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The Transylvanian Saxons (;
Transylvanian Saxon The Transylvanian Saxons (; Transylvanian Saxon: ''Siweberjer Såksen'' or simply ''Soxen'', singularly ''Sox'' or ''Soax''; Transylvanian Landler: ''Soxn'' or ''Soxisch''; ; seldom ''sași ardeleni/transilvăneni/transilvani''; ) are a people ...
: ''Siweberjer Såksen'' or simply ''Soxen'', singularly ''Sox'' or ''Soax'';
Transylvanian Landler The Landlers or Transylvanian Landlers () are an ethnic German sub-group which has been living on the territory of today's Romania, more specifically in southern Transylvania (mostly corresponding to present-day Sibiu County) since the 18th cen ...
: ''Soxn'' or ''Soxisch''; ; seldom ''sași ardeleni/transilvăneni/transilvani''; ) are a people of mainly German ethnicity and overall Germanic origin—mostly
Luxembourgish Luxembourgish ( ; also ''Luxemburgish'', ''Luxembourgian'', ''Letzebu(e)rgesch''; ) is a West Germanic language that is spoken mainly in Luxembourg. About 400,000 people speak Luxembourgish worldwide. The language is standardized and officiall ...
and from the
Low Countries The Low Countries (; ), historically also known as the Netherlands (), is a coastal lowland region in Northwestern Europe forming the lower Drainage basin, basin of the Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt delta and consisting today of the three modern "Bene ...
initially during the medieval
Ostsiedlung (, ) is the term for the Early Middle Ages, early medieval and High Middle Ages, high medieval migration of Germanic peoples and Germanisation of the areas populated by Slavs, Slavic, Balts, Baltic and Uralic languages, Uralic peoples; the ...
process, then also from other parts of present-day Germany—who settled in
Transylvania Transylvania ( or ; ; or ; Transylvanian Saxon dialect, Transylvanian Saxon: ''Siweberjen'') is a List of historical regions of Central Europe, historical and cultural region in Central Europe, encompassing central Romania. To the east and ...
in various waves, starting from the mid and mid-late 12th century until the mid 19th century. The first ancestors of the Transylvanian 'Saxons' originally stemmed from
Flanders Flanders ( or ; ) is the Dutch language, Dutch-speaking northern portion of Belgium and one of the communities, regions and language areas of Belgium. However, there are several overlapping definitions, including ones related to culture, la ...
, Hainaut, Brabant,
Liège Liège ( ; ; ; ; ) is a City status in Belgium, city and Municipalities in Belgium, municipality of Wallonia, and the capital of the Liège Province, province of Liège, Belgium. The city is situated in the valley of the Meuse, in the east o ...
,
Zeeland Zeeland (; ), historically known in English by the Endonym and exonym, exonym Zealand, is the westernmost and least populous province of the Netherlands. The province, located in the southwest of the country, borders North Brabant to the east ...
, Moselle,
Lorraine Lorraine, also , ; ; Lorrain: ''Louréne''; Lorraine Franconian: ''Lottringe''; ; ; is a cultural and historical region in Eastern France, now located in the administrative region of Grand Est. Its name stems from the medieval kingdom of ...
, and
Luxembourg Luxembourg, officially the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, is a landlocked country in Western Europe. It is bordered by Belgium to the west and north, Germany to the east, and France on the south. Its capital and most populous city, Luxembour ...
, then situated in the north-western territories of the
Holy Roman Empire The Holy Roman Empire, also known as the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation after 1512, was a polity in Central and Western Europe, usually headed by the Holy Roman Emperor. It developed in the Early Middle Ages, and lasted for a millennium ...
around the 1140s and 1150s. Alongside the
Baltic Germans Baltic Germans ( or , later ) are ethnic German inhabitants of the eastern shores of the Baltic Sea, in what today are Estonia and Latvia. Since their resettlement in 1945 after the end of World War II, Baltic Germans have drastically decli ...
from
Estonia Estonia, officially the Republic of Estonia, is a country in Northern Europe. It is bordered to the north by the Gulf of Finland across from Finland, to the west by the Baltic Sea across from Sweden, to the south by Latvia, and to the east by Ru ...
and
Latvia Latvia, officially the Republic of Latvia, is a country in the Baltic region of Northern Europe. It is one of the three Baltic states, along with Estonia to the north and Lithuania to the south. It borders Russia to the east and Belarus to t ...
and the
Zipser Germans The Zipser Germans, Zipser Saxons, or, simply, just Zipsers (, , , ) are a German-speaking (more specifically Zipser German-speaking as native dialect) sub-ethnic group in Central- Eastern Europe and national minority in both Slovakia and Roma ...
(also sometimes known or referred to as ''Zipser Saxons'') from
Zips Zips (also ''Siggies'' or ''Geeps'') is a slang term in the United States that was especially in use in the mid-20th century. It was often used as a derogatory slur by Italian-American mobsters in reference to newer immigrant Sicilian mafiosi. ...
, northeastern
Slovakia Slovakia, officially the Slovak Republic, is a landlocked country in Central Europe. It is bordered by Poland to the north, Ukraine to the east, Hungary to the south, Austria to the west, and the Czech Republic to the northwest. Slovakia's m ...
, as well as
Maramureș ( ; ; ; ) is a geographical, historical and cultural region in northern Romania and western Ukraine. It is situated in the northeastern Carpathians, along parts of the upper Tisza River drainage basin; it covers the Maramureș Depression and the ...
and Bucovina, the Transylvanian Saxons are one of the three eldest
German-speaking German (, ) is a West Germanic language in the Indo-European language family, mainly spoken in Western and Central Europe. It is the majority and official (or co-official) language in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, and Liechtenstein. It is a ...
and ethnic German groups of the
German diaspora The German diaspora (, ) consists of German people and their descendants who live outside of Germany. The term is used in particular to refer to the aspects of migration of German speakers from Central Europe to different countries around the ...
in Central-Eastern Europe, having continuously been living there since the
High Middle Ages The High Middle Ages, or High Medieval Period, was the periodization, period of European history between and ; it was preceded by the Early Middle Ages and followed by the Late Middle Ages, which ended according to historiographical convention ...
onwards. The Transylvanian Saxons are part of the broader group of Romanian Germans as well, being the eldest and one of the most important of all the constituent sub-groups of this ethnic community. Their native dialect,
Transylvanian Saxon The Transylvanian Saxons (; Transylvanian Saxon: ''Siweberjer Såksen'' or simply ''Soxen'', singularly ''Sox'' or ''Soax''; Transylvanian Landler: ''Soxn'' or ''Soxisch''; ; seldom ''sași ardeleni/transilvăneni/transilvani''; ) are a people ...
is close to
Luxembourgish Luxembourgish ( ; also ''Luxemburgish'', ''Luxembourgian'', ''Letzebu(e)rgesch''; ) is a West Germanic language that is spoken mainly in Luxembourg. About 400,000 people speak Luxembourgish worldwide. The language is standardized and officiall ...
. Nowadays, organisations representing the Transylvanian Saxons exist in
Romania Romania is a country located at the crossroads of Central Europe, Central, Eastern Europe, Eastern and Southeast Europe. It borders Ukraine to the north and east, Hungary to the west, Serbia to the southwest, Bulgaria to the south, Moldova to ...
, Germany,
Austria Austria, formally the Republic of Austria, is a landlocked country in Central Europe, lying in the Eastern Alps. It is a federation of nine Federal states of Austria, states, of which the capital Vienna is the List of largest cities in Aust ...
, Canada, and the United States (in the latter case most notably 'Alliance of Transylvanian Saxons'). Other smaller communities of Transylvanian Saxons can be found in South Africa and Australia as well as South America (for example in
Argentina Argentina, officially the Argentine Republic, is a country in the southern half of South America. It covers an area of , making it the List of South American countries by area, second-largest country in South America after Brazil, the fourt ...
).


Background

The legal foundation of their settlement in southern, southeastern, and northeastern Transylvania was officially stipulated within the
Diploma Andreanum The ''Diploma Andreanum'', or ''Der Goldener Freibrief der Siebenbürger Sachsen'' (English: ''Golden Charter of the Transylvanian Saxons''), was issued by King Andrew II of Hungary in 1224, granting provisional autonomy to colonial Germans residi ...
(, ''The Golden Charter of the Transylvanian Saxons'', ) issued by
King King is a royal title given to a male monarch. A king is an Absolute monarchy, absolute monarch if he holds unrestricted Government, governmental power or exercises full sovereignty over a nation. Conversely, he is a Constitutional monarchy, ...
Andrew II of Hungary Andrew II (, , , ; 117721 September 1235), also known as Andrew of Jerusalem, was King of Hungary and King of Croatia, Croatia between 1205 and 1235. He ruled the Principality of Halych from 1188 until 1189/1190, and again between 1208/1209 and ...
which allocated them the royal land () under local autonomy known as ''Königsboden'' or ''Fundus Regius'' in
Latin Latin ( or ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally spoken by the Latins (Italic tribe), Latins in Latium (now known as Lazio), the lower Tiber area aroun ...
. The ancestors of the modern Transylvanian Saxons originally came from the contemporary
Low Countries The Low Countries (; ), historically also known as the Netherlands (), is a coastal lowland region in Northwestern Europe forming the lower Drainage basin, basin of the Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt delta and consisting today of the three modern "Bene ...
(more specifically the regions of
Flanders Flanders ( or ; ) is the Dutch language, Dutch-speaking northern portion of Belgium and one of the communities, regions and language areas of Belgium. However, there are several overlapping definitions, including ones related to culture, la ...
, Hainaut, Brabant,
Liège Liège ( ; ; ; ; ) is a City status in Belgium, city and Municipalities in Belgium, municipality of Wallonia, and the capital of the Liège Province, province of Liège, Belgium. The city is situated in the valley of the Meuse, in the east o ...
, or
Zeeland Zeeland (; ), historically known in English by the Endonym and exonym, exonym Zealand, is the westernmost and least populous province of the Netherlands. The province, located in the southwest of the country, borders North Brabant to the east ...
) as well as the
Moselle The Moselle ( , ; ; ) is a river that rises in the Vosges mountains and flows through north-eastern France and Luxembourg to western Germany. It is a bank (geography), left bank tributary of the Rhine, which it joins at Koblenz. A sm ...
and
Lorraine Lorraine, also , ; ; Lorrain: ''Louréne''; Lorraine Franconian: ''Lottringe''; ; ; is a cultural and historical region in Eastern France, now located in the administrative region of Grand Est. Its name stems from the medieval kingdom of ...
river valleys, and
Luxembourg Luxembourg, officially the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, is a landlocked country in Western Europe. It is bordered by Belgium to the west and north, Germany to the east, and France on the south. Its capital and most populous city, Luxembour ...
as well, then situated in the north-western territories of the
Holy Roman Empire The Holy Roman Empire, also known as the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation after 1512, was a polity in Central and Western Europe, usually headed by the Holy Roman Emperor. It developed in the Early Middle Ages, and lasted for a millennium ...
around the 1140s. Further or subsequent waves of German colonists in Transylvania also stemmed from more southern regions of present-day Germany such as
Thuringia Thuringia (; officially the Free State of Thuringia, ) is one of Germany, Germany's 16 States of Germany, states. With 2.1 million people, it is 12th-largest by population, and with 16,171 square kilometers, it is 11th-largest in area. Er ...
or even
Bavaria Bavaria, officially the Free State of Bavaria, is a States of Germany, state in the southeast of Germany. With an area of , it is the list of German states by area, largest German state by land area, comprising approximately 1/5 of the total l ...
(the latter particularly valid for the Saxons in northeastern Transylvania). The initial waves of Transylvanian Saxons were referred to as ''hospites flandrenses et teutonici'' or ''primi hospites regni'' in Latin, literally "the Flemish and Teutonic guests" or "the first guests of the kingdom" (i.e. of the former
Kingdom of Hungary The Kingdom of Hungary was a monarchy in Central Europe that existed for nearly a millennium, from 1000 to 1946 and was a key part of the Habsburg monarchy from 1526-1918. The Principality of Hungary emerged as a Christian kingdom upon the Coro ...
). For centuries, the main tasks of the Transylvanian Saxons during the High Middle Ages were to protect the easternmost frontiers of the former Kingdom of Hungary against certain invading migratory Asiatic peoples, to bring more agriculture to the region, to instil Central European culture, enhance trade, and boost urbanisation and overall economic development. In the process of fortifying the borders of the Kingdom of Hungary to the east, they were early on helped by the
Teutonic Knights The Teutonic Order is a Catholic religious institution founded as a military society in Acre, Kingdom of Jerusalem. The Order of Brothers of the German House of Saint Mary in Jerusalem was formed to aid Christians on their pilgrimages to t ...
. Later on, they had to further strengthen their hometowns and rural settlements against the expanding
Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire (), also called the Turkish Empire, was an empire, imperial realm that controlled much of Southeast Europe, West Asia, and North Africa from the 14th to early 20th centuries; it also controlled parts of southeastern Centr ...
which posed a major threat from the south. The rural settlements were more protected with a series of fortified churches known as 'kirchenburgen' in
standard German Standard High German (SHG), less precisely Standard German or High German (, , or, in Switzerland, ), is the umbrella term for the standard language, standardized varieties of the German language, which are used in formal contexts and for commun ...
. An alternative term for them in standard German is also ' wehrkirchen' (i.e. fortified churches). During the Modern Age, they favoured more and more the Romanians for the latter to obtain increased and rightful political, social, and cultural rights before the Hungarian nobility, with Transylvanian Saxon intellectuals pleading for the Latinity of the Romanian language and the Romanian people. They were subsequently allied with the Transylvanian Romanians and thus sided with the
Austrian Empire The Austrian Empire, officially known as the Empire of Austria, was a Multinational state, multinational European Great Powers, great power from 1804 to 1867, created by proclamation out of the Habsburg monarchy, realms of the Habsburgs. Duri ...
in the context of the
Hungarian Revolution of 1848 The Hungarian Revolution of 1848, also known in Hungary as Hungarian Revolution and War of Independence of 1848–1849 () was one of many Revolutions of 1848, European Revolutions of 1848 and was closely linked to other revolutions of 1848 in ...
. After 1918 and the dissolution of
Austria-Hungary Austria-Hungary, also referred to as the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Dual Monarchy or the Habsburg Monarchy, was a multi-national constitutional monarchy in Central Europe#Before World War I, Central Europe between 1867 and 1918. A military ...
, in the wake of the
Treaty of Trianon The Treaty of Trianon (; ; ; ), often referred to in Hungary as the Peace Dictate of Trianon or Dictate of Trianon, was prepared at the Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920), Paris Peace Conference. It was signed on the one side by Hungary ...
(signed in 1920), Transylvania united with the
Kingdom of Romania The Kingdom of Romania () was a constitutional monarchy that existed from with the crowning of prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen as King of Romania, King Carol I of Romania, Carol I (thus beginning the Romanian royal family), until 1947 wit ...
, after the Transylvanian Saxons also voted for the union with the Romanian kingdom in February 1919. Consequently, the Transylvanian Saxons, together with other ethnic German sub-groups in then newly enlarged Kingdom of Romania (namely the
Banat Swabians The Banat Swabians are an Germans, ethnic German population in the former Kingdom of Hungary in Central Europe, Central-Southeast Europe, part of the Danube Swabians and Germans of Romania. They emigrated in the 18th century to what was then the ...
, Sathmar Swabians,
Bessarabia Germans The Bessarabia Germans (; ; ) were a German ethnic group (formerly part of the Germans of Romania) who lived in Bessarabia (today part of the Republic of Moldova and south-western Ukraine) between 1814 and 1940. From 1814 to 1842, 9,000 of th ...
,
Bukovina Germans The Bukovina Germans ( or ''Buchenlanddeutsche'', ), also known and referred to as Buchenland Germans, or Bukovinian Germans, are a German diaspora, German Ethnicity, ethnic group which settled in Bukovina, a historical region situated at the cro ...
, and
Zipser Germans The Zipser Germans, Zipser Saxons, or, simply, just Zipsers (, , , ) are a German-speaking (more specifically Zipser German-speaking as native dialect) sub-ethnic group in Central- Eastern Europe and national minority in both Slovakia and Roma ...
), became part of that country's broader German minority. Today, relatively few still live in Romania, where the second last official census (carried out in 2011) indicated 36,042 Germans, out of which only 11,400 were of Transylvanian Saxon descent. As per the latest Romanian census conducted in 2022, they are even fewer, as other sub-groups of the entire German community in Romania as well.


Historical overview

The colonization of Transylvania by ethnic Germans later collectively known as ''Transylvanian Saxons'' began under the reign of
King King is a royal title given to a male monarch. A king is an Absolute monarchy, absolute monarch if he holds unrestricted Government, governmental power or exercises full sovereignty over a nation. Conversely, he is a Constitutional monarchy, ...
Géza II of Hungary Géza II (; ; ; 113031 May 1162) was King of Hungary and Croatia from 1141 to 1162. He was the oldest son of Béla the Blind and his wife, Helena of Serbia. When his father died, Géza was still a child and he started ruling under the guardia ...
(1141–1162). At the same time, the Saxons were also charged with developing agriculture and introducing Central European culture. Later on, the Saxons needed to further fortify both their rural and urban settlements against invading
Ottomans Ottoman may refer to: * Osman I, historically known in English as "Ottoman I", founder of the Ottoman Empire * Osman II, historically known in English as "Ottoman II" * Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire (), also called the Turkish Empir ...
(or against the invading and expanding
Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire (), also called the Turkish Empire, was an empire, imperial realm that controlled much of Southeast Europe, West Asia, and North Africa from the 14th to early 20th centuries; it also controlled parts of southeastern Centr ...
). The Saxons in northeastern Transylvania were also in charge of mining. They can be perceived as being quite related to the Zipser Saxons from present-day
Spiš Spiš ( ; or ; ) is a region in north-eastern Slovakia, with a very small area in south-eastern Poland (more specifically encompassing 14 former Slovak villages). Spiš is an informal designation of the territory, but it is also the name of one ...
(), north-eastern Slovakia (as well as other historical regions of contemporary Romania, namely
Maramureș ( ; ; ; ) is a geographical, historical and cultural region in northern Romania and western Ukraine. It is situated in the northeastern Carpathians, along parts of the upper Tisza River drainage basin; it covers the Maramureș Depression and the ...
and
Bukovina Bukovina or ; ; ; ; , ; see also other languages. is a historical region at the crossroads of Central and Eastern Europe. It is located on the northern slopes of the central Eastern Carpathians and the adjoining plains, today divided betwe ...
) given the fact they are two of the oldest ethnic German groups in non-native German-speaking Central and Eastern Europe. The first wave of settlement continued well until the end of the 13th century. Although the colonists came mostly from the western
Holy Roman Empire The Holy Roman Empire, also known as the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation after 1512, was a polity in Central and Western Europe, usually headed by the Holy Roman Emperor. It developed in the Early Middle Ages, and lasted for a millennium ...
, they came to be collectively referred to as '
Saxons The Saxons, sometimes called the Old Saxons or Continental Saxons, were a Germanic people of early medieval "Old" Saxony () which became a Carolingian " stem duchy" in 804, in what is now northern Germany. Many of their neighbours were, like th ...
' because of Germans working for the royal Hungarian chancellery. Gradually, the type of medieval German once spoken by these settlers, craftsmen, guardsmen, miners, and various other workers became locally known as ''Såksesch'' (i.e.
Transylvanian Saxon The Transylvanian Saxons (; Transylvanian Saxon: ''Siweberjer Såksen'' or simply ''Soxen'', singularly ''Sox'' or ''Soax''; Transylvanian Landler: ''Soxn'' or ''Soxisch''; ; seldom ''sași ardeleni/transilvăneni/transilvani''; ) are a people ...
; in its longest form ''Siweberjesch-Såksesch'') and remains, still to this day, very closely related to
Luxembourgish Luxembourgish ( ; also ''Luxemburgish'', ''Luxembourgian'', ''Letzebu(e)rgesch''; ) is a West Germanic language that is spoken mainly in Luxembourg. About 400,000 people speak Luxembourgish worldwide. The language is standardized and officiall ...
with which it shares many lexical similarities. The Transylvanian Saxon population has been steadily decreasing since
World War II World War II or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War II, Allies and the Axis powers. World War II by country, Nearly all of the wo ...
as they started leaving the territory of present-day
Romania Romania is a country located at the crossroads of Central Europe, Central, Eastern Europe, Eastern and Southeast Europe. It borders Ukraine to the north and east, Hungary to the west, Serbia to the southwest, Bulgaria to the south, Moldova to ...
en masse during and after World War II, relocating initially to Austria, then predominantly to southern Germany (especially in
Bavaria Bavaria, officially the Free State of Bavaria, is a States of Germany, state in the southeast of Germany. With an area of , it is the list of German states by area, largest German state by land area, comprising approximately 1/5 of the total l ...
). The process of emigration continued during communist rule in Romania. After the collapse of the Ceaușescu regime in 1989 and the fall of the East German communist government, many of them continued to emigrate to unified Germany. As a result, today only approximately 12,000 Saxons remain in Romania. Nowadays, the vast majority of Transylvanian Saxons live in either Germany or Austria. Nonetheless, a sizable Transylvanian Saxon population also resides today in North America, most notably in the United States (specifically in
Idaho Idaho ( ) is a landlocked U.S. state, state in the Pacific Northwest and Mountain states, Mountain West subregions of the Western United States. It borders Montana and Wyoming to the east, Nevada and Utah to the south, and Washington (state), ...
,
Ohio Ohio ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the Midwestern United States, Midwestern region of the United States. It borders Lake Erie to the north, Pennsylvania to the east, West Virginia to the southeast, Kentucky to the southwest, Indiana to the ...
, and
Colorado Colorado is a U.S. state, state in the Western United States. It is one of the Mountain states, sharing the Four Corners region with Arizona, New Mexico, and Utah. It is also bordered by Wyoming to the north, Nebraska to the northeast, Kansas ...
as well as in Canada, southern
Ontario Ontario is the southernmost Provinces and territories of Canada, province of Canada. Located in Central Canada, Ontario is the Population of Canada by province and territory, country's most populous province. As of the 2021 Canadian census, it ...
more precisely). On the history of the Transylvanian Saxons, former federal German president and professor doctor
Theodor Heuss Theodor Heuss (; 31 January 1884 – 12 December 1963) was a German liberal politician who served as the first president of West Germany from 1949 to 1959. His civil demeanour and his cordial nature – something of a contrast to German nati ...
( FDP) stated, namely: ''"...their history is a piece of German history as a whole..."''.


Origins and medieval settlements

The initial phase of German settlement in Transylvania began in the mid and mid-late 12th century, with colonists travelling to and residing in what would later become known in standard German as (i.e. Țara Oltului in Romanian, after the German name for the Olt river, or the old land as in a word for word translation from German) or , based around the picturesque well preserved medieval town of , today's
Sibiu Sibiu ( , , , Hungarian: ''Nagyszeben'', , Transylvanian Saxon: ''Härmeschtat'' or ''Hermestatt'') is a city in central Romania, situated in the historical region of Transylvania. Located some north-west of Bucharest, the city straddles th ...
. Additionally, the surrounding areas of the present-day town of Sibiu/Hermannstadt (former
European Capital of Culture A European Capital of Culture is a city designated by the European Union (EU) for a period of one calendar year during which it organises a series of cultural events with a strong pan-European dimension. Being a European Capital of Culture can ...
in 2007 alongside
Luxembourg City Luxembourg (; ; ), also known as Luxembourg City ( or ; ; or ), is the capital city of Luxembourg and the Communes of Luxembourg, country's most populous commune. Standing at the confluence of the Alzette and Pétrusse rivers in southern Luxe ...
) were formed of marshlands in the High Middle Ages. This is further hinted but also highlighted in the coat of arms of the town of Sibiu/Hermannstadt () by the water lily included therein. File:SibiuCoatofArms.png, The official coat of arms of the town of Sibiu/Hermannstadt, with the water lily including the two swords therein. These German settlers were invited by
Géza II Géza () is a Hungarian given name and may refer to any of the following: As regnal or forename * Géza, Grand Prince of the Hungarians * Géza I of Hungary, King of Hungary * Géza II of Hungary, King of Hungary * Géza, son of Géza II of Hungar ...
. Although the primary reason for
Géza II Géza () is a Hungarian given name and may refer to any of the following: As regnal or forename * Géza, Grand Prince of the Hungarians * Géza I of Hungary, King of Hungary * Géza II of Hungary, King of Hungary * Géza, son of Géza II of Hungar ...
's invitation was border defence, similar to employing the Szeklers against foreign invaders in the east of Transylvania, Germans were also sought for their mining expertise as well as the ability to develop the region's economy. Most colonists to this area came from
Luxembourg Luxembourg, officially the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, is a landlocked country in Western Europe. It is bordered by Belgium to the west and north, Germany to the east, and France on the south. Its capital and most populous city, Luxembour ...
(
Luxembourgish Luxembourgish ( ; also ''Luxemburgish'', ''Luxembourgian'', ''Letzebu(e)rgesch''; ) is a West Germanic language that is spoken mainly in Luxembourg. About 400,000 people speak Luxembourgish worldwide. The language is standardized and officiall ...
: ''Lëtzebuerg'') and the
Moselle River The Moselle ( , ; ; ) is a river that rises in the Vosges mountains and flows through north-eastern France and Luxembourg to western Germany. It is a left bank tributary of the Rhine, which it joins at Koblenz. A small part of Belgiu ...
region (see for instance ''Medardus de Nympz'', former knight and founder of the fortified village of Niemesch/Nemșa in Moșna). A second phase of German settlement during the early 13th century consisted of settlers primarily stemming from the
Rhineland The Rhineland ( ; ; ; ) is a loosely defined area of Western Germany along the Rhine, chiefly Middle Rhine, its middle section. It is the main industrial heartland of Germany because of its many factories, and it has historic ties to the Holy ...
region, the southern
Low Countries The Low Countries (; ), historically also known as the Netherlands (), is a coastal lowland region in Northwestern Europe forming the lower Drainage basin, basin of the Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt delta and consisting today of the three modern "Bene ...
, and the Moselle region, with others from
Thuringia Thuringia (; officially the Free State of Thuringia, ) is one of Germany, Germany's 16 States of Germany, states. With 2.1 million people, it is 12th-largest by population, and with 16,171 square kilometers, it is 11th-largest in area. Er ...
, Bavaria, and even from
France France, officially the French Republic, is a country located primarily in Western Europe. Overseas France, Its overseas regions and territories include French Guiana in South America, Saint Pierre and Miquelon in the Atlantic Ocean#North Atlan ...
. A settlement in northeastern Transylvania was centered on the town of , the later (), located on the Bistrița River. The surrounding area became known as the . That area was important for mining in the Middle Ages. Continued immigration from the Empire expanded the area of the Saxons further to the east. Settlers from the Hermannstadt region spread into the
Hârtibaciu River The Hârtibaciu (German: ''Harbach''; Hungarian: ''Hortobágy'') is a river in the Transylvania historical region of Romania. It develops in the South Carpathians and flows into the Cibin, a tributary of the Olt, in Mohu, southeast of Sibiu.
valley () and to the foot of the
Cibin The Cibin (; ) is a river in central Romania, in the south part of Transylvania. Its source is close to the highest peak in the Cindrel Mountains (known also as Cibin Mountains) of the Southern Carpathian Mountains. Upstream from its confluence w ...
() and Sebeș () mountains. The latter region, centered around the town of (), was known as . To the north of Hermannstadt they settled what they called the including the village of (Latin for /) near (). Allegedly, the term ''Saxon'' was applied to all Germans of these historical regions because the first German settlers who came to the Kingdom of Hungary were either poor miners or groups of convicts from Saxony. In 1211, King
Andrew II of Hungary Andrew II (, , , ; 117721 September 1235), also known as Andrew of Jerusalem, was King of Hungary and King of Croatia, Croatia between 1205 and 1235. He ruled the Principality of Halych from 1188 until 1189/1190, and again between 1208/1209 and ...
invited the
Teutonic Knights The Teutonic Order is a Catholic religious institution founded as a military society in Acre, Kingdom of Jerusalem. The Order of Brothers of the German House of Saint Mary in Jerusalem was formed to aid Christians on their pilgrimages to t ...
to settle and defend the in the southeastern corner of Transylvania. To guard the mountain passes of the
Carpathians The Carpathian Mountains or Carpathians () are a range of mountains forming an arc across Central Europe and Southeast Europe. Roughly long, it is the third-longest European mountain range after the Urals at and the Scandinavian Mountains ...
() against the
Cumans The Cumans or Kumans were a Turkic people, Turkic nomadic people from Central Asia comprising the western branch of the Cumania, Cuman–Kipchak confederation who spoke the Cuman language. They are referred to as Polovtsians (''Polovtsy'') in Ru ...
, the knights constructed numerous castles and towns, including the major city of (). Alarmed by the knights' rapidly expanding power, in 1225 King Andrew II expelled the Teutonic Order from Transylvania permanently, which henceforth relocated to
Prussia Prussia (; ; Old Prussian: ''Prūsija'') was a Germans, German state centred on the North European Plain that originated from the 1525 secularization of the Prussia (region), Prussian part of the State of the Teutonic Order. For centuries, ...
in 1226, although the colonists remained in . The Kingdom of Hungary's medieval eastern borders were therefore defended in the northeast by the Saxons, in the east by the Hungarian border guard tribe of the Székelys, in the southeast by the castles built by the Teutonic Knights and Saxons and in the south by the Altland Saxons. A common interpretation of the tale of the
Pied Piper of Hamelin The Pied Piper of Hamelin (, also known as the Pan Piper or the Rat-Catcher of Hamelin) is the title character of a legend from the town of Hamelin (Hameln), Lower Saxony, Germany. The legend dates back to the Middle Ages. The earliest refer ...
, dated to 26 June 1284 and recorded in Hamelin records that (the earliest of such records dating from 1384: "It is 100 years since our children left") when a group of 130 children from the town of Hamelin (), in present-day
Lower Saxony Lower Saxony is a States of Germany, German state (') in Northern Germany, northwestern Germany. It is the second-largest state by land area, with , and fourth-largest in population (8 million in 2021) among the 16 ' of the Germany, Federal Re ...
, were led away from their hometown by a piper (who may be a folk memory of a
lokator The ''lokator'' (lat. ''locator'': landlord, land allocator, from Latin to allocate, rent, establish, settle or locate; also ''magister incolarum''; in Mecklenburg and Pomerania also or , similar to the ''Reutemeister'' in South Germany) was a ...
) is that this related to an emigration event as part of the ''Ostsiedlung'' (i.e. Eastern settlement). The destination is usually supposed to have been
Prignitz Prignitz () is a ''Kreis'' (district) in northwestern Brandenburg, in northeastern Germany. Neighboring districts, clockwise from the north, are Ludwigslust-Parchim (in Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania), Ostprignitz-Ruppin (Brandenburg), Stendal (dist ...
,
Uckermark The Uckermark () is a historical region in northeastern Germany, which straddles the Uckermark (district), Uckermark District of Brandenburg and the Vorpommern-Greifswald District of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. Its traditional capital is Prenzlau. ...
, and
Pomerania Pomerania ( ; ; ; ) is a historical region on the southern shore of the Baltic Sea in Central Europe, split between Poland and Germany. The central and eastern part belongs to the West Pomeranian Voivodeship, West Pomeranian, Pomeranian Voivod ...
, but a minor alternative theory suggests settlement in Transylvania.


The proper usage of the term Saxon in the context of medieval Transylvania

In the context of medieval Transylvania, the term ''Saxon'' was used to denote a nobleman's title and not necessarily someone who was German-speaking. In these regards, the Saxon title could have been awarded to someone who was a non-native German speaker as well. Not all Transylvanian Saxon settlers were German-speaking given the fact that they also stemmed from the contemporary
Low Countries The Low Countries (; ), historically also known as the Netherlands (), is a coastal lowland region in Northwestern Europe forming the lower Drainage basin, basin of the Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt delta and consisting today of the three modern "Bene ...
(i.e. aside from Luxembourg, also contemporary
Netherlands , Terminology of the Low Countries, informally Holland, is a country in Northwestern Europe, with Caribbean Netherlands, overseas territories in the Caribbean. It is the largest of the four constituent countries of the Kingdom of the Nether ...
and
Belgium Belgium, officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a country in Northwestern Europe. Situated in a coastal lowland region known as the Low Countries, it is bordered by the Netherlands to the north, Germany to the east, Luxembourg to the southeas ...
) and from modern day France as well. Additionally, it is equally important to mention the fact that the family name 'Sas' or 'Sasu' in
Romanian Romanian may refer to: *anything of, from, or related to the country and nation of Romania **Romanians, an ethnic group **Romanian language, a Romance language ***Romanian dialects, variants of the Romanian language **Romanian cuisine, traditional ...
and 'Szász' respectively in Hungarian could denote both an ethnic lineage as well as a social liaison to the Saxon title awarded in Transylvania during the High Middle Ages.


Transylvanian Saxon ethnic consciousness

Hence, taking in consideration the aforementioned regarding the Saxon title in high medieval Transylvania, the Transylvanian Saxons' ethnic consciousness subsequently solidified after the first waves of settlers from Western Europe arrived in the region and was further reinforced or revitalised with new waves of settlers from central and southern present-day Germany during the
Modern Age The modern era or the modern period is considered the current historical period of human history. It was originally applied to the history of Europe and Western history for events that came after the Middle Ages, often from around the year 1500 ...
, more specifically during the 19th century. Furthermore, Transylvanian Saxon intellectual Stephan Ludwig Roth also pleaded for a strengthening of the German element in Transylvania during the 19th century by means of subsequent waves of settlers stemming from contemporary Germany while at the same time firstly supporting the rights of the ethnic Romanians.


Medieval organization


Legal organization

Although the Teutonic Knights had left Transylvania, the Saxon colonists remained, and the king allowed them to retain the rights and obligations included within the ''
Diploma Andreanum The ''Diploma Andreanum'', or ''Der Goldener Freibrief der Siebenbürger Sachsen'' (English: ''Golden Charter of the Transylvanian Saxons''), was issued by King Andrew II of Hungary in 1224, granting provisional autonomy to colonial Germans residi ...
'' of 1224 by
Hungarian King This is a list of Hungarian monarchs; it includes the Grand Prince of the Hungarians, grand princes (895–1000) and the King of Hungary, kings and ruling queens of Hungary (1000–1918). The Principality of Hungary, Hungarian Grand Principality ...
Andrew II. This document conferred upon the German population of the territory between Drăușeni (, ) and
Orăștie Orăștie (; , , , '' Transylvanian Saxon'': Brooss) is a small town and municipality in Hunedoara County, south-western Transylvania, central Romania. History 7th–9th century – On the site of an old swamp was a human settlement, ...
(, ) both administrative and religious autonomy and defined their obligations towards the Hungarian monarchs. Consequently, they had to pay yearly tax to the king and provide military contributions to the royal army in case of danger of attack from abroad. Otherwise, they enjoyed
suzerainty A suzerain (, from Old French "above" + "supreme, chief") is a person, state (polity)">state or polity who has supremacy and dominant influence over the foreign policy">polity.html" ;"title="state (polity)">state or polity">state (polity)">st ...
; even Hungarians could not settle down in the Saxon territories. The territory colonized by Germans covered an area of about 30,000 km2 (10,000 sq. mi.). The region was called Royal Lands or Saxon Lands (; ; ; ). During the reign of Hungarian King
Charles I Charles I may refer to: Kings and emperors * Charlemagne (742–814), numbered Charles I in the lists of Holy Roman Emperors and French kings * Charles I of Anjou (1226–1285), also king of Albania, Jerusalem, Naples and Sicily * Charles I of ...
(probably 1325–1329; also referred to as ''Charles Robert d'Anjou''), the Saxons were organized in the Saxon Chairs (or seats) as follows: The territorial extent of the aforementioned Saxon seats can be clearly seen in depth in the maps from the gallery below: File:Hauptstuhl Hermannstadt.svg, Hermannstädter Hauptstuhl File:Stuhl Broos.svg, Brooser Stuhl File:Stuhl Mühlbach.svg, Mühlbacher Stuhl File:Stuhl Reußmarkt.svg, Reußmarkter Stuhl File:Leschkircher Stuhl.svg, Leskircher Stuhl File:Grossschenker Stuhl.svg, Großschenker Stuhl File:Stuhl Schäßburg.svg, Schäßburger Stuhl File:Repser Stuhl.svg, Repser Stuhl File:Zwei Stühle.svg, Zwei Stühle (i.e. Two Seats), Mediasch und Schelk File:Mediascher Stuhl.svg, Mediascher Stuhl File:Schelker Stuhl.svg, Schelker Stuhl Aside from the Saxon seats, there had also been two districts, namely Bistritz/Bistrița and Kronstadt/Brașov, which had the following territorial extent, as depicted in the maps below: File:Bistritzer sächsischer Distrikt.svg, Bistritzer Distrikt File:Kronstädter Distrikt.svg, Kronstädter Distrikt


Religious organizations

Along with the Teutonic Order, other religious organizations important to the development of German communities were the
Cistercian The Cistercians (), officially the Order of Cistercians (, abbreviated as OCist or SOCist), are a Catholic religious order of monks and nuns that branched off from the Benedictines and follow the Rule of Saint Benedict, as well as the contri ...
abbeys of Igrisch (Igriș) in the
Banat Banat ( , ; ; ; ) is a geographical and Historical regions of Central Europe, historical region located in the Pannonian Basin that straddles Central Europe, Central and Eastern Europe. It is divided among three countries: the eastern part lie ...
region respectively Kerz (Cârța) in Fogaraschland (Țara Făgărașului). The earliest religious organization of the Saxons was the Provostship of Hermannstadt (now
Sibiu Sibiu ( , , , Hungarian: ''Nagyszeben'', , Transylvanian Saxon: ''Härmeschtat'' or ''Hermestatt'') is a city in central Romania, situated in the historical region of Transylvania. Located some north-west of Bucharest, the city straddles th ...
), founded 20 December 1191. In its early years, it included the territories of Hermannstadt, Leschkirch (Nocrich), and Groß-Schenk (Cincu), the areas that were colonized the earliest by ethnic Germans in the region. Under the influence of Johannes Honterus, the great majority of the Transylvanian Saxons embraced the new creed of
Martin Luther Martin Luther ( ; ; 10 November 1483 – 18 February 1546) was a German priest, Theology, theologian, author, hymnwriter, professor, and former Order of Saint Augustine, Augustinian friar. Luther was the seminal figure of the Reformation, Pr ...
during the
Protestant Reformation The Reformation, also known as the Protestant Reformation or the European Reformation, was a time of major theological movement in Western Christianity in 16th-century Europe that posed a religious and political challenge to the papacy and ...
. The first superintendent of the Saxons Evangelical Church, Paul Wiener, was elected by Saxon pastors at a
synod A synod () is a council of a Christian denomination, usually convened to decide an issue of doctrine, administration or application. The word '' synod'' comes from the Ancient Greek () ; the term is analogous with the Latin word . Originally, ...
on 6 February 1553. Almost all became Lutheran Protestants, with very few
Calvinists Reformed Christianity, also called Calvinism, is a major branch of Protestantism that began during the 16th-century Protestant Reformation. In the modern day, it is largely represented by the Continental Reformed Christian, Presbyterian, ...
, while other minor segments of the Transylvanian Saxon society remained staunchly
Catholic The Catholic Church (), also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the List of Christian denominations by number of members, largest Christian church, with 1.27 to 1.41 billion baptized Catholics Catholic Church by country, worldwid ...
(of
Latin Church The Latin Church () is the largest autonomous () particular church within the Catholic Church, whose members constitute the vast majority of the 1.3 billion Catholics. The Latin Church is one of 24 Catholic particular churches and liturgical ...
, more specifically) or were converted to Catholicism later on. Nonetheless, one of the consequences of the Reformation was the emergence of an almost perfect equivalence, in the Transylvanian context, of the terms Lutheran and Saxon, with the Lutheran Church in Transylvania being de facto a "Volkskirche", i.e. the "national church" of the Transylvanian Saxons (or the people's church of the Saxons). File:Mănăstirea Cârța - panoramio (4).jpg, Cârța () medieval monastery File:Biserica fortificată din Hărman - vedere de ansamblu.jpg, Hărman () Evangelical Lutheran medieval fortified church File:Kirchenburg Birthälm.jpg,
Biertan fortified church The Biertan fortified church (; ) is a Lutheran fortified church in Biertan (), Sibiu County, in the Transylvania region of Romania. It was built by the ethnic German Transylvanian Saxon community at a time when the area belonged to the Kingdo ...
() was the see of the Evangelical Lutheran Bishop in Transylvania between 1572 and 1867. File:Valea Viilor - Ansamblul bisericii evanghelice fortificate - vedere generala.jpg,
Valea Viilor Valea Viilor (colloquially ''Vorumloc''; ; ) is a commune located in Sibiu County, Transylvania, Romania. It has a population of 1,873 (as of 2011), and is composed of two villages, Motiș (''Mortesdorf''; ''Martontelke'') and Valea Viilor. Each ...
() Evangelical Lutheran medieval fortified church File:Saschiz - Biserica Evanghelica fortificata - exterior.jpg,
Saschiz Saschiz (; , Hungarian pronunciation: ; Transylvanian Saxon: ''Keist'') is a commune in Mureș County, Transylvania, central Romania. It is composed of three villages: Cloașterf (''Klosdorf''; ''Miklóstelke''), Mihai Viteazu (''Zoltan'' until 19 ...
() Evangelical Lutheran medieval fortified church File:Biserica evanghelica fortificata din Viscri.jpg, Viscri () Evangelical Lutheran medieval fortified church


Fortification of the towns

The
Mongol invasion The Mongol invasions and conquests took place during the 13th and 14th centuries, creating history's largest contiguous empire, the Mongol Empire (1206–1368), which by 1260 covered large parts of Eurasia. Historians regard the Mongol devastati ...
of 1241–42 devastated much of the Kingdom of Hungary. Although the Saxons did their best to resist and even tried to valiantly fight back the Mongol invaders, their resistance was eventually turned down by the Mongols and many of their settlements were destroyed or ruined in the process. After the Mongols retreated from Transylvania, in the event of another invasion, many Transylvanian towns were fortified with stone castles and an emphasis was put on developing towns economically. In the Middle Ages, approximately 300 villages were defended by the '' Kirchenburgen'', or
fortified church A fortified church is a church that is built to serve a defensive role in times of war. Such church (building), churches were specially designed to incorporate military features, such as thick walls, battlements, and embrasures. Others, such as t ...
es with massive walls and watch towers. Although many of these fortified churches have fallen into either decay or ruin, nowadays the south-eastern region of
Transylvania Transylvania ( or ; ; or ; Transylvanian Saxon dialect, Transylvanian Saxon: ''Siweberjen'') is a List of historical regions of Central Europe, historical and cultural region in Central Europe, encompassing central Romania. To the east and ...
still has one of the highest density of existing fortified churches from the 13th to 16th centuriesVillages with Fortified Churches in Transylvania.
UNESCO World Heritage Centre 1992–2010
as more than 150 villages in the area count various types of fortified churches in good shape, seven of them being included in the UNESCO
World Heritage World Heritage Sites are landmarks and areas with legal protection under an treaty, international treaty administered by UNESCO for having cultural, historical, or scientific significance. The sites are judged to contain "cultural and natural ...
under the name of ''
Villages with fortified churches in Transylvania The Transylvania region of Romania has one of the highest concentrations of existing fortified churches from the 13th to 16th centuries. It has more than 150 well preserved fortified churches of a great variety of architectural styles (out of an o ...
''. The rapid expansion of cities populated by the Saxons led to Transylvania being known in German as ''Siebenbürgen'' and ''Septem Castra'' or ''Septem Castrensis'' in
Latin Latin ( or ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally spoken by the Latins (Italic tribe), Latins in Latium (now known as Lazio), the lower Tiber area aroun ...
, referring to seven of the fortified towns (see Historical names of Transylvania), most likely: * Nösen/Bistritz (;
Transylvanian Saxon The Transylvanian Saxons (; Transylvanian Saxon: ''Siweberjer Såksen'' or simply ''Soxen'', singularly ''Sox'' or ''Soax''; Transylvanian Landler: ''Soxn'' or ''Soxisch''; ; seldom ''sași ardeleni/transilvăneni/transilvani''; ) are a people ...
: ''Bästerts'') * Hermannstadt (;
Transylvanian Saxon The Transylvanian Saxons (; Transylvanian Saxon: ''Siweberjer Såksen'' or simply ''Soxen'', singularly ''Sox'' or ''Soax''; Transylvanian Landler: ''Soxn'' or ''Soxisch''; ; seldom ''sași ardeleni/transilvăneni/transilvani''; ) are a people ...
: ''Härmeschtat''/''Hermestatt'') * Klausenburg () * Kronstadt (;
Transylvanian Saxon The Transylvanian Saxons (; Transylvanian Saxon: ''Siweberjer Såksen'' or simply ''Soxen'', singularly ''Sox'' or ''Soax''; Transylvanian Landler: ''Soxn'' or ''Soxisch''; ; seldom ''sași ardeleni/transilvăneni/transilvani''; ) are a people ...
: ''Kruhnen'') * Mediasch (;
Transylvanian Saxon The Transylvanian Saxons (; Transylvanian Saxon: ''Siweberjer Såksen'' or simply ''Soxen'', singularly ''Sox'' or ''Soax''; Transylvanian Landler: ''Soxn'' or ''Soxisch''; ; seldom ''sași ardeleni/transilvăneni/transilvani''; ) are a people ...
: ''Medwesch''/''Medwisch'') * Mühlbach (;
Transylvanian Saxon The Transylvanian Saxons (; Transylvanian Saxon: ''Siweberjer Såksen'' or simply ''Soxen'', singularly ''Sox'' or ''Soax''; Transylvanian Landler: ''Soxn'' or ''Soxisch''; ; seldom ''sași ardeleni/transilvăneni/transilvani''; ) are a people ...
: ''Melnbach''/''Mühllenbach'') * Schässburg/Schäßburg (;
Transylvanian Saxon The Transylvanian Saxons (; Transylvanian Saxon: ''Siweberjer Såksen'' or simply ''Soxen'', singularly ''Sox'' or ''Soax''; Transylvanian Landler: ''Soxn'' or ''Soxisch''; ; seldom ''sași ardeleni/transilvăneni/transilvani''; ) are a people ...
: ''Schäsbrich'') Other potential candidates for this list include: * Broos (,
Transylvanian Saxon The Transylvanian Saxons (; Transylvanian Saxon: ''Siweberjer Såksen'' or simply ''Soxen'', singularly ''Sox'' or ''Soax''; Transylvanian Landler: ''Soxn'' or ''Soxisch''; ; seldom ''sași ardeleni/transilvăneni/transilvani''; ) are a people ...
: ''Brooss'') * Sächsisch-Regen (,
Transylvanian Saxon The Transylvanian Saxons (; Transylvanian Saxon: ''Siweberjer Såksen'' or simply ''Soxen'', singularly ''Sox'' or ''Soax''; Transylvanian Landler: ''Soxn'' or ''Soxisch''; ; seldom ''sași ardeleni/transilvăneni/transilvani''; ) are a people ...
: ''Reen'') Other notable urban Saxon settlements include: * Heltau (;
Transylvanian Saxon The Transylvanian Saxons (; Transylvanian Saxon: ''Siweberjer Såksen'' or simply ''Soxen'', singularly ''Sox'' or ''Soax''; Transylvanian Landler: ''Soxn'' or ''Soxisch''; ; seldom ''sași ardeleni/transilvăneni/transilvani''; ) are a people ...
: ''Hielt'') * Rosenau (
Transylvanian Saxon The Transylvanian Saxons (; Transylvanian Saxon: ''Siweberjer Såksen'' or simply ''Soxen'', singularly ''Sox'' or ''Soax''; Transylvanian Landler: ''Soxn'' or ''Soxisch''; ; seldom ''sași ardeleni/transilvăneni/transilvani''; ) are a people ...
: ''Ruusenåå'') * Reps (;
Transylvanian Saxon The Transylvanian Saxons (; Transylvanian Saxon: ''Siweberjer Såksen'' or simply ''Soxen'', singularly ''Sox'' or ''Soax''; Transylvanian Landler: ''Soxn'' or ''Soxisch''; ; seldom ''sași ardeleni/transilvăneni/transilvani''; ) are a people ...
: ''Räppes'') File:The Small Square of Sibiu, during the closing gala - 2016.jpg, Hermannstadt (Sibiu) File:Biserica Mihail.JPG, Klausenburg (Cluj-Napoca) File:Braşov (Kronstadt, Brassó) - center.jpg, Kronstadt (Brașov) File:Biserica evanghelică.C.A.JPG, Bistritz (Bistrița) File:MediasFotoThalerTamas.JPG, Mediasch (Mediaș) File:Kirche mit Markthallen.JPG, Mühlbach (Sebeș) File:Sighisoara. Biserica din deal.jpg, Schässburg (Sighișoara) File:Biserica Săsească Reghin (1).jpg, Sächsisch-Regen (Reghin) File:Orastie 02.jpg, Broos (Orăștie) File:Cisnadie Centrul istoric.jpg, Heltau (Cisnădie) File:RO BV Rasnov church 1.jpg, Rosenau (Râșnov) File:Orasul Rupea vazut din Cetatea Rupea.jpg, Reps (Rupea)


Fortification of the villages

In addition to fortifying their towns over the passing of time, the Transylvanian Saxons also had to fortify their villages by building their fortified churches (the Transylvanian Saxons were initially strongly
Roman Catholic The Catholic Church (), also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with 1.27 to 1.41 billion baptized Catholics worldwide as of 2025. It is among the world's oldest and largest international institut ...
then
Evangelical Lutheran Lutheranism is a major branch of Protestantism that emerged under the work of Martin Luther, the 16th-century German friar and Protestant Reformers, reformer whose efforts to reform the theology and practices of the Catholic Church launched ...
after the
Reformation The Reformation, also known as the Protestant Reformation or the European Reformation, was a time of major Theology, theological movement in Western Christianity in 16th-century Europe that posed a religious and political challenge to the p ...
). These fortified churches, or ''kirchenburgen'' as they are known in standard German, had defensive capacities in the event of a foreign attack on a rural Transylvanian Saxon community (e.g. extensive inner and outer walls and a fortified watch tower). Such an attack would often stem from the
Cumans The Cumans or Kumans were a Turkic people, Turkic nomadic people from Central Asia comprising the western branch of the Cumania, Cuman–Kipchak confederation who spoke the Cuman language. They are referred to as Polovtsians (''Polovtsy'') in Ru ...
, for example, or from the
Pechenegs The Pechenegs () or Patzinaks, , Middle Turkic languages, Middle Turkic: , , , , , , ka, პაჭანიკი, , , ; sh-Latn-Cyrl, Pečenezi, separator=/, Печенези, also known as Pecheneg Turks were a semi-nomadic Turkic peopl ...
. It was estimated that there are approximately 300 such villages with fortified churches built by the Saxons in Transylvania during the Middle Ages. The majority of them are still in very good to relatively good shape to this day, after further consolidation and renovation based on European funds or Norwegian grants (for example in Alma Vii or
Laslea Laslea (; ) is a commune located in Sibiu County, Transylvania, Romania. It is composed of five villages: Florești (''Felsendorf'', ''Földszin''), Laslea, Mălâncrav (''Malmkrog'', ''Almakerék''), Nou Săsesc (''Neudorf'', ''Apaújfalu''), ...
), but also based on foreign donations. Nevertheless, there also some still left in ruin or decay, since the vast majority of the Saxons in their respective villages left them deserted during either before 1989 and after 1989 while emigrating for Western Europe or North America.


Medieval colonies outside the Carpathian arch

The Transylvanian Saxons also colonized areas outside the Carpathian arch, and, implicitly, outside their then newly native lands across Transylvania starting in the mid and mid-late 12th century. Those areas pertained to the neighbouring and emerging Romanian medieval principalities of
Moldavia Moldavia (, or ; in Romanian Cyrillic alphabet, Romanian Cyrillic: or ) is a historical region and former principality in Eastern Europe, corresponding to the territory between the Eastern Carpathians and the Dniester River. An initially in ...
(to the east) and
Wallachia Wallachia or Walachia (; ; : , : ) is a historical and geographical region of modern-day Romania. It is situated north of the Lower Danube and south of the Southern Carpathians. Wallachia was traditionally divided into two sections, Munteni ...
(to the south). In this particular process, they founded or co-founded major historical settlements on the territory of both aforementioned Romanian principalities such as
Târgu Neamț Târgu Neamț (; , , , ) is a town in Neamț County, Western Moldavia, Romania, on the river Neamț. It had, , a population of 18,029. Three villages are administered by the town: Blebea, Humulești, and Humuleștii Noi. History Originally ...
(),
Baia Baia (; ; ) is a commune in Suceava County, in the historical region of Western Moldavia, northeastern Romania with a population of 7,261 as of 2021. It is composed of two villages, namely Baia and Bogata. Located on the Moldova (river), Moldova ...
(),
Târgoviște Târgoviște (, alternatively spelled ''Tîrgoviște'') is a Municipiu, city and county seat in Dâmbovița County, Romania. It is situated north-west of Bucharest, on the right bank of the Ialomița (river), Ialomița River. Târgoviște was ...
(), or
Câmpulung Câmpulung (also spelled ''Cîmpulung'', , , Old Romanian ''Dlăgopole'', ''Длъгополе'' (from Middle Bulgarian), or ''Câmpulung Muscel'') is a municipiu, city in Argeș County, Muntenia, Romania. It is attested on the Fra Mauro map fro ...
(). In the case of the first settlement (i.e. Târgu Neamț), they could have been equally helped in establishing it by the
Teutonic Knights The Teutonic Order is a Catholic religious institution founded as a military society in Acre, Kingdom of Jerusalem. The Order of Brothers of the German House of Saint Mary in Jerusalem was formed to aid Christians on their pilgrimages to t ...
. Saxons in Wallachia also settled in Râmnic (i.e. present-day
Râmnicu Vâlcea Râmnicu Vâlcea (formerly ''Râmnic'', ) is a city in Romania. Located in the south-central part of the country, in the historical province of Oltenia, it is the seat of Vâlcea County and its main urban settlement. According to the 2021 Romanian ...
) and
Pitești Pitești () is a city in Romania, located on the river Argeș (river), Argeș. The capital and largest city of Argeș County, it is an important commercial and industrial center, as well as the home of two universities. Pitești is situated in th ...
(). Saxon colonization in Moldavia had likely occurred through a crossing from the Bistrița area eastward and northward whereas Saxon colonization in Wallachia had likely occurred from the Sibiu () area. Moreover, under the title of
Schultheiß In medieval Germany, the ''Schultheiß'' () was the head of a municipality (akin to today's office of mayor), a '' Vogt'' or an executive official of the ruler. As official (''villicus'') it was his duty to order his assigned village or county ( ...
(), ethnic Germans were even briefly in charge of some of these Romanian settlements during the
High Middle Ages The High Middle Ages, or High Medieval Period, was the periodization, period of European history between and ; it was preceded by the Early Middle Ages and followed by the Late Middle Ages, which ended according to historiographical convention ...
. Additionally, German potters and merchants were also present in the former Moldavian capital of
Suceava Suceava () is a Municipiu, city in northeastern Romania. The seat of Suceava County, it is situated in the Historical regions of Romania, historical regions of Bukovina and Western Moldavia, Moldavia, northeastern Romania. It is the largest urban ...
at the end of the 14th century. Historically, the town of Suceava has also been known in
Old High German Old High German (OHG; ) is the earliest stage of the German language, conventionally identified as the period from around 500/750 to 1050. Rather than representing a single supra-regional form of German, Old High German encompasses the numerous ...
as ''Sedschopff''. It is therefore known that Suceava had a small yet influent and thriving community of Transylvanian Saxons in medieval times. The newly arrived Saxons outside the Carpathian arch in the emerging medieval Romanian principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia brought urbanisation, craftsmanship, trade, and the so-called ''German law'', under which the local administrations of medieval Romanian towns had operated in the beginning. In the medieval towns situated in the highlands of the Principality of Moldavia (or what would later become
Bukovina Bukovina or ; ; ; ; , ; see also other languages. is a historical region at the crossroads of Central and Eastern Europe. It is located on the northern slopes of the central Eastern Carpathians and the adjoining plains, today divided betwe ...
starting in the
Modern Age The modern era or the modern period is considered the current historical period of human history. It was originally applied to the history of Europe and Western history for events that came after the Middle Ages, often from around the year 1500 ...
), namely Suceava or
Câmpulung Moldovenesc Câmpulung Moldovenesc (; formerly spelled ''Cîmpulung Moldovenesc'') is a municipiu, city in Suceava County, northeastern Romania. It is situated in the historical region of Bukovina. Câmpulung Moldovenesc is the fourth largest urban settleme ...
(), the type of German town law which operated there was the
Magdeburg law Magdeburg rights (, , ; also called Magdeburg Law) were a set of town privileges first developed by Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor (936–973) and based on the Flemish Law, which regulated the degree of internal autonomy within cities and villages gr ...
. Furthermore, the
Teutonic Knights The Teutonic Order is a Catholic religious institution founded as a military society in Acre, Kingdom of Jerusalem. The Order of Brothers of the German House of Saint Mary in Jerusalem was formed to aid Christians on their pilgrimages to t ...
were also present in
Siret Siret (; ; ; ; ) is a town, municipality and former Latin bishopric in Suceava County, northeastern Romania. It is situated in the historical region of Bukovina. Siret is the 11th largest urban settlement in the county, with a population of 6,708 ...
() where they built a fortress on a hill near the town during the early 13th century. However, throughout the passing of time, demographically, their numbers gradually dwindled and had been subsequently assimilated in the local medieval Wallachian and Moldavian cultures by the overwhelming Romanian ethnic majority.


Status of privileged class in Transylvania

Along with the largely Hungarian-Transylvanian
nobility Nobility is a social class found in many societies that have an aristocracy. It is normally appointed by and ranked immediately below royalty. Nobility has often been an estate of the realm with many exclusive functions and characteristics. T ...
and the
Székelys The Székelys (, Old Hungarian script, Székely runes: ), also referred to as Szeklers, are a Hungarians, Hungarian subgroup living mostly in the Székely Land in Romania. In addition to their native villages in Suceava County in Bukovina, a ...
, the Transylvanian Saxons were members of the
Unio Trium Nationum Unio Trium Nationum (Latin for "Union of the Three Nations") was a pact of mutual aid codified in 1437 by three Estates of the realm, Estates of Voivodeship of Transylvania, Transylvania: the (largely Hungarians, Hungarian) nobility, the Transylv ...
(or 'Union of the Three Nations'), which was a charter signed in 1438. This agreement preserved a considerable degree of political rights for the three aforementioned groups but excluded the largely Hungarian and Romanian
peasant A peasant is a pre-industrial agricultural laborer or a farmer with limited land-ownership, especially one living in the Middle Ages under feudalism and paying rent, tax, fees, or services to a landlord. In Europe, three classes of peasan ...
ry from political life in the principality. During the
Protestant Reformation The Reformation, also known as the Protestant Reformation or the European Reformation, was a time of major theological movement in Western Christianity in 16th-century Europe that posed a religious and political challenge to the papacy and ...
, most Transylvanian Saxons converted to
Lutheranism Lutheranism is a major branch of Protestantism that emerged under the work of Martin Luther, the 16th-century German friar and Protestant Reformers, reformer whose efforts to reform the theology and practices of the Catholic Church launched ...
. As the semi-independent Principality of Transylvania was one of the most religiously tolerant states in Europe at the time, the Saxons were allowed to practice their own religion (meaning that they enjoyed religious autonomy). However, the
Habsburg The House of Habsburg (; ), also known as the House of Austria, was one of the most powerful dynasties in the history of Europe and Western civilization. They were best known for their inbreeding and for ruling vast realms throughout Europe d ...
s still promoted
Roman Catholicism The Catholic Church (), also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the List of Christian denominations by number of members, largest Christian church, with 1.27 to 1.41 billion baptized Catholics Catholic Church by country, worldwid ...
to the Saxons during the
Counter-Reformation The Counter-Reformation (), also sometimes called the Catholic Revival, was the period of Catholic resurgence that was initiated in response to, and as an alternative to or from similar insights as, the Protestant Reformations at the time. It w ...
. Currently in Romania, about 60% of ethnic Germans reported being Roman Catholic and 40% Protestant (see
Religion in Romania Christianity is the main religion in Romania, with Romanian Orthodox Church, Romanian Orthodoxy being its largest denomination. Romania is a secular state and freedom of religion is enshrined in the nation's constitution. Overview Romania is o ...
).
Warfare War is an armed conflict between the armed forces of State (polity), states, or between governmental forces and armed groups that are organized under a certain command structure and have the capacity to sustain military operations, or betwe ...
between the
Habsburg monarchy The Habsburg monarchy, also known as Habsburg Empire, or Habsburg Realm (), was the collection of empires, kingdoms, duchies, counties and other polities (composite monarchy) that were ruled by the House of Habsburg. From the 18th century it is ...
and Hungary against the
Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire (), also called the Turkish Empire, was an empire, imperial realm that controlled much of Southeast Europe, West Asia, and North Africa from the 14th to early 20th centuries; it also controlled parts of southeastern Centr ...
from the 16th–18th centuries decreased the population of Transylvanian Saxons. All throughout this period of time, the Saxons in Transylvania served as administrators and military officers. When the Principality of Transylvania came under
Habsburg The House of Habsburg (; ), also known as the House of Austria, was one of the most powerful dynasties in the history of Europe and Western civilization. They were best known for their inbreeding and for ruling vast realms throughout Europe d ...
control, a smaller third phase of settlement took place to revitalise their demographics. This wave of settlement included exiled Protestants from
Upper Austria Upper Austria ( ; ; ) is one of the nine States of Austria, states of Austria. Its capital is Linz. Upper Austria borders Germany and the Czech Republic, as well as the other Austrian states of Lower Austria, Styria, and Salzburg (state), Salzbur ...
(the
Transylvanian Landler The Landlers or Transylvanian Landlers () are an ethnic German sub-group which has been living on the territory of today's Romania, more specifically in southern Transylvania (mostly corresponding to present-day Sibiu County) since the 18th cen ...
s namely), who were given land near Hermannstadt (
Sibiu Sibiu ( , , , Hungarian: ''Nagyszeben'', , Transylvanian Saxon: ''Härmeschtat'' or ''Hermestatt'') is a city in central Romania, situated in the historical region of Transylvania. Located some north-west of Bucharest, the city straddles th ...
). The predominantly German-populated Hermannstadt was a noteworthy cultural center within Transylvania in the past, while Kronstadt (
Brașov Brașov (, , ; , also ''Brasau''; ; ; Transylvanian Saxon dialect, Transylvanian Saxon: ''Kruhnen'') is a city in Transylvania, Romania and the county seat (i.e. administrative centre) of Brașov County. According to the 2021 Romanian census, ...
) represented a vital political center for the Transylvanian Saxons. Brașov/Kronstadt was more populous compared to Sibiu/Hermannstadt but historically the latter remained the most important town in Transylvania for the Transylvanian Saxons (as a well as a very important town for the Transylvanian Romanians).


Loss of elite status and unification with the Kingdom of Romania

Emperor
Joseph II Joseph II (13 March 1741 – 20 February 1790) was Holy Roman Emperor from 18 August 1765 and sole ruler of the Habsburg monarchy from 29 November 1780 until his death. He was the eldest son of Empress Maria Theresa and her husband, Emperor F ...
attempted to revoke the
Unio Trium Nationum Unio Trium Nationum (Latin for "Union of the Three Nations") was a pact of mutual aid codified in 1437 by three Estates of the realm, Estates of Voivodeship of Transylvania, Transylvania: the (largely Hungarians, Hungarian) nobility, the Transylv ...
in the late 18th century. His actions were aimed at the political inequality within Transylvania, especially the political strength of the Saxons. Although his actions were ultimately rescinded, many Saxons began to see themselves as being a small minority opposed by nationalist Romanians and Hungarians. Although they remained a rich and influential group, the Saxons were no longer a dominant class within Modern Age Transylvania. The Hungarians, on the other hand, supported complete unification of Transylvania with the rest of Hungary. Stephan Ludwig Roth, an Evangelical Lutheran pastor and intellectual who led the German support for Romanian political rights, eventually opposed the unification of Transylvania with Hungary and was executed by the Hungarian military tribunal during the revolution. File:Heldsdorf (Hălchiu) Bürgergarde banner (reverse side).svg, The militia banner of the Saxons from Heldsdorf (),
Brașov County Brașov County () is a county (județ) of Transylvania, Romania. Its capital city is Brașov. The county incorporates within its boundaries most of the Medieval "lands" (''țări'') Burzenland and Făgăraș. Name In Hungarian language, Hungari ...
during the 1848–49 Hungarian Revolution File:Sachsen in Siebenbürgen.JPG, Distribution of Saxons in Transylvania at the end of the 19th century File:Die Gartenlaube (1896) b 0132.jpg, Saxon couple (late 19th century illustration) File:Sächsische Bauern aus der Umgebung von Hermannstadt.jpg, Saxon couple from Sibiu/Hermannstadt area, 1900
Although the Hungarian control over Transylvania was defeated by Austrian and
Imperial Russian The Russian Empire was an empire that spanned most of northern Eurasia from its establishment in November 1721 until the proclamation of the Russian Republic in September 1917. At its height in the late 19th century, it covered about , roughl ...
forces in 1849, the
Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 The Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 (, ) established the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary, which was a military and diplomatic alliance of two sovereign states. The Compromise only partially re-established the former pre-1848 sovereign ...
() between Austria and Hungary in 1867 did not represent a positive transformation for the political rights of the Transylvanian Saxons. After the end of
World War I World War I or the First World War (28 July 1914 – 11 November 1918), also known as the Great War, was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War I, Allies (or Entente) and the Central Powers. Fighting to ...
, on 8 January 1919, the representatives of the Transylvanian Saxons decided to support the unification of Transylvania with the
Kingdom of Romania The Kingdom of Romania () was a constitutional monarchy that existed from with the crowning of prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen as King of Romania, King Carol I of Romania, Carol I (thus beginning the Romanian royal family), until 1947 wit ...
, as did other German groups in the newly enlarged state (e.g.
Bessarabia Germans The Bessarabia Germans (; ; ) were a German ethnic group (formerly part of the Germans of Romania) who lived in Bessarabia (today part of the Republic of Moldova and south-western Ukraine) between 1814 and 1940. From 1814 to 1842, 9,000 of th ...
or
Bukovina Germans The Bukovina Germans ( or ''Buchenlanddeutsche'', ), also known and referred to as Buchenland Germans, or Bukovinian Germans, are a German diaspora, German Ethnicity, ethnic group which settled in Bukovina, a historical region situated at the cro ...
). They were promised full minority rights, but many wealthy Saxons lost part of their land in the land reform process that was implemented in the whole of Romania after World War I. Subsequently, taking into account the rise of
Adolf Hitler Adolf Hitler (20 April 1889 – 30 April 1945) was an Austrian-born German politician who was the dictator of Nazi Germany from 1933 until Death of Adolf Hitler, his suicide in 1945. Adolf Hitler's rise to power, He rose to power as the lea ...
in
Nazi Germany Nazi Germany, officially known as the German Reich and later the Greater German Reich, was the German Reich, German state between 1933 and 1945, when Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party controlled the country, transforming it into a Totalit ...
, many Transylvanian Saxons became staunch supporters of
national socialism Nazism (), formally named National Socialism (NS; , ), is the far-right totalitarian socio-political ideology and practices associated with Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party (NSDAP) in Germany. During Hitler's rise to power, it was frequ ...
, with the Evangelical Lutheran Church losing, eventually, very much of its influence in the community as time passed by, shortly before and during the outbreak of
World War II World War II or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War II, Allies and the Axis powers. World War II by country, Nearly all of the wo ...
.


World War II and contemporary history

In February 1942 and May 1943, Germany concluded agreements with Hungary and Romania respectively, following which the Germans who were fit for military service, although they were either Hungarian citizens (in northern Transylvania, entered the composition of the Hungarian state through the
Second Vienna Award The Second Vienna Award was the second of two territorial disputes that were arbitrated by Nazi Germany and the Kingdom of Italy. On 30 August 1940, they assigned the territory of Northern Transylvania, including all of Maramureș and part of Cri ...
) or Romanian citizens (in southern Transylvania, remaining part of Romania), could be incorporated into the regular German military units, into the
Waffen-SS The (; ) was the military branch, combat branch of the Nazi Party's paramilitary ''Schutzstaffel'' (SS) organisation. Its formations included men from Nazi Germany, along with Waffen-SS foreign volunteers and conscripts, volunteers and conscr ...
and into war-producing enterprises or into the
Organisation Todt Organisation Todt (OT; ) was a Civil engineering, civil and military engineering organisation in Nazi Germany from 1933 to 1945, named for its founder, Fritz Todt, an engineer and senior member of the Nazi Party. The organisation was responsible ...
. As a result of these agreements, approximately 95% of the members of the German ethnic group who were fit for military service (Transylvanian Saxons and
Banat Swabians The Banat Swabians are an Germans, ethnic German population in the former Kingdom of Hungary in Central Europe, Central-Southeast Europe, part of the Danube Swabians and Germans of Romania. They emigrated in the 18th century to what was then the ...
) voluntarily enrolled into the Waffen-SS units (approximately 63,000 people), with several thousand serving in the special units of the SS Security Service (SD-Sonderkommandos), of which at least 2,000 ethnic Germans were enrolled in the concentration camps (KZ-Wachkompanien), of which at least 55% served in extermination camps, predominantly in Auschwitz and Lublin. About 15% of the Romanian ethnic Germans who served in the Waffen-SS died in the war, with only a few thousand survivors returning to Romania. When Romania signed a peace treaty with the Soviets in 1944, the German military began withdrawing the Saxons from Transylvania; this operation was most thorough with the Saxons of the Nösnerland (Bistrița area). Around 100,000 Germans fled before the Soviet
Red Army The Workers' and Peasants' Red Army, often shortened to the Red Army, was the army and air force of the Russian Soviet Republic and, from 1922, the Soviet Union. The army was established in January 1918 by a decree of the Council of People ...
, but Romania did not conduct the expulsion of Germans as did neighboring countries at war's end. However, more than 70,000 Germans from Romania were arrested by the Soviet Army and sent to labour camps in Ukraine (more specifically in
Donbas The Donbas (, ; ) or Donbass ( ) is a historical, cultural, and economic region in eastern Ukraine. The majority of the Donbas is occupied by Russia as a result of the Russo-Ukrainian War. The word ''Donbas'' is a portmanteau formed fr ...
) for alleged cooperation with Nazi Germany. In 1989, there were still 95,000 Saxons living in Romania (approx. 40% of the population of 1910), and between 1991 and 1992 another 75,000 emigrated. Their number shrank to 14,770 according to the data provided by the
Evangelical Church of the Augsburg Confession in Romania The Evangelical Church of the Augsburg Confession in Romania (, ) is a German-speaking Lutheran church in Romania, mainly based in Transylvania. As a Lutheran church, it adheres to the Augsburg Confession. Its history goes back to the 12th cent ...
in 2003. Because they are considered ''
Auslandsdeutsche The German diaspora (, ) consists of German people and their descendants who live outside of Germany. The term is used in particular to refer to the aspects of migration of German speakers from Central Europe to different countries around the w ...
'' ("Germans from abroad") by the German government, the Saxons have the right to German citizenship under the law of return. Numerous Saxons have emigrated to Germany, especially after the fall of the
Eastern Bloc The Eastern Bloc, also known as the Communist Bloc (Combloc), the Socialist Bloc, the Workers Bloc, and the Soviet Bloc, was an unofficial coalition of communist states of Central and Eastern Europe, Asia, Africa, and Latin America that were a ...
in 1989 and are represented by the
Association of Transylvanian Saxons in Germany The Association of Transylvanian Saxons in Germany () is a German organization formed in 1946 by Transylvanian Saxons () who were resettled in Germany from Transylvania (). Its goals are the integration of Transylvanian Saxons in Germany and the pre ...
. Because of this constant emigration from Romania, the population of Saxons has been gradually dwindling. At the same time, especially after Romania's accession to
NATO The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO ; , OTAN), also called the North Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental organization, intergovernmental Transnationalism, transnational military alliance of 32 Member states of NATO, member s ...
and the EU, many Transylvanian Saxons are returning from Germany, reclaiming property lost to the former communist regime and/or starting up
small and medium-sized enterprises Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) or small and medium-sized businesses (SMBs) are businesses whose personnel and revenue numbers fall below certain limits. The abbreviation "SME" is used by many national agencies and international organiza ...
. The Saxons remaining in Romania are represented by the
Democratic Forum of Germans in Romania The Democratic Forum of Germans in Romania (, DFDR; , FDGR; in short or ) is a political party (legally recognized as an association of public utility according to the governmental decision HG 599 as per 4 June 2008) organised on ethnic criteria ...
(FDGR/DFDR), the political platform that gave Romania its fifth president,
Klaus Iohannis Klaus Werner Iohannis (; ; born 13 June 1959) is a Romanian politician, physicist, and former teacher who served as the fifth president of Romania from 2014 until his resignation in 2025. Prior to entering Politics of Romania, national politics, ...
, who was firstly elected in
2014 The year 2014 was marked by the surge of the Western African Ebola epidemic, West African Ebola epidemic, which began in 2013, becoming the List of Ebola outbreaks, most widespread outbreak of the Ebola, Ebola virus in human history, resul ...
and then re-elected by a landslide in
2019 This was the year in which the first known human case of COVID-19 was documented, preceding COVID-19 pandemic, the pandemic which was declared by the World Health Organization the following year. Up to that point, 2019 had been described as ...
.


Culture

Before their expulsion from communist Romania by communist and securist Romanian authorities, the Transylvanian Saxons formed distinct communities in their towns and villages, where they maintained their ethnic tradition characterised by specific customs,
folklore Folklore is the body of expressive culture shared by a particular group of people, culture or subculture. This includes oral traditions such as Narrative, tales, myths, legends, proverbs, Poetry, poems, jokes, and other oral traditions. This also ...
, way of life, and distinctive clothing style (i.e.
national costume Folk costume, traditional dress, traditional attire or folk attire, is clothing of an ethnic group, nation or region, and expresses cultural, religious or national identity. An ethnic group's clothing may also be called ethnic clothing or ethnic ...
s or ''Sächsische Trachten''). For example, one of the traditions held was the "Neighborhood" ''()'' in which many households formed a small supporting community. This, according to some scholars, is of ancient German origin. File:Sachsenspiegel-Ostsiedlung.jpg, The
Sachsenspiegel The (; ; modern ; all literally "Saxon Mirror") is one of the most important law books and custumals compiled during the Holy Roman Empire. Originating between 1220 and 1235 as a record of existing local traditional customary laws and ruling ...
depicting the
Ostsiedlung (, ) is the term for the Early Middle Ages, early medieval and High Middle Ages, high medieval migration of Germanic peoples and Germanisation of the areas populated by Slavs, Slavic, Balts, Baltic and Uralic languages, Uralic peoples; the ...
process. Upper part: the locator (with a special hat) receives the foundation charter from the landlord. The settlers clear the forest and build houses. Lower part: the locator acts as the judge in the village. File:Pferdemarkt Leonberg 2015 4861.jpg, National costumes of the Transylvanian Saxons at a folk dance performed in Germany (February 2015) File:MuzBV NachbarschaftChest.jpg, The "community chest" () in which the Saxon fraternity held their documents File:MuzBV NachbarschaftConvener.jpg, The "community badge" ''()'' File:Coa Romania Nationality Saxons.svg, The historical coat of arms of the Transylvanian Saxons File:Coa Romania Nationality Saxons 2.svg, Alternative historical coat of arms of the Transylvanian Saxons File:ROM Sibiu Sachsentreffen 2017 07.jpg, Transylvanian Saxon women in traditional costumes attempting a folk dance File:ROM Axente Sever Fortificata 30.jpg, Traditional Transylvanian Saxon carpet File:ROM Axente Sever Fortificata 29.jpg, Traditional Transylvanian Saxon carpet File:Die Gartenlaube (1874) b 005.jpg, Traditional Transylvanian Saxon costumes from Wallendorf (Unirea village, now part of
Bistrița (; , archaic , Transylvanian Saxon: , ) is the capital city of Bistrița-Năsăud County, in northern Transylvania, Romania. It is situated on the Bistrița River. The city has a population of 78,877 inhabitants as of 2021 and administers s ...
,
Bistrița-Năsăud County Bistrița-Năsăud () is a county (județ) of Romania, in Transylvania, with its capital city at Bistrița. Name In Hungarian language, Hungarian, it is known as ''Beszterce-Naszód megye'', and in German language, German as ''Kreis Bistritz-N ...
) File:Die Gartenlaube (1874) b 255.jpg, Interior of a traditional Transylvanian Saxon house File:1916 - Albert Reich - Transilvania, interior de locuinta taraneasca saseasca p11.jpg, Interior of a traditional Transylvanian Saxon house


Cuisine

The traditional cuisine of the Transylvanian Saxons is very similar to that of the Romanians and the Hungarians living in Transylvania as well as to those of the
Germans Germans (, ) are the natives or inhabitants of Germany, or sometimes more broadly any people who are of German descent or native speakers of the German language. The Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany, constitution of Germany, imple ...
,
Austrians Austrians (, ) are the citizens and Nationality, nationals of Austria. The English term ''Austrians'' was applied to the population of Archduchy of Austria, Habsburg Austria from the 17th or 18th century. Subsequently, during the 19th century, ...
, or Alemannic
Swiss Swiss most commonly refers to: * the adjectival form of Switzerland * Swiss people Swiss may also refer to: Places * Swiss, Missouri * Swiss, North Carolina * Swiss, West Virginia * Swiss, Wisconsin Other uses * Swiss Café, an old café located ...
(i.e. from
German-speaking Switzerland The German-speaking part of Switzerland ( ; ; ; ) comprises about 65 percent of Switzerland (North Western Switzerland, Eastern Switzerland, Central Switzerland, most of the Swiss Plateau and the greater part of the Swiss Alps). The variety ...
). In these regards, the Transylvanian Saxon cuisine can be regarded as quintessentially Central European. It also shares some identical dishes with the
Austrian cuisine Austrian cuisine consists of many different local or regional cuisines. In addition to Viennese cuisine, which is predominantly based on the cooking traditions of the Habsburg monarchy, Habsburg Empire, there are independent regional traditions ...
such as
cremeschnitte A cremeschnitte (, , , , Bosnian and sr-Latn-Cyrl, krempita, кремпита, separator=/, , , ), also known as vanilla slice or custard slice, is a custard and chantilly cream cream cake dessert commonly associated with the former Austro-Hu ...
(which has also been traditionally served in
Bukovina Bukovina or ; ; ; ; , ; see also other languages. is a historical region at the crossroads of Central and Eastern Europe. It is located on the northern slopes of the central Eastern Carpathians and the adjoining plains, today divided betwe ...
as well). One prominent example of a local traditional dessert of the Transylvanian Saxons is the ''hanklich'' (), a sweet cheese pie with powdered sugar on top (variations include plums as main ingredients, raisins, or other dry fruits). This particular pastry is still served in restaurants and bakeries in southern Transylvania, particularly in
Brașov Brașov (, , ; , also ''Brasau''; ; ; Transylvanian Saxon dialect, Transylvanian Saxon: ''Kruhnen'') is a city in Transylvania, Romania and the county seat (i.e. administrative centre) of Brașov County. According to the 2021 Romanian census, ...
and
Sibiu Sibiu ( , , , Hungarian: ''Nagyszeben'', , Transylvanian Saxon: ''Härmeschtat'' or ''Hermestatt'') is a city in central Romania, situated in the historical region of Transylvania. Located some north-west of Bucharest, the city straddles th ...
counties, where, historically, there had been a more significant Transylvanian Saxon ethnic presence compared to the other counties across Transylvania. In Romanian, it is also known as ''lichiu săsesc'' or just ''lichiu''. Another notable example of a traditional Transylvanian Saxon dish is ''kipferl'' () which can be filled with vanilla, many types of fruit jams, but also with meat. Another traditional Transylvanian Saxon dish is ''palukes''. ''Kartoffelknodel'' is yet another noteworthy traditional Transylvanian Saxon delight. Other traditional Transylvanian Saxon dishes include: *
Apple soup Apple soup is a soup prepared using apples as a primary ingredient. The apples can be puréed, sliced, or boiled and used whole. Onions, carrots, parsnip and pumpkin are used in some preparations. Some recipes use chicken or vegetable broth or st ...
(); * Brodelawend (beef soup); *
Strudel Strudel ( , ) is a type of layered pastry with a filling that is usually sweet, but savoury fillings are also common. It became popular in the 18th century throughout the Habsburg monarchy, Habsburg Empire. Strudel is part of Austrian cuisine ...
; *
Apple pie An apple pie is a pie in which the principal filling is apples. Apple pie is often served with whipped cream, ice cream ("apple pie à la mode"), custard or cheddar cheese. It is generally double-crusted, with pastry both above and below the ...
; *
Lebkuchen (), or () are honey-sweetened German cuisine, German cakes, moulded cookies or bar cookies that have become part of Germany's Christmas traditions. They are similar to gingerbread. Etymology The etymology of ''Leb-'' in the term is unc ...
(i.e.
gingerbread Gingerbread refers to a broad category of baked goods, typically flavored with ginger root, ginger, cloves, nutmeg, and cinnamon and sweetened with honey, sugar, or molasses. Gingerbread foods vary, ranging from a moist loaf cake to forms nearly ...
); *
Pancake A pancake, also known as a hotcake, griddlecake, or flapjack, is a flat type of batter bread like cake, often thin and round, prepared from a starch-based Batter (cooking), batter that may contain eggs, milk, and butter, and then cooked on a ...
s (
Palatschinke Palatschinke (plural palatschinken) is a thin crêpe-like variety of pancake of Greco-Roman origin. The dessert is common in the Balkans, Central and Eastern Europe. History and etymology The dish is of Greco-Roman origin.. In 350 BCE, the a ...
style) with cheese (more specifically
curd Curd is obtained by Denaturation (biochemistry), coagulating milk in a sequential process called curdling. It can be a final dairy product or the first stage in cheesemaking. The coagulation can be caused by adding rennet, a Kefir cheese, ...
).


Dialect

The Transylvanian Saxon dialect (
endonym An endonym (also known as autonym ) is a common, name for a group of people, individual person, geographical place, language, or dialect, meaning that it is used inside a particular group or linguistic community to identify or designate them ...
: ''Siweberjesch-Såksesch'' or simply just ''Såksesch''; ) is a very conservative and rather archaic
German dialect German dialects are the various traditional local varieties of the German language. Though varied by region, those of the southern half of Germany beneath the Benrath line are dominated by the geographical spread of the High German consonant sh ...
that has evolved throughout the passing of time relatively isolated from other German dialects (apart, most notably, from
Transylvanian Landler The Landlers or Transylvanian Landlers () are an ethnic German sub-group which has been living on the territory of today's Romania, more specifically in southern Transylvania (mostly corresponding to present-day Sibiu County) since the 18th cen ...
). It has also come in contact with
Romanian Romanian may refer to: *anything of, from, or related to the country and nation of Romania **Romanians, an ethnic group **Romanian language, a Romance language ***Romanian dialects, variants of the Romanian language **Romanian cuisine, traditional ...
and Hungarian from which several words were derived. Nevertheless, Transylvanian Saxon is very similar to
Luxembourgish Luxembourgish ( ; also ''Luxemburgish'', ''Luxembourgian'', ''Letzebu(e)rgesch''; ) is a West Germanic language that is spoken mainly in Luxembourg. About 400,000 people speak Luxembourgish worldwide. The language is standardized and officiall ...
and sounds as a form of medieval German (e.g.
Old High German Old High German (OHG; ) is the earliest stage of the German language, conventionally identified as the period from around 500/750 to 1050. Rather than representing a single supra-regional form of German, Old High German encompasses the numerous ...
or
Middle High German Middle High German (MHG; or ; , shortened as ''Mhdt.'' or ''Mhd.'') is the term for the form of High German, High German language, German spoken in the High Middle Ages. It is conventionally dated between 1050 and 1350, developing from Old High ...
). The similarities with
Luxembourgish Luxembourgish ( ; also ''Luxemburgish'', ''Luxembourgian'', ''Letzebu(e)rgesch''; ) is a West Germanic language that is spoken mainly in Luxembourg. About 400,000 people speak Luxembourgish worldwide. The language is standardized and officiall ...
are both in lexical nature and grammar nature. It also has a series of characters which are different from those of standard German (i.e., ''Hochdeutsch''), for example 'å' (or ''dumpfes a'' as it is known in standard German) which is pronounced as in Norwegian or Danish. It is also important to note the fact that even proper names of some Transylvanian Saxon localities sound very similar to Luxembourgish (e.g., " Neithausen" or ''New house'' as it can be understood in Luxembourgish if divided into two words). The earliest text in Transylvanian Saxon was written by Johannes Tröster in 1666. In
comparative linguistics Comparative linguistics is a branch of historical linguistics that is concerned with comparing languages to establish their historical relatedness. Genetic relatedness implies a common origin or proto-language and comparative linguistics aim ...
, Transylvanian Saxon is a
West Central German West Central German () belongs to the Central German, Central, High German languages, High German dialect family of German language, German. It includes the following sub-families: * Central Franconian () ** Ripuarian language, Ripuarian (), spok ...
dialect which is part of the Moselle Franconian branch. Historically, it has been spoken more in rural areas of Transylvania and to a lesser extent in the urban settlements where Transylvanian Saxons lived. Transylvanian Saxon as a regional dialect varied geographically and, consequently, that each village had its own form of it while still retaining mutual intelligibility among themselves as well.


Literature

The Transylvanian Saxon literature represents a part of the
German literature German literature () comprises those literature, literary texts written in the German language. This includes literature written in Germany, Austria, the German parts of Switzerland and Belgium, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, South Tyrol in Italy ...
in Central and Eastern Europe as well as a part of
Romanian literature Romanian literature () is the entirety of literature written by Romanian authors, although the term may also be used to refer to all literature written in the Romanian language or by any authors native to Romania. Early Romanian literature inc ...
. It has been written by Transylvanian Saxon writers since the Middle Ages onwards, in
Latin Latin ( or ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally spoken by the Latins (Italic tribe), Latins in Latium (now known as Lazio), the lower Tiber area aroun ...
, the Transylvanian Saxon dialect, and Standard German. Writers of partial German/Transylvanian Saxon descent from Transylvania such as
Nicolae Breban Nicolae Breban (; born 1 February 1934) is a Romanian novelist and essayist of partial Germans, German descent. Biography Breban was born in Baia Mare, Maramureș County, Transylvania, Socialist Republic of Romania, the son of Vasile Breban, a ...
have also been writing in Romanian. The Transylvanian Saxon literature consists of both prose and poems, ranging from folk tales, folk ballads, and ecclesiastical texts such as prayers. Notable Transylvanian Saxon writers include Josef/Joseph Haltrich and Dutz Schuster (also known as Gustav Schuster-Dutz; full name at birth: Gustav Michael Julius Schuster).


Anthem

''Das Siebenbürgenlied'' (i.e. ''The song of Transylvania'') is the regional anthem of the Transylvanian Saxon community as well as an unofficial regional hymn of Transylvania, praising the region as a land of blessings and great natural beauty. It was written and composed in the mid 19th century. The lyricist was Maximilian Leopold Moltke and the composer was Transylvanian Saxon Johann Lukas Hedwig from Hălchiu (). The anthem is also known as ''Siebenbürgen, Land des Segens'' (literally ''Transylvania, land of blessings'').


Famous Transylvanian Saxons

Famous Transylvanian Saxons include intellectuals Johannes Honterus, Christian Schesaeus, Johann Sommer, Johannes Sommer, Samuel von Brukenthal, Georg Maurer, Johann Böhm (historian), Johann Böhm, or Stephan Ludwig Roth, composers such as Georg Meyndt and Carl Filtsch, visual artists such as Fritz Schullerus, Edith Soterius von Sachsenheim, or Friedrich Miess, scientists such as Hermann Oberth and Conrad Haas, or sportsmen such as Michael Klein (footballer, born 1959), Michael Klein, Mora Windt-Martini, or Otto Tellmann. Well known Transylvanian Saxon politicians and administrative leaders include Michael Weiß (politician), Michael Weiß (former mayor of Brașov/Kronstadt), Klaus Iohannis, Klaus Johannis (former President of Romania and former mayor of Sibiu/Hermannstadt), Iancu Sasul (i.e. John the Saxon), :ro:Johannes_Benkner, Johannes Benkner (a former mayor of Brașov/Kronstadt), or Astrid Fodor (current mayor of Sibu/Hermannstadt). File:Johannes Honterus 1498-1549 - Transylvanian Saxon, renaissance humanist and theologian - panoramio.jpg, Statue of Johannes Honterus in
Brașov Brașov (, , ; , also ''Brasau''; ; ; Transylvanian Saxon dialect, Transylvanian Saxon: ''Kruhnen'') is a city in Transylvania, Romania and the county seat (i.e. administrative centre) of Brașov County. According to the 2021 Romanian census, ...
() by German sculptor Harro Magnussen File:Stephan Ludwig Roth.jpg, Stephan Ludwig Roth, intellectual and national hero for both the Transylvanian Saxons and the Romanians File:Brukenthal.jpg, Samuel von Brukenthal, Transylvanian Saxon intellectual and baron File:Arthur Coulin - Portretul pictoritei Edith Soterius von Sachsenheim.jpg, Edith Soterius von Sachsenheim, visual artist File:Georg Meyndt.jpg, Georg Meyndt, composer File:Hermann Oberth 1950s.jpg, Hermann Oberth, physicist and engineer


Further reading

* ''Așezarea sașilor în Transilvania'' (i.e. ''The settlement of the Transylvanian Saxons in Transylvania'') by archaeologist and professor doctor Thomas Nägler * ''Povești din folclorul germanilor din România'' by Roland Schenn, Corint publishing house, 2014 (in
Romanian Romanian may refer to: *anything of, from, or related to the country and nation of Romania **Romanians, an ethnic group **Romanian language, a Romance language ***Romanian dialects, variants of the Romanian language **Romanian cuisine, traditional ...
) * ''Meschendorf'' by Jessica Klein (in English and German) * ''Palukes für die Seele: Gedichte aus Siebenbürgen'' by Yasmin Mai-Schoger (poetry book in German) * ''The Rise and Fall of Saxon Transylvania'' by Cătălin Gruia (in English) * The literary works of :ro:Josef Haltrich, Josef Haltrich, Transylvanian Saxon writer and collector of folktales * The literary works of :ro:Dutz Schuster, Dutz Schuster, Transylvanian Saxon writer and poet


See also

*
Association of Transylvanian Saxons in Germany The Association of Transylvanian Saxons in Germany () is a German organization formed in 1946 by Transylvanian Saxons () who were resettled in Germany from Transylvania (). Its goals are the integration of Transylvanian Saxons in Germany and the pre ...
*
Germans Germans (, ) are the natives or inhabitants of Germany, or sometimes more broadly any people who are of German descent or native speakers of the German language. The Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany, constitution of Germany, imple ...
* Germans of Romania *
Villages with fortified churches in Transylvania The Transylvania region of Romania has one of the highest concentrations of existing fortified churches from the 13th to 16th centuries. It has more than 150 well preserved fortified churches of a great variety of architectural styles (out of an o ...
* List of fortified churches in Transylvania * List of Transylvanian Saxon localities * German exonyms (Transylvania), German exonyms in Transylvania * Transylvanian rugs * Saxons in medieval Serbia * Transylvanian Saxon dialect * Siebenbürgenlied * Transylvanian Museum in Gundelsheim, Baden-Württemberg, Germany * Seat (administrative division) * The
Pied Piper of Hamelin The Pied Piper of Hamelin (, also known as the Pan Piper or the Rat-Catcher of Hamelin) is the title character of a legend from the town of Hamelin (Hameln), Lower Saxony, Germany. The legend dates back to the Middle Ages. The earliest refer ...
is said to have been inspired by a migration of Germans to Transylvania.Wolfgang Mieder. ''The Pied Piper: A Handbook''. Greenwood Press, 2007. p. 67. . Accessed via Google Books September 3, 2008. * Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–1950)


Notes


References


External links


Transylvanian Saxons: A journey through the centuries


* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yy0RjGpp3I4 Die Siebenbürger Sachsen , Die ganze Geschichte!] by the channel Germania Magna, a German-language brief documentary on the history of the Transylvanian Saxons on YouTube

* [http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.com/~bgwiehle/siebenburgen/mapframe.htm Map and list of Transylvanian Saxon villages]
An Outline of Transsilvanian-Saxon History by Klaus Popa, MA


* [http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.com/~bgwiehle/siebenburgen/sbs-namen/index.htm Transylvanian Saxon surnames]
Transylvanian placenames in different languages

General site on the Transylvanian Saxons

General forum for the Transylvanian Saxons

Alliance of Transylvanian Saxons


as spoken in Honigberg (Hărman), and compare with equivalents in English and other Germanic languages.
Article in the academic journal ''Nationalities Papers'' on Transylvanian Saxon identity between 1933 and 1944

Visual short story about the Transylvanian Saxons (with many archive images)
{{Authority control 12th-century establishments in Europe German diaspora in Europe Luxembourgian diaspora Transylvanian Saxon people Ethnic German groups in Romania, Saxons History of Transylvania History of ethnic groups in Romania Historical ethnic groups of Europe Romanian people of German descent Romanian people of Austrian descent Transylvania in the Kingdom of Hungary