Samuel Darío Maldonado Vivas
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Samuel Darío Maldonado Vivas (February 7, 1870,
Ureña Ureña or Urena may refer to: *''Urena'', a genus of plants **''Urena lobata'' *Ureña, Táchira, a community in Táchira State, Venezuela *Ureña SC, a football club in the Venezuelan Primera División, based in Ureña, Táchira * Count of Ureñ ...
,
Táchira State Táchira State (, ) is one of the 23 States of Venezuela, states of Venezuela. The state capital is San Cristóbal, Táchira, San Cristóbal. Táchira State covers a total surface area of and as of the 2011 census, had a population of 1,168,9 ...
,
Venezuela Venezuela, officially the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, is a country on the northern coast of South America, consisting of a continental landmass and many Federal Dependencies of Venezuela, islands and islets in the Caribbean Sea. It com ...
– October 6, 1925,
Caracas Caracas ( , ), officially Santiago de León de Caracas (CCS), is the capital and largest city of Venezuela, and the center of the Metropolitan Region of Caracas (or Greater Caracas). Caracas is located along the Guaire River in the northern p ...
, Venezuela) was a Venezuelan surgeon, anthropologist, writer, journalist and politician. He is known for his work as a sanitary doctor and as director of the National Health Office during the government of
Juan Vicente Gómez Juan Vicente Gómez Chacón (24 July 1857 – 17 December 1935) was a Venezuelan military general, politician and '' de facto'' ruler of Venezuela from 1908 until his death in 1935. He only officially served as president on three occasions d ...
. In the field of literature and journalism, he stood out for his poetic work, the creation of newspapers, and his opinion articles in important Venezuelan papers such as ''
El Cojo Ilustrado EL, El or el may refer to: Arts and entertainment Fictional entities * El, a character from the manga series ''Shugo Chara!'' by Peach-Pit * Eleven (''Stranger Things'') (El), a fictional character in the TV series ''Stranger Things'' * El, fami ...
'', '' El Universal'' and '' El Tiempo''. He also conducted anthropological studies on the indigenous peoples of the Venezuelan Amazon jungle and the east of the country.


Biography


Early years

Samuel Darío Maldonado was born on February 7, 1870, in Ureña, Táchira state, Venezuela. He was the son of landowner Juan Bautista Maldonado and Cornelia Vivas de Maldonado. He was the youngest of four brothers, among them General Buenaventura Macabeo Maldonado. He spent his first years in the family ranch (''hacienda'') El Pitonal, property acquired by his father in 1858. He studied at the Sagrado Corazón de Jesús de
La Grita La Grita is a town in the north west of Táchira state, Venezuela. It has a population of 80,000. Located in an Andean valley, La Grita has a beautiful natural setting and fertile land. The town includes colonial style houses and open plazas. ...
School. Although there are no precise records about his first years of education, according to what Maldonado himself stated in the essay "Carta Autocrítica" Self-critical letter" he did his primary school studies at the hacienda El Pitonal. On the other hand, his high school studies were carried out in the Colombian cities of
Cúcuta Cúcuta (), officially San José de Cúcuta, is a Colombian municipality, capital of the department of Norte de Santander and nucleus of the Metropolitan Area of Cúcuta. The city is located in the homonymous valley, at the foot of the East ...
and
Pamplona Pamplona (; ), historically also known as Pampeluna in English, is the capital city of the Navarre, Chartered Community of Navarre, in Spain. Lying at near above sea level, the city (and the wider Cuenca de Pamplona) is located on the flood pl ...
, where he graduated with a Bachelor of Science. However, according to a letter signed by students of the Colegio Superior del Táchira on April 22, 1886, in support of the students of the
Central University of Venezuela Central is an adjective usually referring to being in the center of some place or (mathematical) object. Central may also refer to: Directions and generalised locations * Central Africa, a region in the centre of Africa continent, also known as ...
(who were repressed in a protest against the government of President
Cipriano Castro José Cipriano Castro Ruiz (12 October 1858 – 4 December 1924) was a Venezuelan politician and Officer (armed forces), officer of the National Bolivarian Armed Forces of Venezuela, military who served as president of Venezuela, president from ...
), Maldonado's name appears among the signatories. For this reason, José Pascual Mora García (2009) presumes in ''Historia de la educación en Venezuela'' 'History of Education in Venezuela''that Maldonado may have belonged to that institution.


University studies

After completing his primary and high school studies, Samuel Darío Maldonado enters the University of Mérida to train as a doctor. There he also finds expression for his inclinations towards literature and journalism and in 1891 he founds the newspaper '' El Alacrán'' with his partner Alfredo Baptista Quevedo. He also encouraged the creation of an association of gentlemen from Táchira in the state of Mérida called La Colonia Tachirense, to which young men such as
Pedro María Morantes Pedro María Morantes (1865–1918) was a Venezuela Venezuela, officially the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, is a country on the northern coast of South America, consisting of a continental landmass and many Federal Dependencies of Vene ...
, Horacio Castro, Abel Santos, and Eduardo Santos belonged. In 1893 he completed his university studies at the old University of Valencia where he graduated as a Doctor in Medical Sciences after presenting his thesis in Latin, which was later published by the university. In 1900, Samuel Darío Maldonado receives the news that his brother, General Buenaventura Macabeo Maldonado, is seriously ill. He travels to Caracas to see him, but in
Maracaibo Maracaibo ( , ; ) is a city and municipality in northwestern Venezuela, on the western shore of the strait that connects Lake Maracaibo to the Gulf of Venezuela. It is the largest city in Venezuela and is List of cities in Venezuela by population ...
he is captured by officers of the government of President Cipriano Castro and transferred to La Rotunda prison, where he remained captive for a few months. In the story "''Una excursión por el Caris''" A tour of El Caris"(1970) Maldonado gives his testimony about his escape from prison. Upon reuniting with his brother, with the help of Jacinto Pastrón, both escape on a
schooner A schooner ( ) is a type of sailing ship, sailing vessel defined by its Rig (sailing), rig: fore-and-aft rigged on all of two or more Mast (sailing), masts and, in the case of a two-masted schooner, the foremast generally being shorter than t ...
to
Curaçao Curaçao, officially the Country of Curaçao, is a constituent island country within the Kingdom of the Netherlands, located in the southern Caribbean Sea (specifically the Dutch Caribbean region), about north of Venezuela. Curaçao includ ...
. Once in Curaçao, the Maldonado brothers embarked to Barranquilla, where they decided to separate: General Buenaventura Maldonado moved to Cúcuta, where he died a few months later, and Samuel Darío Maldonado traveled to Europe to continue his medical studies. However, there are different versions regarding the places and dates of such studies. According to one of his biographers, Alberto Silva Álvarez, and the American historian William M. Sullivan, Maldonado specialized in
otorhinolaryngology Otorhinolaryngology ( , abbreviated ORL and also known as otolaryngology, otolaryngology–head and neck surgery (ORL–H&N or OHNS), or ear, nose, and throat (ENT)) is a surgical subspecialty within medicine that deals with the surgical an ...
and
ophthalmology Ophthalmology (, ) is the branch of medicine that deals with the diagnosis, treatment, and surgery of eye diseases and disorders. An ophthalmologist is a physician who undergoes subspecialty training in medical and surgical eye care. Following a ...
in the United States between 1894 and 1898. Juan Contreras Serrano points out that it was in Europe where he carried out these specializations (Paris,
Vienna Vienna ( ; ; ) is the capital city, capital, List of largest cities in Austria, most populous city, and one of Federal states of Austria, nine federal states of Austria. It is Austria's primate city, with just over two million inhabitants. ...
, and
Berlin Berlin ( ; ) is the Capital of Germany, capital and largest city of Germany, by both area and List of cities in Germany by population, population. With 3.7 million inhabitants, it has the List of cities in the European Union by population withi ...
).


Professional path


Medicine

Back in Venezuela, he began to work as a surgeon for the Supreme Headquarters of the Army. Between 1910 and 1911, together with Lisandro López Viloria, he decided to practice his profession as an itinerant doctor and began to treat patients in the interior of the country, especially in the Andean states of Venezuela and in the Colombian cities of Cúcuta and Pamplona. According to the historian Alberto Silva Álvarez (1977) in ''Buenaventura Macabeo Maldonado y Samuel Darío Maldonado, hijos ilustres de Ureña'' 'Buenaventura Macabeo Maldonado and Samuel Darío Maldonado, illustrious sons of Ureña'' he explains that Dr. Samuel Darío Maldonado modified the
ophthalmoscope Ophthalmoscopy, also called funduscopy, is a test that allows a health professional to see inside the fundus of the eye and other structures using an ophthalmoscope (or funduscope). It is done as part of an eye examination and may be done as part ...
and adapted it by adding a tongue depressor with automatic closure. He also performed priority operations such as trephination of the sphenoid sinuses through the nose, scraping of the
vocal cords In humans, the vocal cords, also known as vocal folds, are folds of throat tissues that are key in creating sounds through Speech, vocalization. The length of the vocal cords affects the pitch of voice, similar to a violin string. Open when brea ...
, correction of advanced
strabismus Strabismus is an eye disorder in which the eyes do not properly align with each other when looking at an object. The eye that is pointed at an object can alternate. The condition may be present occasionally or constantly. If present during a ...
and dejection, Stake's operation for suppurative
mastoiditis Mastoiditis is the result of an infection that extends to the air cells of the skull behind the ear. Specifically, it is an inflammation of the mucosal lining of the mastoid antrum and mastoid air cell system inside the mastoid process. The ma ...
and Jansen's operation for frontal
sinusitis Sinusitis, also known as rhinosinusitis, is an inflammation of the mucous membranes that line the sinuses resulting in symptoms that may include production of thick nasal mucus, nasal congestion, facial congestion, facial pain, facial pressure ...
.


Public Office

During the government of General
Juan Vicente Gómez Juan Vicente Gómez Chacón (24 July 1857 – 17 December 1935) was a Venezuelan military general, politician and '' de facto'' ruler of Venezuela from 1908 until his death in 1935. He only officially served as president on three occasions d ...
, Maldonado was recognized as a man loyal to the Gomecista cause and served in different public positions until the day of his death. In 1908 he was appointed Minister of Public Instruction and carried out a reform of the educational system of the time. The purpose of such reform was the elaboration of a curriculum with modern methods and new ways of approaching
pedagogy Pedagogy (), most commonly understood as the approach to teaching, is the theory and practice of learning, and how this process influences, and is influenced by, the social, political, and psychological development of learners. Pedagogy, taken ...
. A year later he founded the Zamora School, which served as a model for other institutions. In April of that year, he presented a report on his administration up to that point and offered a general diagnosis of the state of Venezuelan public education. He proposed a new educational program, clarifying before the Legislative Chamber that it was necessary to give priority to cultural institutions such as the Schools of Arts and Trades since they would be a key piece in the industrialization process of Venezuela. He finished his term as Minister in 1910 and was appointed Governor of the state of Amazonas. On February 6, 1911, he arrived in
San Fernando de Atabapo San Fernando de Atabapo is a town in southern Venezuela on the border with Colombia. It was the capital city of the Amazonas state until the early 1900s. The population in 1997 was approximately 5,000. In the early twentieth century it was rul ...
where he undertook an arduous journey to inspect a practically wild territory. There he studied different indigenous communities and prepared reports on the situation of the Amazonian peoples in Venezuelan territory, recording the number of communities existing at the time. In addition, Maldonado issued the report "Informe sobre el Balatá y su explotación en el Territorio Amazonas" (1911)
Amazon Amazon most often refers to: * Amazon River, in South America * Amazon rainforest, a rainforest covering most of the Amazon basin * Amazon (company), an American multinational technology company * Amazons, a tribe of female warriors in Greek myth ...
Territory" (1911)] where the different conflicts affecting the indigenous communities at that time are exposed and where he gives indications for a protection and awareness plan. During his administration, he promulgated laws against the exploitation of
rubber Rubber, also called India rubber, latex, Amazonian rubber, ''caucho'', or ''caoutchouc'', as initially produced, consists of polymers of the organic compound isoprene, with minor impurities of other organic compounds. Types of polyisoprene ...
and the indigenous slavery that persisted in the area. These laws were in force until the end of Maldonado's term as governor. According to the author Carlos Lollet in ''Breve historia de la Bolsa de Caracas'' 'Brief History of the Caracas Stock Exchange''(1977), this and other reports written by Maldonado during his term as Governor of Amazonas have been used as reference materials in different academic specialties. That same year, in addition to serving as Governor of Amazonas, Maldonado was appointed Director of the National Health Office (''Oficina Nacional de Sanidad'') by order of the Minister of Internal Relations, General
Francisco Linares Alcántara Francisco de Paula Linares Alcántara (13 April 1825 – 30 November 1878) was the president of Venezuela (1877–1878) and a member of the Liberal Party of Venezuela. Personal life Francisco Linares Alcántara was born on 13 April 1825, in ...
. At that time, the sanitary situation of the country was quite precarious due to the frequent outbreaks of
bubonic plague Bubonic plague is one of three types of Plague (disease), plague caused by the Bacteria, bacterium ''Yersinia pestis''. One to seven days after exposure to the bacteria, flu-like symptoms develop. These symptoms include fever, headaches, and ...
, yellow fever,
smallpox Smallpox was an infectious disease caused by Variola virus (often called Smallpox virus), which belongs to the genus '' Orthopoxvirus''. The last naturally occurring case was diagnosed in October 1977, and the World Health Organization (W ...
and
malaria Malaria is a Mosquito-borne disease, mosquito-borne infectious disease that affects vertebrates and ''Anopheles'' mosquitoes. Human malaria causes Signs and symptoms, symptoms that typically include fever, Fatigue (medical), fatigue, vomitin ...
that depleted the population. Aware of the sanitary problems that afflicted the country, Samuel Darío Maldonado, through this institution, carried out a modernization of the Venezuelan sanitary system that resulted in improvements in public health services. Also, the National Health Office, under Maldonado's regency, issued statistic reports with epidemiological indexes; implemented a health certificate for workers; promulgated the first Health Law in Venezuela (1912); organized antiviral and antituberculosis vaccination campaigns, as well as an offensive against
hookworm Hookworms are Gastrointestinal tract, intestinal, Hematophagy, blood-feeding, parasitic Nematode, roundworms that cause types of infection known as helminthiases. Hookworm infection is found in many parts of the world, and is common in areas with ...
and malaria; achieved the free importation of
quinine Quinine is a medication used to treat malaria and babesiosis. This includes the treatment of malaria due to ''Plasmodium falciparum'' that is resistant to chloroquine when artesunate is not available. While sometimes used for nocturnal leg ...
and its free distribution to combat the expansion of malaria; created the first Laboratory of
Bacteriology Bacteriology is the branch and specialty of biology that studies the Morphology (biology), morphology, ecology, genetics and biochemistry of bacteria as well as many other aspects related to them. This subdivision of microbiology involves the iden ...
and the Department of Bromatological Chemistry. During this period the institution also carried out environmental sanitation and pest control (
mosquito Mosquitoes, the Culicidae, are a Family (biology), family of small Diptera, flies consisting of 3,600 species. The word ''mosquito'' (formed by ''Musca (fly), mosca'' and diminutive ''-ito'') is Spanish and Portuguese for ''little fly''. Mos ...
es and
flies Flies are insects of the Order (biology), order Diptera, the name being derived from the Ancient Greek, Greek δι- ''di-'' "two", and πτερόν ''pteron'' "wing". Insects of this order use only a single pair of wings to fly, the hindwin ...
) and outreach activities to educate on hygienic practices, among other achievements. Among the sanitary campaigns led by Maldonado, the campaign for the eradication of yellow fever and bubonic plague stands out. This campaign was harshly criticized for its environmental sanitation measures—like the felling of banana, plantain, and
papaya The papaya (, ), papaw, () or pawpaw () is the plant species ''Carica papaya'', one of the 21 accepted species in the genus '' Carica'' of the family Caricaceae, and also the name of its fruit. It was first domesticated in Mesoamerica, within ...
trees, and other types of vegetation that contributed to the formation of mosquito-breeding sites—for being considered drastic and exaggerated. Dr. Maldonado received criticism and ridicule in the national press and even anonymous threats. Faced with this state of things, on February 2, 1912, Maldonado published articles in the newspapers ''El Universal'' and ''El Tiempo'' inviting physicians and detractors of the campaign to present their arguments on scientific grounds. On February 12 of the same year, he gave a lecture on general sanitation and yellow fever at the Fine Arts Academy Hall in Caracas, amid jokes and protests from the detractors. At this event, Maldonado presented the statistics of the campaign, which revealed its progress. Despite the criticisms received the National Health Office carried out the campaign, and in April 1912 the institution announced to the Ministry of Internal Relations the eradication of the yellow fever epidemic in Caracas. On the other hand, during his three years (1911–1914) as director of the National Health Office, Maldonado was also in charge of directing and editing the monthly sanitary and demographic report, which from 1918 onwards would be known as the ''National Health Bulletin''. This publication was an important means of publicizing the activities and efforts of the institution. In 1914 he finished his service as director of the National Health Office. In 1918 he served as governor of the state of
Delta Amacuro Delta Amacuro State (, ) is one of the 23 States of Venezuela, states of Venezuela, and is the location of the Orinoco Delta. The Paria Gulf and the Atlantic Ocean are found to the north, Bolívar State (Venezuela), Bolívar State is found to th ...
, and in 1921 he was appointed President of the state of
Aragua Aragua State (, ) is one of the 23 states of Venezuela. It is located in the north-central region of Venezuela. It has plains, jungles and Caribbean beaches. The most popular beaches are Cata and Choroni. It has Venezuela's first national par ...
. In 1925 he was a Senator for the state of
Táchira Táchira State (, ) is one of the 23 States of Venezuela, states of Venezuela. The state capital is San Cristóbal, Táchira, San Cristóbal. Táchira State covers a total surface area of and as of the 2011 census, had a population of 1,168,9 ...
.


Literary career

From an early age, Samuel Darío Maldonado professed an interest in literature. According to the book ''Gente del Táchira'' 'People of Táchira''by literary critic Rafael Angarita Arvelo (1974), it is estimated that he began his literary practice when he arrived in Mérida to study medicine. There, he founded two newspapers, ''Madrépora'' (1884) and ''El Alacrán'' (1890), and together with other university classmates he kept them active during most of his career. Later, in Caracas, Maldonado began to publish poetry and polemic articles in the iconic Venezuelan newspaper ''El Cojo Ilustrado''. There, he published most of the poems that were compiled in ''Odas Vírgenes'' (his best-known collection of poems, which includes "Los Parias", "El poema de la almohada", "Buitre", among other compositions). The poem "Luis Cardozo" is one of his best-known works and was published in ''Poesías'' (1970), where Maldonado's poetic works up to 1912 were collected. Throughout his life, Samuel Darío Maldonado remained constant in producing literary works. He wrote short stories, articles, and reviews, some of which have been published. Gonzalo Picón Febres (1977) in ''Buenaventura Macabeo y Samuel Darío Maldonado, hijos ilustres de Ureña'' 'Buenaventura Macabeo y Samuel Darío Maldonado, Illustrious Sons of Ureña''ref name=":9"/> explains that his poems are characterized by the use of words that did not appear in the
Dictionary of the Royal Spanish Academy A dictionary is a listing of lexemes from the lexicon of one or more specific languages, often arranged Alphabetical order, alphabetically (or by Semitic root, consonantal root for Semitic languages or radical-and-stroke sorting, radical an ...
, as well as the Hispanicization of idioms, indigenous proverbs, and
Latin Latin ( or ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally spoken by the Latins (Italic tribe), Latins in Latium (now known as Lazio), the lower Tiber area aroun ...
words. In 1920, while governor of Delta Amacuro, he finished writing his first novel ''Tierra Nuestra'' 'Our Land'' which was published in 1921. The poet
Mariano Picón Salas Mariano Federico Picón Salas was a Venezuelan diplomatic, cultural critic and writer of the 20th century, born in Mérida ( Mérida State) on January 26, 1901, and died in Caracas on January 1, 1965. Career Among his books, his collection o ...
states concerning this novel:
"Venezuela, as seen and suffered by Samuel Darío Maldonado, parades in that narrative journey; the cultured and the barbarian, the mysteries of the primitive races and the polemics of the wise men; a Venezuelan typology that goes from the decadent literary man of Caracas to the dangerous and surly civil chief of a village and the most modest school teacher. If any book in Venezuela would deserve a detailed linguistic study, for its ''refranero'' ollection of proverbs its vernacular verses, its folkloric mass, it is this one by Maldonado." -Mariano Picón Salas.


Anthropology and Ethnology

Samuel Darío Maldonado conducted several
anthropological Anthropology is the scientific study of humanity, concerned with human behavior, human biology, cultures, societies, and linguistics, in both the present and past, including archaic humans. Social anthropology studies patterns of behaviour, wh ...
and
ethnological Ethnology (from the , meaning 'nation') is an academic field and discipline that compares and analyzes the characteristics of different peoples and the relationships between them (compare cultural anthropology, cultural, social anthropology, so ...
research projects in the country which were greatly influenced by the positivist thought that prevailed in Venezuela at that time. Some authors (Carlos M. Lollet, Gonzalo Picón Febres, Mariano Picón Salas, among others) considered Samuel Darío Maldonado as part of the third generation of Venezuelan positivist intellectuals, along with other men like
Laureano Vallenilla Lanz Laureano Vallenilla Lanz (November 10, 1870 – November 16, 1936) was a Venezuelan intellectual and sociologist who occupied the presidency of the congress for 20 years during the Gomez regime. Political career Vallenilla Lanz held a number of ...
and Pedro Manuel Arcaya. Maldonado's research specialization was indigenous ethnology, with an emphasis on the indigenous communities of Guayana. In addition, he wrote several scientific works that give testimony to his anthropological research in the Venezuelan east and jungle territory. Among his works stand out ''Defensa de la Antropología General y de Venezuela'' 'An Argument for General and Venezuelan Anthropology''and ''Descubrimiento del hueso de Incas en el territorio de Venezuela y en el Estado Lara'' 'Finding of the Inca bone in Venezuelan territory and the state of Lara'' both published in 1906. In both studies, Maldonado made statements on the concept of race which are based on the examinations he made of the collection of skulls from the Aguada Grande Cemetery (
Lara state Lara State (, ) is one of the 23 states of Venezuela. Lara is located in the Central-Western Region, Venezuela. The state capital is Barquisimeto. Lara State covers a total surface area of and, in 2015, had a census population of 2,019,211. ...
), which had been gathered by the Lara physician and researcher Rafael Freitez Pineda, as referred by Luis Molina (1990). On the other hand, the essay ''Defensa de la Antropología General y de Venezuela'' refutes the theories put forward by Doctor
José Gil Fortoul José Gil Fortoul (25 November 1861, in Barquisimeto, Lara – 15 June 1943, in Caracas) was a Venezuelan writer, historian, and politician, who was briefly the acting president of Venezuela. As a political scientist and legal scholar, he is c ...
in the book ''El hombre y la historia: ensayo de sociología venezolana'' 'Man and History: an Essay on Venezuelan Sociology''(1905) about race and
anthropophagy Anthropophagy may refer to: * Human cannibalism, the act or practice of humans eating the flesh or internal organs of other human beings ** Androphagi, an ancient Scythian tribe whose existence was recorded by ancient Greco-Roman authors ** Anthr ...
, as well as his perspective on the origin and sociocultural characteristics of the Venezuelan aboriginal peoples. Maldonado, based on several
anthropometric Anthropometry (, ) refers to the measurement of the human individual. An early tool of physical anthropology, it has been used for identification, for the purposes of understanding human physical variation, in paleoanthropology and in various a ...
data, argues that in the pre-Columbian period, several races populated the Venezuelan territory, in contrast to Gil Fortoul's ideas of the existence of a single race with variations in the American continent. The discussion between Gil Fortoul and Maldonado is considered an example of the influence that various anthropological and sociological currents of the nineteenth century had in the field of Venezuelan anthropology and social sciences. In the case of Maldonado, his ethnological and anthropological research can be connected to nineteenth-century French physical anthropology, as well as to the German
diffusionist In cultural anthropology and cultural geography, cultural diffusion, as conceptualized by Leo Frobenius in his 1897/98 publication ''Der westafrikanische Kulturkreis'', is the spread of cultural items—such as ideas, styles, religions, technolog ...
school. Maldonado was also an active member of the Venezuelan Society of Americanists, a research group dedicated to anthropology, linguistics, ethnology, folklore, and other related sciences. In addition, he was editor of the ''Revista De Re Indica'' (1918), the organization's magazine.


Other lines of work

A less studied aspect of Samuel Darío Maldonado's trajectory has been his interest in
occult The occult () is a category of esoteric or supernatural beliefs and practices which generally fall outside the scope of organized religion and science, encompassing phenomena involving a 'hidden' or 'secret' agency, such as magic and mysti ...
practices. Rafael Angarita Arvelo (1977) defines him as a "spiritualist researcher". Maldonado participated in spiritualist rites in Aragua, believed in magic, and even practiced
palmistry Palmistry is the pseudoscientific practice of fortune-telling through the study of the palm. Also known as palm reading, chiromancy, chirology or cheirology, the practice is found all over the world, with numerous cultural variations. Those w ...
. This earned him harsh criticism because the Venezuelan society of the time thought of these practices as incompatible with the exercise of science. Angarita Arvelo points out that Maldonado's approach to such practices always had scientific purposes.


Death

On October 6, 1925, Samuel Darío Maldonado died in the city of Caracas at the age of 55, due to a perforation caused by
Ulcer An ulcer is a discontinuity or break in a bodily membrane that impedes normal function of the affected organ. According to Robbins's pathology, "ulcer is the breach of the continuity of skin, epithelium or mucous membrane caused by sloughin ...
s in his stomach. The government of Juan Vicente Gómez decreed official mourning for the death of Maldonado, who at that time was Senator for the state of Táchira, and sent condolences to his wife, Mrs. Lola Bello de Maldonado. His funeral procession was surrounded by men close to the Gomecista regime, and in the state of Aragua public mourning was declared to honor his work as president.


Legacy

Samuel Darío Maldonado married Doña Dolores "Lola" Bello Torres in 1911, at the age of 45, with whom he had two sons: Dr. Iván Darío Maldonado and the physician, diplomat, and opera singer Ricardo Juan Maldonado. Samuel Darío Maldonado is considered one of the most important physicians, researchers, public officials, and poets of his time. He made relevant contributions to the field of health science, as well as to the social sciences (anthropology and ethnology) in Venezuela. In the Pitonal ranch (state of Táchira) there was a plaque in commemoration of Maldonado, and the Main Avenue of Ureña was named after the doctor in his memory. The Maldonado Municipality, founded in 1972, is one of the twenty-nine municipalities of the state of Táchira. In 1911, Maldonado acquired the El Frío Ranch in
Apure State Apure State (, ) is one of the 23 States of Venezuela, states of Venezuela. Its territory formed part of the provinces of Mérida (state), Mérida, Maracaibo, and Barinas (state), Barinas, in accordance with successive territorial ordinations ...
where, years later, his son Iván Darío Maldonado would create the El Frío Biological Station (1977), the first of its kind in Venezuela. On the other hand, some schools and hospitals have been named in his honor: the Samuel Darío Maldonado Hospital in Táchira, the Samuel Darío Maldonado Elementary School, and the Samuel and Lola Maldonado Music School (both schools located in Ureña). Currently, most of his literary and scientific work is held in the Archives of the Maldonado family.


Published works

* ''Tierra Nuestra (Por el Río Caura)'' 'Our Land (By the Caura River)'' Litografía del Comercio. Caracas, 1920. * ''Obras Varias arious Works'. Biblioteca de Temas y Autores Tachirenses. Caracas, 1961. * ''Tierra Nuestra (Por el Río Caura)'' 'Our Land (By the Caura River)'' Presidency of the Republic. Caracas, 1970. * ''Ensayos'' ssays Edition of the Ministry of Education. Caracas, 1970. * ''Poesías''. oetry National Institute of Culture and Fine Arts. Caracas, 1970. * ''Antonio José De Sucre''. Samuel Darío Maldonado (Translator), Sherwell, Guillermo. Banco Industrial de Venezuela, Caracas, 1970. * ''Temas Antropológicos, Etnológicos y otras obras'' nthropological, Ethnological, and other works Samuel Darío Maldonado. Compiled by Luis Ricardo Dávila. Universidad de los Andes (ULA). Mérida, 2007.


See also

* Buenaventura Macabeo Maldonado Vivas


References


External links

* Th
Historical Archive of the Maldonado Family
preserves almost all the literary and scientific production of Samuel Darío Maldonado Vivas, and it has information about his professional career. * Information about the life and work of Samuel Darío Maldonado Vivas can be found in the Fundación Polar'
Dictionary of the History of Venezuela
{{DEFAULTSORT:Samuel Dario Maldonado Vivas 1870 births 1925 deaths 19th-century Venezuelan writers 20th-century Venezuelan writers 19th-century Venezuelan physicians Venezuelan anthropologists Venezuelan journalists Education ministers of Venezuela Governors of Amazonas (Venezuelan state) Governors of Aragua Venezuelan surgeons Members of the Senate of Venezuela People from Táchira Juan Vicente Gómez ministers 20th-century Venezuelan physicians