/1980 shift:(100,1) fontsize:XS text: 15 Jan 1980 Ruapehu bar:test at:15/01/1980 mark:(line,red) at:18/10/1980 shift:(10,-1) fontsize:XS text: 18 Oct 1980 Ruapehu bar:test at:18/10/1980 mark:(line,red) at:16/05/1981 shift:(190,1) fontsize:XS text: 16 May 1981 Okataina bar:test at:16/05/1981 mark:(line,orange) at:25/10/1981 shift:(100,1) fontsize:XS text: 25 Oct 1981 Ruapehu bar:test at:25/10/1981 mark:(line,red) at:26/12/1983 shift:(10,-5) fontsize:XS text: 26 Dec 1983 Whakaari bar:test at:26/12/1983 mark:(line,pink) at:02/04/1984 shift:(190,-3) fontsize:XS text: 2 Apr 1984 Ruapehu bar:test at:02/04/1984 mark:(line,red) at:25/10/1984 shift:(100,-3) fontsize:XS text: 25 Oct 1984 Ruapehu bar:test at:25/10/1984 mark:(line,red) at:21/05/1985 shift:(10,-2) fontsize:XS text: 21 May 1985 Ruapehu bar:test at:21/05/1985 mark:(line,red) at:15/11/1985 shift:(190,-3) fontsize:XS text: 15 Nov 1985 Ruapehu bar:test at:15/11/1985 mark:(line,red) at:01/02/1986 shift:(100,0) fontsize:XS text: 1 Feb 1986 Whakaari bar:test at:01/02/1986 mark:(line,pink) at:08/02/1986 shift:(10,4) fontsize:XS text: 8 Feb 1986 Ruapehu bar:test at:08/02/1986 mark:(line,red) at:24/08/1987 shift:(190,-2) fontsize:XS text: 24 Aug 1987 Ruapehu bar:test at:24/08/1987 mark:(line,red) at:20/03/1988 shift:(100,0) fontsize:XS text: 20 Mar 1988 Ruapehu bar:test at:20/03/1988 mark:(line,red) at:08/12/1988 shift:(10,1) fontsize:XS text: 8 Dec 1988 Ruapehu bar:test at:08/12/1988 mark:(line,red) at:01/07/1989 shift:(190,-2) fontsize:XS text: 1 Jul 1989 Ruapehu bar:test at:01/07/1989 mark:(line,red) at:07/01/1990 shift:(100,1) fontsize:XS text: 7 Jan 1990 Ruapehu bar:test at:07/01/1990 mark:(line,red) at:17/06/1990 shift:(10,1) fontsize:XS text: 17 Jun 1990 Ruapehu bar:test at:17/06/1990 mark:(line,red) at:05/07/1991 shift:(190,-2) fontsize:XS text: 5 Jul 1991 Ruapehu bar:test at:05/07/1991 mark:(line,red) at:08/02/1992 shift:(100,-1) fontsize:XS text: 8 Feb 1992 Ruapehu bar:test at:08/02/1992 mark:(line,red) at:12/02/1994 shift:(10,-5) fontsize:XS text: 12 Feb 1994 Ruapehu ? bar:test at:12/02/1994 mark:(line,red) at:11/01/1995 shift:(190,-5) fontsize:XS text: 11 Jan 1995 Ruapehu bar:test at:11/01/1995 mark:(line,red) at:28/06/1995 shift:(100,-7) fontsize:XS text: 28 Jun 1995 Whakaari bar:test at:28/06/1995 mark:(line,pink) at:21/03/1996 shift:(10,-5) fontsize:XS text: 21 Mar 1996 Ruapehu bar:test at:21/03/1996 mark:(line,red) at:16/06/1996 shift:(100,-3) fontsize:XS text: 16 Jun 1996 Ruapehu ? bar:test at:16/06/1996 mark:(line,red) at:09/10/1997 shift:(10,-5) fontsize:XS text: 9 Oct 1997 Ruapehu bar:test at:09/10/1997 mark:(line,red) at:28/03/1998 shift:(100,-2) fontsize:XS text: 28 Mar 1998 Whakaari bar:test at:28/03/1998 mark:(line,pink) at:22/08/1998 shift:(10,-2) fontsize:XS text: 22 Aug 1998 Whakaari bar:test at:22/08/1998 mark:(line,pink) at:07/03/2000 shift:(100,-4) fontsize:XS text: 7 Mar 2000 Whakaari bar:test at:07/03/2000 mark:(line,pink) at:19/07/2001 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: 19 Jul 2001 Whakaari bar:test at:19/07/2001 mark:(line,pink) at:04/10/2006 shift:(100,-3) fontsize:XS text: 4 Oct 2007 Ruapehu bar:test at:04/10/2006 mark:(line,red) at:25/09/2007 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: 25 Sep 2007 Ruapehu bar:test at:25/09/2007 mark:(line,red) at:06/08/2012 shift:(190,-3) fontsize:XS text: 6 Aug 2012 Te Māri bar:test at:06/08/2012 mark:(line,magenta) at:07/08/2012 shift:(100,-3) fontsize:XS text: 7 Aug 2012 Whakaari bar:test at:07/08/2012 mark:(line,pink) at:21/12/2012 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: 21 Dec 2012 Te Māri bar:test at:21/12/2012 mark:(line,magenta) at:27/04/2016 shift:(100,-3) fontsize:XS text: 27 Apr 2016 Whakaari bar:test at:27/04/2016 mark:(line,pink) at:13/09/2016 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: 13 Sep 2016 Whakaari bar:test at:13/09/2016 mark:(line,pink) at:09/12/2019 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: 9 Dec 2019 Whakaari bar:test at:09/12/2019 mark:(line,pink) LineData = at:09/12/2019 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:13/09/2016 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:27/04/2016 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:21/12/2012 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:07/08/2012 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:06/08/2012 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:25/09/2007 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:04/10/2006 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:19/07/2001 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:07/03/2000 frompos:346 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:22/08/1998 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:28/03/1998 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:09/10/1997 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:16/06/1996 frompos:346 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:21/03/1996 frompos:368 tillpos:370 color:red width:1 at:28/06/1995 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:11/01/1995 frompos:346 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:12/02/1994 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:1 at:08/02/1992 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:05/07/1991 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:17/06/1990 frompos:368 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:07/01/1990 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:01/07/1989 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:08/12/1988 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:20/03/1988 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:24/08/1987 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:08/02/1986 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:01/02/1986 frompos:346 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:15/11/1985 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:21/05/1985 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:25/10/1984 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:02/04/1984 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:26/12/1983 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:25/10/1981 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:16/05/1981 frompos:365 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:18/10/1980 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:15/01/1980 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:30/06/1979 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:23/02/1978 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:04/07/1977 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:16/07/1977 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:09/10/1977 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:18/12/1976 frompos:346 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:23/08/1976 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:06/03/1976 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:17/10/1975 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:24/04/1975 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:12/02/1975 frompos:346 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:08/09/1974 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:31/10/1973 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:22/02/1973 frompos:365 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:22/11/1972 frompos:346 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:22/10/1972 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:19/03/1972 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:19/07/1971 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:09/04/1971 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:03/04/1971 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:16/09/1970 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:30/06/1970 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:16/08/1969 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:22/06/1969 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:21/01/1969 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:18/08/1968 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:06/04/1968 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:27/01/1968 frompos:346 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:22/07/1967 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:13/11/1966 frompos:346 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:04/04/1966 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:15/12/1962 frompos:346 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:24/05/1962 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:14/12/1959 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:01/06/1959 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:21/05/1959 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:16/12/1958 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:05/11/1958 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:11/12/1957 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:18/11/1956 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:11/01/1956 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:16/01/1955 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:13/05/1954 frompos:346 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:28/12/1953 frompos:368 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:29/11/1952 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:16/07/1952 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:16/06/1951 frompos:365 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:16/05/1951 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:19/03/1951 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:26/06/1950 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:16/06/1950 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:09/02/1949 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:01/09/1948 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:01/05/1948 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:30/04/1948 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:02/01/1947 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:21/11/1946 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:02/04/1946 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:08/03/1945 frompos:346 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:01/10/1944 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:10/08/1942 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:01/09/1940 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:01/04/1940 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:01/08/1939 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:01/01/1937 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:09/05/1936 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:31/12/1934 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:01/12/1934 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:11/08/1934 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:01/06/1934 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:02/04/1933 frompos:346 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:01/02/1931 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:16/03/1930 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 at:01/09/1928 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 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Scientific study

Tectonics

In the North Island rifting associated with plate tectonics has defined a Central Volcanic Region, that has been active for four million years and this extends westward from the Taupō volcanic zone through the western Bay of Plenty to the eastern side of the

. The dominant rifting axis associated with the Central Volcanic Region has moved with time, from the back-arc associated

Hauraki Rift The Hauraki Rift is an active NeS-to NWeSE-striking rift valley system in the North Island of New Zealand that has produced the Firth of Thames and the Hauraki Plains. It is approximately wide and long. Geology The rift valley in the north ap ...

to the intra-arc Taupō Rift. As there is presently no absolute consensus with regard to the cause of the Taupō Rift's extension or its exceptional current volcanic productivity, some of the discussion on this page has been simplified, rather than all possible models being presented. Recent scientific work indicates that the Earth's crust below the Taupō Volcanic Zone may be as little as 16 kilometres thick. A film of

magma Magma () is the molten or semi-molten natural material from which all igneous rocks are formed. Magma (sometimes colloquially but incorrectly referred to as ''lava'') is found beneath the surface of the Earth, and evidence of magmatism has also ...

50 kilometres (30 mi) wide and 160 kilometres (100 mi) long lies 10 kilometres under the surface. The geological record indicates that some of the volcanoes in the area erupt infrequently but have large, violent and destructive eruptions when they do. Technically the zone is in the continental intraarc Taupō Rift, which is a continuation of oceanic plate structures associated with oblique

Australian Australian(s) may refer to: Australia * Australia, a country * Australians, citizens of the Commonwealth of Australia ** European Australians ** Anglo-Celtic Australians, Australians descended principally from British colonists ** Aboriginal Aus ...

and Pacific Plate convergence in the Hikurangi subduction zone. At Taupō the rift volcanic zone is widening east–west at the rate of about /year, while at Mount Ruapehu it is only /year and this increases at the north eastern end at the Bay of Plenty coast to /year. The rift has had three active stages of faulting in the last 2 million years with the modern Taupō rift evolving in the last 25,000 years after the massive

and now being within two essentially inactive rift systems. These are the surrounding limits of the young Taupō Rift between 25,000 and 350,000 years and old Taupō Rift system whose northern boundary is now located well to the north of the other two being created before 350,000 years ago. The

Tauranga Volcanic Centre The Tauranga Volcanic Centre is a geologic region in New Zealand's Bay of Plenty. It extends from the southern end of Waihi Beach and from the old volcanoes of the Coromandel Peninsula that make up the northern part of the Kaimai Range, towards ...

which was active between 2.95 to 1.9 million years ago, and was previously classified as part of the Central Volcanic Region, appears now to be in a tectonic continuum with the Taupō Volcanic Zone. Recent ocean floor tephra studies off the east coast of the North Island have shown an abrupt compositional change in these, from about 4.5 million years ago, that has been suggested to distinguish Coromandel Volcanic Zone activity from that of the Taupō Volcanic Zone. Further the distinctive Waiteariki ignimbrite that erupted 2.1 million years ago in a supereruption, presumably from the gravity anomaly defined Omanawa Caldera, is within the postulated borders of the old Taupō Rift.

Faults

The multiple intra-rift faults are some of the most active in the country and some have the potential to create over magnitude 7 events. The fault structures are perhaps most well characterised related to the Ruapehu and Tongariro

graben In geology, a graben () is a depression (geology), depressed block of the Crust (geology), crust of a planet or moon, bordered by parallel normal faults. Etymology ''Graben'' is a loan word from German language, German, meaning 'ditch' or 't ...

s. The recent deposits from major eruptions and lake features mean many potentially significant faults are uncharacterised, either completely (for example the 6.5 MW 1987 Edgecumbe earthquake resulted in the mapping of the Edgecumbe fault for the first time) or frequency of events and their likely magnitude are not understood. It can not be assumed that just because the rate of expansion of the rift is greatest near the coast that this is where most significant tectonic earthquakes in terms of human risk will be. The Waihi Fault Zone south of Lake Taupō and associated with the Tongariro graben has a particular risk of inducing massive landslips which has caused significant loss of life and appears to be more active than many other faults in the zone.

Volcanism

The north ( Whakatane Graben – Bay of Plenty) part of the zone is predominantly formed from

andesitic Andesite () is a volcanic rock of intermediate composition. In a general sense, it is the intermediate type between silica-poor basalt and silica-rich rhyolite. It is fine-grained (aphanitic) to porphyritic in texture, and is composed predomina ...

and represented by the continuously active Whakaari / White Island

–

dacite Dacite () is a volcanic rock formed by rapid solidification of lava that is high in silica and low in alkali metal oxides. It has a fine-grained (aphanitic) to porphyritic texture and is intermediate in composition between andesite and rhyolite. ...

stratovolcano. Although

Strombolian In volcanology, a Strombolian eruption is a type of volcanic eruption with relatively mild blasts, typically having a Volcanic Explosivity Index of 1 or 2. Strombolian eruptions consist of ejection of incandescent cinders, lapilli, and volcanic b ...

activity has occurred the

explosive eruption In volcanology, an explosive eruption is a volcanic eruption of the most violent type. A notable example is the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens. Such eruptions result when sufficient gas has dissolved under pressure within a Viscosity, viscous ...

s are typically

phreatic ''Phreatic'' is a term used in hydrology to refer to aquifers, in speleology to refer to cave passages, and in volcanology to refer to a type of volcanic eruption. Hydrology The term phreatic (the word originates from the Greek , meaning "well" ...

phreatomagmatic Phreatomagmatic eruptions are volcanic eruptions resulting from interaction between magma and water. They differ from exclusively magmatic eruptions and phreatic eruptions. Unlike phreatic eruptions, the products of phreatomagmatic eruptions conta ...

. The active emergent summit tops the larger, × , submarine volcano with a total volume of .Cole, J.W., Thordarson, T. and Burt, R.M., 2000. ''Magma origin and evolution of White Island (Whakaari) volcano, Bay of plenty, New Zealand''. ''Journal of Petrology'', 41(6), pp.867–895.Moon, V., Bradshaw, J. and de Lange, W., 2009. ''Geomorphic development of White Island Volcano based on slope stability modelling.'' ''Engineering Geology'', 104(1–2), pp.16–30.Jimenez, C., 2015. ''Magmatic-hydrothermal system at White Island volcano, North Island, New Zealand''. in M. Calder, ed., pp. 35–46, ''JCU SEG Student Chapter New Zealand, North Island Field Trip 2015 Guide Book.'' Queensland, Australia: James Cook University SEG Student Chapter, Society of Economic Geologists, Inc. The central part of the zone is composed of eight caldera centres the oldest of which is the Mangakino caldera which was active more than a million years ago (1.62–0.91 Ma). This produced ignimbrite that away in Auckland is up to thick. Other than the now buried Kapenga caldera there are five caldera centres, Rotorua, Ohakuri, Reporoa, Ōkataina and Taupō. These have resulted from massive infrequent eruptions of gaseous very viscous

magma which is rich in

silicon Silicon is a chemical element; it has symbol Si and atomic number 14. It is a hard, brittle crystalline solid with a blue-grey metallic lustre, and is a tetravalent metalloid (sometimes considered a non-metal) and semiconductor. It is a membe ...

potassium Potassium is a chemical element; it has Symbol (chemistry), symbol K (from Neo-Latin ) and atomic number19. It is a silvery white metal that is soft enough to easily cut with a knife. Potassium metal reacts rapidly with atmospheric oxygen to ...

, and

sodium Sodium is a chemical element; it has Symbol (chemistry), symbol Na (from Neo-Latin ) and atomic number 11. It is a soft, silvery-white, highly reactive metal. Sodium is an alkali metal, being in group 1 element, group 1 of the peri ...

and created the ignimbrite sheets of the

North Island Volcanic Plateau The North Island Volcanic Plateau (often called the Central Plateau and occasionally the Waimarino Plateau) is a volcanic plateau covering much of central North Island of New Zealand with volcanoes, lava plateaus, and crater lakes. It contains t ...

. The detailed composition suggests subduction erosion might play a predominant role in producing this rhyolite, as later assimilation and fractional crystallization of primary basalt magma, is difficult to model to explain the composition and volumes erupted. This central zone has had the largest number of very large silicic caldera-forming eruptions recently on earth as mentioned earlier. During a period of less than 100,000 years commencing with the massive Whakamaru eruption about 335,000 years ago of greater than

of material, just to the north of the present

, over total was erupted. These eruptions essentially defined the limits of the present central volcanic plateau, although its current central landscape is mainly a product of later smaller events over the last 200,000 years than the Whakamaru eruption. The other volcanic plateau defining eruptions were to the west, the Matahina eruption of about 280,000 years ago, the mainly tephra Chimp (Chimpanzee) eruption between 320 and 275 ka, the central Pokai eruption of about 275 ka, and the paired

Mamaku Mamaku may refer to: *''Sphaeropteris medullaris'', a species of tree fern commonly known as mamaku * Mamaku, New Zealand, a village *Mamaku Ranges The Mamaku Ranges are a mountain range in the North Island of New Zealand. Located to the west of ...

to the north and east central

Ohakuri Ohakuri is a rural community in the Taupō District and Waikato region of New Zealand's North Island. It features the Orakei Korako Geothermal Area, the artificial Lake Ohakuri and the Ohakuri Dam. Marae The area also includes Maroanui Mara ...

eruptions of about 240,000 years ago that together produced more than dense-rock equivalent of material. The southern

about 25,600 years ago produced dense-rock equivalent of material and its recent

of 232 CE ± 10 years had dense-rock equivalent. Since the Whakamaru eruption the central part of the zone has dominated, so that when the whole zone is considered there has been about of rhyolite, of andesite, of dacite and of basalt erupted. Less gaseous

magma dome building effusive eruptions have built features such as the

Horomatangi Reef The Horomatangi Reef or reefs is a feature of Lake Taupō, in the central North Island of New Zealand. The reef is named after Horomātangi (Horo-matangi), the tāniwha or water monster of the lake, who is said to reside in a cave adjacent to t ...

s or Motutaiko Island in

or the lava dome of

. This later as part of the Ōkataina caldera complex is the highest risk volcanic field in New Zealand to man. Mount Tauhara adjacent to Lake Taupō is actually a

dacitic Dacite () is a volcanic rock formed by rapid solidification of lava that is high in silica and low in alkali metal oxides. It has a fine-grained (aphanitic) to porphyritic texture and is intermediate in composition between andesite and rhyolite. ...

dome and so intermediate in composition between

and

but still more viscous than

basalt Basalt (; ) is an aphanite, aphanitic (fine-grained) extrusive igneous rock formed from the rapid cooling of low-viscosity lava rich in magnesium and iron (mafic lava) exposed at or very near the planetary surface, surface of a terrestrial ...

which is rarely found in the zone. The southern part of the zone contain classic volcanic cone structure formed from andesite magma in

effusive eruption An effusive eruption is a type of volcanic eruption in which lava steadily flows out of a volcano onto the ground. Overview There are two major groupings of eruptions: effusive and explosive. Effusive eruption differs from explosive eruption ...

s that cool to form dark grey

lava Lava is molten or partially molten rock (magma) that has been expelled from the interior of a terrestrial planet (such as Earth) or a Natural satellite, moon onto its surface. Lava may be erupted at a volcano or through a Fissure vent, fractu ...

if gas-poor or

scoria Scoria or cinder is a pyroclastic, highly vesicular, dark-colored volcanic rock formed by ejection from a volcano as a molten blob and cooled in the air to form discrete grains called clasts.Neuendorf, K.K.E., J.P. Mehl, Jr., and J.A. Jackso ...

if gas-rich of this part of the zone. Mount Ruapehu, the tallest mountain in the North Island, is a andesite cone surrounded by a ring-plain. This ring plain is formed from numerous volcanic deposits created by slope failure, eruptions, or

lahar A lahar (, from ) is a violent type of mudflow or debris flow composed of a slurry of Pyroclastic rock, pyroclastic material, rocky debris and water. The material flows down from a volcano, typically along a valley, river valley. Lahars are o ...

s. Northwest of Ruapehu is Hauhungatahi, the oldest recorded volcano in the south of the plateau, with to the north the two prominent volcanic mountains in the Tongariro volcanic centre being

Tongariro Mount Tongariro (; ) is a complex volcano, compound volcano in the Taupō Volcanic Zone of the North Island of New Zealand. It is located to the southwest of Lake Taupō, and is the northernmost of the three active volcanoes that dominate the ...

and

Ngauruhoe Mount Ngauruhoe () is a volcanic cone in New Zealand. It is the youngest vent in the Tongariro stratovolcano complex on the Central Plateau of the North Island and first erupted about 2,500 years ago. Although often regarded as a separat ...

which are part of a single composite

stratovolcano A stratovolcano, also known as a composite volcano, is a typically conical volcano built up by many alternating layers (strata) of hardened lava and tephra. Unlike shield volcanoes, stratovolcanoes are characterized by a steep profile with ...

Risks

The most likely risk is earthquake associated with multiple active faults, such as within the

Taupō Fault Belt The Taupō Fault Belt contains many almost parallel active faults, and is located in the Taupō Rift of the central North Island of New Zealand geographically between Lake Taupō and the lakes of Rotorua, Tarawera, Rotomahana and Rerewhakaaitu. ...

, but many faults will be uncharacterised as was the case with the 1987 Edgecumbe earthquake. Earthquakes can be associated with landslides and inland or coastal

tsunami A tsunami ( ; from , ) is a series of waves in a water body caused by the displacement of a large volume of water, generally in an ocean or a large lake. Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and underwater explosions (including detonations, ...

that can result in great loss of life and both have happened on the Waihi Fault Zone. The relative low grade volcanic activity of the andesite volcanoes at each end of the zone has resulted in recorded history in both direct loss of life and disrupted transport and tourism. The only high grade eruption in recorded history was atypically basaltic from

and although very destructive is not likely to be a perfect model for the more typical and often larger rhyolitic events associated with the

and the

. As mentioned earlier the Ōkataina caldera complex is the highest risk volcanic field risk in New Zealand to man and the recent frequency of rhyolitic events there is not reassuring, along with the timescale of likely warning of such an event. These eruptions are associated with

tephra Tephra is fragmental material produced by a Volcano, volcanic eruption regardless of composition, fragment size, or emplacement mechanism. Volcanologists also refer to airborne fragments as pyroclasts. Once clasts have fallen to the ground, ...

production that results in deep ash fall over wide areas (e.g. the Whakatane eruption of ~ 5500 years ago had ashfall away on the

Chatham Islands The Chatham Islands ( ; Moriori language, Moriori: , 'Misty Sun'; ) are an archipelago in the Pacific Ocean about east of New Zealand's South Island, administered as part of New Zealand, and consisting of about 10 islands within an approxima ...

) ` pyroclastic flows and surges, which rarely have covered large areas of the

ignimbrite Ignimbrite is a type of volcanic rock, consisting of hardened tuff. Ignimbrites form from the deposits of pyroclastic flows, which are a hot suspension of particles and gases flowing rapidly from a volcano, driven by being denser than the surrou ...

sheets, earthquakes, lake tsunamis, prolonged lava dome growth and associated block and ash flows with post-eruption lahars and flooding.

ImageSize = width:320 height:2000 PlotArea = right:50 top:10 left:50 bottom:10 DateFormat = yyyy TimeAxis = orientation:vertical Period = from:-30000 till:2500 AlignBars = early ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:1000 start:-30000 Colors = id:canvas value:rgb(1,1,0.85) BackgroundColors = canvas:canvas PlotData = width:15 color:white bar:test from:-30000 till:2500 # PlotData = at:-29999 shift:(0,-5) text: Selected eruptions Taupō Volcanic Zone at:2500 shift:(0,-4) text: Selected eruptions Taupō Volcanic Zone at:-29750 shift:(40,-5) fontsize:XS text: Note – The further back in time, the larger an eruption at:-29600 shift:(40,-5) fontsize:XS text: must be, to be detected. Accordingly interpret with caution at:-29450 shift:(40,-3) fontsize:XS text: as eruptive indices are based for many eruptions on tepra at:-29300 shift:(40,-3) fontsize:XS text: deposits alone and DRE volume is not the same. at:-29050 shift:(195,-5) textcolor:red text: (DRE volume) at:-28900 shift:(195,-5) textcolor:red text: Eruptive Index at:-28750 shift:(195,-5) textcolor:red text: 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 at:2450 shift:(195,-4) textcolor:red text: Eruptive Index at:2300 shift:(195,-4) textcolor:red text: 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 at:2150 shift:(195,-4) textcolor:red text: (DRE volume) at:-26435 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: 26400 BCE Taupō Poihipi bar:test at:-26435 mark:(line,red) at:-26435 shift:(217,-11) textcolor:red fontsize:S text:(1.5 km ) at:-26435 shift:(253,-9) textcolor:red fontsize:XS text:3 at:-25675 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: 25675 BCE Taupō Oruanui eruption at:-25675 shift:(215,-11) textcolor:red fontsize:S text:(530 km ) at:-25675 shift:(253,-9) textcolor:red fontsize:XS text:3 bar:test at:-25675 mark:(line,red) at:-23221 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: 23221 BCE Te Rere eruption at:-23221 shift:(212,-11) textcolor:red fontsize:S text:(11.5 km) at:-23221 shift:(255,-9) textcolor:red fontsize:XS text:3 bar:test at:-23221 mark:(line,red) at:-21575 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: 21575 BCE Ōkataina Okareka bar:test at:-21575 mark:(line,red) at:-21575 shift:(226,-11) textcolor:red fontsize:S text:(5 km ) at:-21575 shift:(253,-9) textcolor:red fontsize:XS text:3 at:-15546 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: 15546 BCE Ōkataina Rerewhakaaitu bar:test at:-15546 mark:(line,red) at:-15546 shift:(226,-11) textcolor:red fontsize:S text:(8 km ) at:-15546 shift:(253,-9) textcolor:red fontsize:XS text:3 at:-13685 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: 13685 BCE Ōkataina Rotorua bar:test at:-13685 mark:(line,red) at:-13685 shift:(226,-11) textcolor:red fontsize:S text:(4 km ) at:-13685 shift:(253,-9) textcolor:red fontsize:XS text:3 at:-12059 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: 12059 BCE Ōkataina Waiohau bar:test at:-12059 mark:(line,red) at:-12059 shift:(220,-11) textcolor:red fontsize:S text:(11 km ) at:-12059 shift:(253,-9) textcolor:red fontsize:XS text:3 at:-9460 shift:(10,-8) fontsize:XS text: 9460 BCE Taupō East/Central Unit B bar:test at:-9460 mark:(line,red) at:-9460 shift:(217,-16) textcolor:red fontsize:S text:(0.5 km ) at:-9460 shift:(253,-14) textcolor:red fontsize:XS text:3 at:-9240 shift:(10,1) fontsize:XS text: 9240 BCE Taupō Te Kohaiakatu Pt Unit C bar:test at:-9240 mark:(line,red) at:-9240 shift:(217,-11) textcolor:red fontsize:S text:(0.3 km ) at:-9240 shift:(253,-9) textcolor:red fontsize:XS text:3 at:-9210 shift:(10,-8) fontsize:XS text: 9210 BCE Acacia Bay Unit D bar:test at:-9210 mark:(line,red) at:-8130 shift:(10,-2) fontsize:XS text: 8130 BCE Taupō East/Central Unit E bar:test at:-8130 mark:(line,red) at:-8130 shift:(226,-11) textcolor:red fontsize:S text:(2 km ) at:-8130 shift:(253,-9) textcolor:red fontsize:XS text:3 at:-7473 shift:(10,-2) fontsize:XS text: 7473 BCE Ōkataina Rotoma bar:test at:-7473 mark:(line,red) at:-7473 shift:(226,-11) textcolor:red fontsize:S text:(8 km ) at:-7473 shift:(253,-9) textcolor:red fontsize:XS text:3 at:-5990 shift:(10,-2) fontsize:XS text: 5990 BCE Ōkataina Mamaku bar:test at:-5990 mark:(line,red) at:-5990 shift:(212,-11) textcolor:red fontsize:S text:(17.5 km ) at:-5990 shift:(253,-9) textcolor:red fontsize:XS text:3 at:-5100 shift:(10,-2) fontsize:XS text: 5100 BCE Taupō Motutaiko Island Unit F bar:test at:-5100 mark:(line,red) at:-5100 shift:(212,-11) textcolor:red fontsize:S text:(0.07 km ) at:-5100 shift:(253,-9) textcolor:red fontsize:XS text:3 at:-4700 shift:(10,-2) fontsize:XS text: 4700 BCE Taupō East/Central Unit G bar:test at:-4700 mark:(line,red) at:-4700 shift:(217,-11) textcolor:red fontsize:S text:(0.2 km ) at:-4700 shift:(253,-9) textcolor:red fontsize:XS text:3 at:-4100 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: 4100 BCE Taupō Te Kohaiakatu Pt Unit H bar:test at:-4100 mark:(line,red) at:-4100 shift:(212,-11) textcolor:red fontsize:S text:(0.08 km ) at:-4100 shift:(253,-9) textcolor:red fontsize:XS text:3 at:-4000 shift:(10,-2) fontsize:XS text: 4000 BCE Taupō Unit I bar:test at:-4000 mark:(line,red) at:-3576 shift:(10,-4) fontsize:XS text: 3576 BCE Ōkataina Whakatane bar:test at:-3576 mark:(line,red) at:-3576 shift:(220,-11) textcolor:red fontsize:S text:(17 km ) at:-3576 shift:(253,-9) textcolor:red fontsize:XS text:3 at:-3420 shift:(10,-4) fontsize:XS text: 3420 BCE Taupō Unit J bar:test at:-3420 mark:(line,red) at:-3170 shift:(10,-11) fontsize:XS text: 3170 BCE Taupō Te Kohaiakatu Pt Unit K bar:test at:-3170 mark:(line,red) at:-3120 shift:(10,-6) fontsize:XS text: 3120 BCE Taupō Te Kohaiakatu Pt Unit L bar:test at:-3120 mark:(line,red) at:-3070 shift:(10,-2) fontsize:XS text: 3070 BCE Taupō Te Kohaiakatu Pt Unit M bar:test at:-3070 mark:(line,red) at:-2900 shift:(10,-5) fontsize:XS text: 2900 BCE Taupō Te Kohaiakatu Pt Unit N bar:test at:-2900 mark:(line,red) at:-2850 shift:(10,0) fontsize:XS text: 2850 BCE Taupō Te Tuhi Pt Unit O bar:test at:-2850 mark:(line,red) at:-2800 shift:(10,5) fontsize:XS text: 2800 BCE Taupō Unit P bar:test at:-2800 mark:(line,red) at:-2600 shift:(10,1) fontsize:XS text: 2600 BCE Taupō Te Kohaiakatu Pt Unit Q bar:test at:-2600 mark:(line,red) at:-2500 shift:(10,3) fontsize:XS text: 2500 BCE Taupō Motutaiko Island Unit R bar:test at:-2500 mark:(line,red) at:-1460 shift:(10,-5) fontsize:XS text: 1460 BCE Taupō Horomatangi Unit S bar:test at:-1460 mark:(line,red) at:-1460 shift:(217,-11) textcolor:red fontsize:S text:(7.5 km ) at:-1460 shift:(253,-9) textcolor:red fontsize:XS text:3 at:-1250 shift:(10,-5) fontsize:XS text: 1250 BCE Taupō Te Kohaiakatu Pt Unit T bar:test at:-1250 mark:(line,red) at:-1050 shift:(10,-6) fontsize:XS text: 1050 BCE Taupō Motutaiko Island Unit U bar:test at:-1050 mark:(line,red) at:-1010 shift:(10,0) fontsize:XS text: 1010 BCE Taupō Te Kohaiakatu Pt Unit V bar:test at:-1010 mark:(line,red) at:-800 shift:(10,0) fontsize:XS text: 800 BCE Taupō Ouaha Hills Unit W bar:test at:-800 mark:(line,red) at:-200 shift:(10,-5) fontsize:XS text: 200 BCE Taupō Te Kohaiakatu Pt Unit X bar:test at:-200 mark:(line,red) at:-200 shift:(212,-11) textcolor:red fontsize:S text:(0.28 km ) at:-200 shift:(253,-9) textcolor:red fontsize:XS text:3 at:233 shift:(10,-6) fontsize:XS text: 233 Taupō Hatepe eruption Unit Y bar:test at:233 mark:(line,red) at:233 shift:(214,-11) textcolor:red fontsize:S text:(120 km ) at:233 shift:(253,-9) textcolor:red fontsize:XS text:3 at:260 shift:(10,1) fontsize:XS text: 260 Taupō Eastern lake bar:test at:260 mark:(line,red) at:1200 shift:(10,-6) fontsize:XS text: Māori in NZ bar:test at:1200 mark:(line,black) at:1314 shift:(10,-4) fontsize:XS text: 1314 Ōkataina Kaharoa at:1314 shift:(226,-11) textcolor:red fontsize:S text:(5 km ) at:1314 shift:(253,-9) textcolor:red fontsize:XS text:3 bar:test at:1314 mark:(line,red) at:1840 shift:(10,-11) fontsize:XS text: European colonisation bar:test at:1840 mark:(line,black) at:1886 shift:(10,-5) fontsize:XS text: 1886 Okataina Tarawera bar:test at:1886 mark:(line,red) at:1886 shift:(226,-11) textcolor:red fontsize:S text:(1 km ) at:1886 shift:(253,-9) textcolor:red fontsize:XS text:3 at:1945 shift:(10,0) fontsize:XS text: 1945 Ruapehu bar:test at:1945 mark:(line,red) LineData = at:1945 frompos:300 tillpos:320 color:red width:2 at:1886 frompos:280 tillpos:320 color:red width:2 at:1314 frompos:290 tillpos:320 color:red width:2 at:260 frompos:315 tillpos:320 color:red width:2 at:233 frompos:260 tillpos:320 color:red width:2 at:-200 frompos:280 tillpos:320 color:red width:2 at:-800 frompos:300 tillpos:320 color:red width:2 at:-1010 frompos:280 tillpos:320 color:red width:2 at:-1050 frompos:280 tillpos:320 color:red width:2 at:-1250 frompos:290 tillpos:320 color:red width:2 at:-1460 frompos:270 tillpos:320 color:red width:2 at:-2500 frompos:290 tillpos:320 color:red width:2 at:-2600 frompos:280 tillpos:320 color:red width:2 at:-2800 frompos:290 tillpos:320 color:red width:2 at:-2850 frompos:290 tillpos:320 color:red width:2 at:-2900 frompos:280 tillpos:320 color:red width:2 at:-3070 frompos:280 tillpos:320 color:red width:2 at:-3120 frompos:290 tillpos:320 color:red width:2 at:-3170 frompos:280 tillpos:320 color:red width:2 at:-3420 frompos:290 tillpos:320 color:red width:2 at:-3576 frompos:270 tillpos:320 color:red width:2 at:-4000 frompos:290 tillpos:320 color:red width:2 at:-4100 frompos:280 tillpos:320 color:red width:2 at:-4700 frompos:280 tillpos:320 color:red width:2 at:-5100 frompos:290 tillpos:320 color:red width:2 at:-5990 frompos:270 tillpos:320 color:red width:2 at:-7473 frompos:260 tillpos:320 color:red width:2 at:-8130 frompos:270 tillpos:320 color:red width:2 at:-9210 frompos:280 tillpos:320 color:red width:2 at:-9240 frompos:270 tillpos:320 color:red width:2 at:-9460 frompos:270 tillpos:320 color:red width:2 at:-12059 frompos:270 tillpos:320 color:red width:2 at:-13685 frompos:270 tillpos:320 color:red width:2 at:-15546 frompos:270 tillpos:320 color:red width:2 at:-21575 frompos:270 tillpos:320 color:red width:2 at:-23221 frompos:270 tillpos:320 color:red width:2 at:-25675 frompos:240 tillpos:320 color:red width:2 at:-26435 frompos:270 tillpos:320 color:red width:2

Volcanoes, lakes and geothermal fields

The following Volcanic Centres belong to the modern Taupō Volcanic Zone in what proved to be an evolving classification scheme: Rotorua

Rotorua, Ōkataina, Maroa, Taupō, Tongariro and Mangakino. The old zone almost certainly contains volcanoes in the

. *

– Bay of Plenty **Activity commenced here over two million years ago and is now extinct. *

Whakatāne Graben The Whakatāne Graben (also Whakatane Graben) is a predominantly normal faulting tectonic feature of the northeastern aspect of the young, modern Taupō Rift in New Zealand. At the coast it is widening by about /year. This very geologically acti ...

– Bay of Plenty **Submarine

Whakatāne Seamount Whakatāne ( , ) is a town located in the Bay of Plenty Region in the North Island of New Zealand, east of Tauranga and northeast of Rotorua. The town is situated at the mouth of the Whakatāne River. The Whakatāne District is the territori ...

Moutohora Island Moutohora Island (previously known as Whale Island) () is a small uninhabited island located off the Bay of Plenty coast of New Zealand's North Island, about north of the town of Whakatāne. The island is a remnant of a complex volcano which ...

***

Te Paepae o Aotea Te Paepae o Aotea, also known the Volkner Rocks (named after Carl Sylvius Völkner), are a group of andesitic rock stacks and pinnacles located northwest of Whakaari / White Island in New Zealand's Bay of Plenty. They reach 113 metres abov ...

Putauaki Putauaki (; also known in English as Mount Edgecumbe) is a dacite volcanic cone in the Bay of Plenty Region of New Zealand. Located east of Rotorua and three kilometres east of Kawerau, it is the easternmost vent of the Taupō Volcanic Zone ...

**Geothermal field ***

Kawerau Power Station The Kawerau Power Station is a 100-megawatt geothermal power plant located just outside the town of Kawerau in the Bay of Plenty Region of New Zealand New Zealand () is an island country in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. It consis ...

Rotorua Volcanic Centre Rotorua () is a city in the Bay of Plenty region of New Zealand New Zealand () is an island country in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. It consists of two main landmasses—the North Island () and the South Island ()—and List of isl ...

Rotorua Caldera The Rotorua Caldera is a large rhyolitic caldera that is filled by Lake Rotorua. It was formed by an eruption 240,000 years ago that produced extensive Pyroclastic rock, pyroclastic deposits. Smaller eruptions have occurred in the caldera since ...

, size: 22 km wide ** Mount Ngongotahā **Lakes ***

Lake Rotorua Lake Rotorua () is the second largest lake in the North Island of New Zealand by surface area, and covers 79.8 km2. With a mean depth of only 10 metres it is considerably smaller than nearby Lake Tarawera in terms of volume of water. It i ...

****

Mokoia Island __NOTOC__ Mokoia Island is located in Lake Rotorua in New Zealand. It has an area of 1.35 square kilometres. The uninhabited island is a rhyolite lava dome, rising to 180 metres above the lake surface. It was formed after the Rotorua caldera c ...

**Geothermal fields ***

Tikitere Tikitere, also known as "Hell's Gate", is a suburb in Rotorua's most active geothermal area on State Highway 30, between Lake Rotorua and Lake Rotoiti in the Bay of Plenty, New Zealand. It includes many geothermal features such as steaming l ...

/Hell's Gate ***

Whakarewarewa Whakarewarewa (reduced version of Te Whakarewarewatanga O Te Ope Taua A Wahiao, meaning "The gathering place for the war parties of Wahiao", often abbreviated to Whaka by locals) is a Rotorua semi-rural geothermal area in the Taupō Volcanic ...

****

Pōhutu Geyser Pōhutu Geyser is a geyser in the Whakarewarewa Thermal Valley, Rotorua, in the North Island of New Zealand New Zealand () is an island country in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. It consists of two main landmasses—the North Island ...

(Te Puia) * Ōkataina Volcanic Centre: The Haroharo and Tarawera complexes impounded the lakes against the outer margins of the

. The Ōkāreka Embayment and the Tarawera Volcanic Complex were placed inside the

Haroharo Caldera The Haroharo Caldera (Haroharo volcanic complex) is a postulated volcanic feature in Taupō Volcanic Zone of the North Island, New Zealand within the larger and older Ōkataina Caldera. Since 2010 further studies have tended to use the terms H ...

which in turn is inside the Okataina Ring Structure, according to Newhall (1988), but this was reclassified by Cole (2009). **

, size: roughly 27 x 20 km *** Haroharo volcanic complex, northern end of the Okataina Volcanic Centre with infilling of several sub-caldera's from caldera forming eruptions: ****

Rotoiti Caldera The Rotoiti Caldera is a postulated, mainly infilled sub caldera of the Ōkataina Caldera based upon gravitational and magnetic evidence. While bathymetry of Lake Rotoiti is consistent with volcanic vents being present, they could be in an area ...

**** Matahina Caldera **** Utu Caldera ****

and Tarawera volcanic complex *****Okareka vent **** Puhipuhi Embayment **** Ōkareka Embayment ****

Rotomā Caldera The relatively small Rotomā Caldera (also known as Rotomā Embayment, Rotomā volcanic complex, and spelled Rotoma) is in the Taupō Volcanic Zone in the North Island of New Zealand. Geography The Rotomā Caldera is located halfway between ...

**Lakes ***

Lake Ōkataina Lake Ōkataina (also spelled Okataina; or ) is the northernmost and largest of four smaller lakes lying between Lake Rotorua and Lake Tarawera in the Bay of Plenty Region of New Zealand's North Island. The others are Lake Rotokākahi (Green Lak ...

***

Lake Tarawera Lake Tarawera is the largest of a series of lakes which surround the volcano Mount Tarawera in the North Island of New Zealand. Like the mountain, it lies within the Ōkataina Caldera. It is located to the east of Rotorua, and beneath the peak ...

***

Lake Rotokākahi Lake Rotokākahi or Green Lake, is one of four small lakes lying between Lake Rotorua and Lake Tarawera in the Bay of Plenty Region of New Zealand's North Island The North Island ( , 'the fish of Māui', historically New Ulster) is one of ...

(Green Lake) *** Lake Tikitapu (Blue Lake) ***

Lake Ōkāreka A lake is often a naturally occurring, relatively large and fixed body of water on or near the Earth's surface. It is localized in a basin or interconnected basins surrounded by dry land. Lakes lie completely on land and are separate from t ...

***

Lake Rotomahana Lake Rotomahana is an lake in northern New Zealand, located 20 kilometres to the south-east of Rotorua. It is immediately south-west of the dormant volcano Mount Tarawera, and its geography was substantially altered by a major 1886 eruption of ...

*** Lake Rotoiti ***

Lake Rotomā Lake Rotomā (also spelled Rotoma) is the fourth largest lake of the 11 lakes in the Rotorua Lakes district in the Bay of Plenty Region of New Zealand's North Island. Lake Rotomā is the easternmost in the chain of three lakes to the northeast ...

***

Lake Rotoehu Lake Rotoehu is the smallest in a chain of three lakes to the northeast of Lake Rotorua in New Zealand's North Island. It is located between the city of Rotorua and town of Whakatāne. The southern end of the lake occupies part of the Okataina ...

**Geothermal fields ***

Waimangu Volcanic Rift Valley The Waimangu Volcanic Rift Valley is the hydrothermal system created on 10 June 1886 by the volcanic eruption of Mount Tarawera, on the North Island of New Zealand. It encompasses Lake Rotomahana, the site of the Pink and White Terraces, as wel ...

****

Frying Pan Lake Frying Pan Lake (renamed Waimangu Cauldron in 1963 though not widely used) is the world's largest hot spring. It is located in the Echo Crater of the Waimangu Volcanic Rift Valley, New Zealand and its acidic water maintains a temperature of about ...

* Maroa Volcanic Centre: The Maroa Caldera formed in the north-east corner of the Whakamaru Caldera, and the Whakamaru Caldera partially overlaps with the Taupō Caldera on the South. The Waikato River course follows roughly the northern Maroa Caldera rim on one side. The town of

Whakamaru Whakamaru is a town in the central region of the North Island of New Zealand. The Māori words 'whaka' and 'maru' literally mean to give shelter to, or safeguard. The town is adjacent to a hydroelectric power station on the Waikato River, and ...

and the artificial Lake Whakamaru, on the

Waikato River The Waikato River is the longest river in New Zealand, running for through the North Island. It rises on the eastern slopes of Mount Ruapehu, joining the Tongariro River system and flowing through Lake Taupō, New Zealand's largest lake. It th ...

, have the same name too. The paired single event eruption of the Ohakuri Caldera at its north western limits with the Rotorua Caldera added later complexity after this classification was developed. Accordingly, later naming, terms this the Whakamaru caldera complex. ** Ohakuri Caldera ** Maroa Caldera, size: 16 x 25 km ***Puketarata volcanic complex ** Reporoa Caldera, size: 10 x 15 km ** Whakamaru Caldera, size: 30 x 40 km **Geothermal fields ***

Waiotapu Waiotapu (Māori for "sacred waters") is an active geothermal area at the southern end of the Okataina Volcanic Centre, just north of the Reporoa caldera, in New Zealand's Taupō Volcanic Zone. It is 27 kilometres south of Rotorua. Due to dra ...

***

Wairakei Wairakei is a small settlement and Geothermal activity, geothermal area 8-kilometres (5 mi) north of Taupō, in the centre of the North Island of New Zealand, on the Waikato River. It is part of the Taupō Volcanic Zone and features several nat ...

****

Craters of the Moon Craters of the Moon may refer to: * Lunar craters, craters on the Earth's Moon * Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve is a National monument (United States), U.S. national monumen ...

(Karapiti) ***

Orakei Korako Orakei Korako is a highly active geothermal area most notable for its series of fault-stepped sinter terraces, located in a valley north of Taupō on the banks of the Waikato River in the Taupō Volcanic Zone, New Zealand. It is also known as " ...

***

Ngatamariki Ngatamariki is a geothermal power station commissioned in 2013 and operated by Mercury Energy. It is located approximately 17 km north east of Taupō and was constructed well under the budget of $475 million. The field was initially explo ...

***Rotokaua ***

Ohaaki Power Station The Ohaaki Power Station is a geothermal power station owned and operated by Contact Energy. A distinctive feature of this power station is the 105 m high natural draft cooling tower, the only one of its kind in New Zealand. Although initially ...

* Taupō Volcanic Center ** Taupō Caldera, size: roughly 35 km wide *** Mount Tauhara **

Ben Lomond Ben Lomond (, ), , is a mountain in the Scottish Highlands. Situated on the eastern shore of Loch Lomond, it is the most southerly of the Munros. Ben Lomond lies within the Ben Lomond National Memorial Park and the Loch Lomond and The Trossach ...

rhyolite dome (contains obsidian) **Lake Taupō ***

s *** Motutaiko Island **Geothermal fields ***Tauhara-Taupō * Tongariro Volcanic Centre: Lake Taupō, Kakaramea, Pihanga, Tongariro and Ruapehu are roughly aligned on the main fault. **

Kakaramea-Tihia Massif The Kakaramea-Tihia Massif is an andesitic volcano in the central North Island of New Zealand. It extends from the peak of Kakaramea at in the west to the peak of Tinui at . The term Kakaramea means many colours in Māori and relates to rock/soi ...

Pihanga Pihanga is a andesitic volcanic peak in the North Island Volcanic Plateau, located to the north of Mount Tongariro, between Tongariro and Lake Taupō. The nearest town to Pihanga is Tūrangi. Lake Rotoaira lies to the south-west of Pihanga, ...

Mount Tongariro Mount Tongariro (; ) is a compound volcano in the Taupō Volcanic Zone of the North Island of New Zealand. It is located to the southwest of Lake Taupō, and is the northernmost of the three active volcanoes that dominate the landscape of ...

and Tongariro volcanic complex ***

, a main Tongariro vent *** Tama crater lakes, main Tongariro vents ****Upper Tama ****Lower Tama **

*** Hauhungatahi **Lakes ***

Lake Rotoaira Lake Rotoaira (sometimes written ''Lake Roto-aira'') is a small lake to the south of Lake Taupō on the North Island Volcanic Plateau in New Zealand. It covers an area of 13 km2. Lake Rotoaira is one of the few privately owned lakes in New ...

***

Lake Rotopounamu Lake Rotopounamu (also known as Greenstone Lake, from the Māori language, Māori (lake) and (greenstone)) is a secluded lake in the Pihanga Scenic Reserve, in the Tongariro National Park in New Zealand's Central North Island. It lies at the n ...

**Geothermal fields ***Ketetahi Springs * Mangakino Volcanic Centre: The Mangakino Volcanic Centre is the westernmost extinct rhyolitic caldera volcano in the Taupō Volcanic Zone and activity commenced at least 1.62 million years ago. The course of the

crosses this area, between the artificial Lake Ohakuri (), the town of

Mangakino Mangakino is a small town on the banks of the Waikato River in the North Island of New Zealand. It is located close to the hydroelectric power station at Lake Maraetai, southeast of Hamilton. The town and its infrastructure are administered a ...

() and

Hamilton Hamilton may refer to: * Alexander Hamilton (1755/1757–1804), first U.S. Secretary of the Treasury and one of the Founding Fathers of the United States * ''Hamilton'' (musical), a 2015 Broadway musical by Lin-Manuel Miranda ** ''Hamilton'' (al ...

. **Artificial Lake Maraetai Other important features of the TVZ include the Ngakuru and Ruapehu

Note

There is more recent, somewhat different classification, by some of the same authors, that uses the term caldera complex: *North part: Whakatane Graben – Bay of Plenty *Central part: **West of the main fault zone: *** Mangakino caldera complex; may be transitional between Coromandel Volcanic Zone (CVZ) and Taupō Volcanic Zone (TVZ) (1.62 – 0.91 mio. years old) *** Kapenga caldera; lies between the Maroa caldera and the

, it is completely buried under more recent tephra (circa 700,000 years old) **** Ōkāreka Embayment, lies inside the northern end of the Kapenga caldera, but is now usually regarded as part of the recently active Okataina caldera complex *** Rotorua single event caldera; Mamaku Ignimbrite (circa 225,000 years old) **Main fault zone: *** Ōkataina caldera complex **** Haroharo caldera complex **** Tarawera volcanic complex *** Whakamaru caldera complex **** Maroa caldera *** Ohakuri single event caldera *** Taupō caldera complex **East of the main fault zone: ***Reporoa single event caldera; Kaingaroa Ignimbrite (circa 240,000 years old) *South part:

Tongariro Volcanic Centre The North Island Volcanic Plateau (often called the Central Plateau and occasionally the Waimarino Plateau) is a volcanic plateau covering much of central North Island of New Zealand with volcanoes, lava plateaus, and crater lakes. It contains t ...

References

External links

Further information on Taupō volcanicsEarthquake risks
*Maps
Environment Waikato, Regional Council, map
** ** Map modified from:
Geological Society of New Zealand & New Zealand Geophysical Society - Fieldtrip 2
**

**

{{Authority control Back-arc basins Geysers of New Zealand Landforms of Waikato Subduction volcanoes Volcanic belts Volcanism of New Zealand + Rift volcanoes Rift volcanism Lists of volcanic eruptions Volcanoes of New Zealand

Activity

Extent and geological context

Scientific study

Tectonics

Faults

Volcanism

Risks

Volcanoes, lakes and geothermal fields

Note

See also

References

External links