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The Rashidun Caliphate () is a title given for the reigns of first
caliph A caliphate ( ) is an institution or public office under the leadership of an Islamic steward with Khalifa, the title of caliph (; , ), a person considered a political–religious successor to the Islamic prophet Muhammad and a leader of ...
s (lit. "successors") —
Abu Bakr Abd Allah ibn Abi Quhafa (23 August 634), better known by his ''Kunya (Arabic), kunya'' Abu Bakr, was a senior Sahaba, companion, the closest friend, and father-in-law of Muhammad. He served as the first caliph of the Rashidun Caliphate, ruli ...
,
Umar Umar ibn al-Khattab (; ), also spelled Omar, was the second Rashidun caliph, ruling from August 634 until his assassination in 644. He succeeded Abu Bakr () and is regarded as a senior companion and father-in-law of the Islamic prophet Mu ...
, Uthman, and Ali collectively — believed to represent the perfect Islam and governance who led the Muslim community and
polity A polity is a group of people with a collective identity, who are organized by some form of political Institutionalisation, institutionalized social relations, and have a capacity to mobilize resources. A polity can be any group of people org ...
from the death of the Islamic prophet
Muhammad Muhammad (8 June 632 CE) was an Arab religious and political leader and the founder of Islam. Muhammad in Islam, According to Islam, he was a prophet who was divinely inspired to preach and confirm the tawhid, monotheistic teachings of A ...
(in 632 AD), to the establishment of the
Umayyad Caliphate The Umayyad Caliphate or Umayyad Empire (, ; ) was the second caliphate established after the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and was ruled by the Umayyad dynasty. Uthman ibn Affan, the third of the Rashidun caliphs, was also a member o ...
(in 661 AD). The reign of these four caliphs is considered in
Sunni Islam Sunni Islam is the largest Islamic schools and branches, branch of Islam and the largest religious denomination in the world. It holds that Muhammad did not appoint any Succession to Muhammad, successor and that his closest companion Abu Bakr ...
to have been "rightly-guided", meaning that it constitutes a model to be followed and emulated from a religious point of view. This term is not used by Shia Muslims, who reject the rule of the first three caliphs as illegitimate. Following Muhammad's death in June 632, Muslim leaders debated who should succeed him. Unlike later caliphs, Rashidun were often chosen by some form of a small group of high-ranking companions of the Prophet in () or appointed by their predecessor. Muhammad's close companion Abu Bakr (), of the Banu Taym clan, was elected the first caliph in
Medina Medina, officially al-Madinah al-Munawwarah (, ), also known as Taybah () and known in pre-Islamic times as Yathrib (), is the capital of Medina Province (Saudi Arabia), Medina Province in the Hejaz region of western Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, ...
and began the conquest of the Arabian Peninsula. The only Rashidun not to die by assassination, he was succeeded by Umar (), his appointed successor from the Banu Adi clan. Under Umar, the caliphate expanded at an unprecedented rate, conquering more than two-thirds of the
Byzantine Empire The Byzantine Empire, also known as the Eastern Roman Empire, was the continuation of the Roman Empire centred on Constantinople during late antiquity and the Middle Ages. Having survived History of the Roman Empire, the events that caused the ...
and nearly the entire
Sasanian Empire The Sasanian Empire (), officially Eranshahr ( , "Empire of the Iranian peoples, Iranians"), was an List of monarchs of Iran, Iranian empire that was founded and ruled by the House of Sasan from 224 to 651. Enduring for over four centuries, th ...
. After Umar's assassination, Uthman (), a member of the Banu Umayya (Umayyad) clan, was chosen as caliph. He concluded the conquest of Persia in 651 and continued expeditions into the Byzantine territories. Uthman was assassinated in June 656 and succeeded by Ali (), a member of the
Banu Hashim Banu Hashim () is an Arab clan within the Quraysh tribe to which the Islamic prophet Muhammad belonged, named after Muhammad's great-grandfather Hashim ibn Abd Manaf. Members of this clan, and especially their descendants, are also referred ...
clan, who transferred the capital to
Kufa Kufa ( ), also spelled Kufah, is a city in Iraq, about south of Baghdad, and northeast of Najaf. It is located on the banks of the Euphrates, Euphrates River. The estimated population in 2003 was 110,000. Along with Samarra, Karbala, Kadhimiya ...
. Ali presided over the civil war called the
First Fitna The First Fitna () was the first civil war in the Islamic community. It led to the overthrow of the Rashidun and the establishment of the Umayyad Caliphate. The civil war involved three main battles between the fourth Rashidun caliph, Ali, an ...
as his
suzerainty A suzerain (, from Old French "above" + "supreme, chief") is a person, state (polity)">state or polity who has supremacy and dominant influence over the foreign policy">polity.html" ;"title="state (polity)">state or polity">state (polity)">st ...
was unrecognized by Uthman's kinsman and Syria's governor Mu'awiya ibn Abu Sufyan (), who believed that Uthman's murderers should be punished immediately. Additionally, a third faction known as Kharijites, who were former supporters of Ali, rebelled against both Ali and Mu'awiya after refusing to accept the arbitration in the
Battle of Siffin The Battle of Siffin () was fought in 657 CE (37 Islamic calendar, AH) between the fourth Rashidun caliph Ali ibn Abi Talib and the rebellious governor of Syria (region), Syria Muawiyah I, Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan. The battle is named after its ...
. The war led to the overthrow of the Rashidun Caliphate and the establishment of the Umayyad Caliphate in 661 by Mu'awiya.


Name and definitions

Derived from the Arabic word rushd, rāshid (rāshid راشد) means "one who has attained the right path or maturity", al-Khulafāʾ ar-Rāšidūn (الْخُلَفاءُ الرّاشِدُونَ) is an honorific title meaning "successors or representatives who have been guided to the right path". This also implies that they were endowed with superior piety and wisdom, and supports the deeply held belief that their era was a "golden age" following Muhammad in holiness, moral and religious guidance. It was in the 9th century, during the Abbasid era, that these first caliphs were first qualified as . In addition, a Sunni
hadith Hadith is the Arabic word for a 'report' or an 'account f an event and refers to the Islamic oral tradition of anecdotes containing the purported words, actions, and the silent approvals of the Islamic prophet Muhammad or his immediate circle ...
, attributed to Muhammad predicted that the prophetic succession would last for thirty years, which have been interpreted by some Sunni scholars as evidence that Hasan's six-month caliphate was "rightly-guided" also. These caliphs were the "orthodox" or "patriarchal" caliphs accepted by the majority in Islamic history. However, in the Shiite understanding of Islam, the material and spiritual heritage of Muhammad including governance power was represented by the Imams who were his descendants (except for the 1st Imam Ali), the numbers of which varied according to the Shiite subgroups, and just like the Umayyad and Abbasid caliphs, the Rashidun caliphs, except for Ali and Hasan, were the individuals who usurped this right.
Ibadism Ibadism (, ) is a school of Islam concentrated in Oman established from within the Kharijites. The followers of the Ibadi sect are known as the Ibadis or, as they call themselves, The People of Truth and Integrity (). Ibadism emerged around 6 ...
does not see the caliphate as an institution that includes all believers and must be obeyed; it also sees the two caliphs after Muhammad as being on the right path and the others as having strayed into injustice.


Historicity

The stories were written “a posteriori” in the form of “founding conquest stories” based on nostalgia for the golden age in Abbasids time. Humphrey, quoted by Antoine Borrut, explains that the stories related to this period were created according to a pact-betrayal-redemption principle. However, at least one inscription has been found dating to the period that mentions
Umar Umar ibn al-Khattab (; ), also spelled Omar, was the second Rashidun caliph, ruling from August 634 until his assassination in 644. He succeeded Abu Bakr () and is regarded as a senior companion and father-in-law of the Islamic prophet Mu ...
by name and the date of his death, known as the inscription of Zuhayr. Its three lines read: # In the name of God # I, Zuhayr, wrote (this) at the time Umar died, year four # And twenty Robert G. Hoyland, finds it "all but certain" that the inscription refers to the historical
Umar Umar ibn al-Khattab (; ), also spelled Omar, was the second Rashidun caliph, ruling from August 634 until his assassination in 644. He succeeded Abu Bakr () and is regarded as a senior companion and father-in-law of the Islamic prophet Mu ...
, adding, "and yet the absence of any epithet or title is striking". Graphites may be susceptible to alternative readings due to the erasure of letters by environmental influences and inadequate writing system, and unless specifically stated, dating can only be done approximately based on the "writing style". Other possible mentions in inscriptions from that era could be read as Amr or Usthman Ibn Affan include: an inscription at Tayma, Saudi Arabia, and one at the Alia Palace archaeological site in Makkah Province, Saudi Arabia.
Coins A coin is a small object, usually round and flat, used primarily as a medium of exchange or legal tender. They are standardized in weight, and produced in large quantities at a mint in order to facilitate trade. They are most often issued by ...
: Unlike known historical figures such as Ibn Zubayr and
Mu'awiya I Mu'awiya I (–April 680) was the founder and first caliph of the Umayyad Caliphate, ruling from 661 until his death. He became caliph less than thirty years after the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and immediately after the four Rashid ...
who lived during this period, there are no coins minted in the name of these caliphs that could be evidence of political power. The coins in circulation during the specified period contain two types of designs: 1. Byzantine type; This was presented with Islamic writings added to Byzantine kings and Christian figures. 2. Sassanid type; This type was presented with Zoroastrian figures and Arab-Islamic inscriptions added onto the pictures of the last Sassanid rulers. In the world of Islamic literature, a tradition of "letter writing" can be mentioned under the names of Maktubat, Risalat, etc., and a large number of letters attributed to Umar, as well as Muhammad, which need to be scientifically verified, continue to be the subject of various religious-legal studies.


History


Background

According to the traditional account, the
Islamic prophet Prophets in Islam () are individuals in Islam who are believed to spread God's message on Earth and serve as models of ideal human behaviour. Some prophets are categorized as messengers (; sing. , ), those who transmit divine revelation, mos ...
Muhammad Muhammad (8 June 632 CE) was an Arab religious and political leader and the founder of Islam. Muhammad in Islam, According to Islam, he was a prophet who was divinely inspired to preach and confirm the tawhid, monotheistic teachings of A ...
began receiving what Muslims consider to be divine revelations in 610 CE, calling for submission to the one God, preparation for the imminent Last Judgement, and charity for the poor and needy. As Muhammad's message began to attract followers (the ''ṣaḥāba'') he also met with increasing hostility and persecution from Meccan elites. In 622 CE Muhammad migrated to the city of Yathrib (now known as
Medina Medina, officially al-Madinah al-Munawwarah (, ), also known as Taybah () and known in pre-Islamic times as Yathrib (), is the capital of Medina Province (Saudi Arabia), Medina Province in the Hejaz region of western Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, ...
), where he began to unify the
tribes of Arabia The tribes of Arabia () have inhabited the Arabian Peninsula for thousands of years and traditionally trace their ancestry to one of two forefathers: Adnan, whose descendants originate from Hejaz, West Arabia, Syrian Desert, North Arabia, East Ara ...
under Islam, returning to Mecca to take control in 630 and order the destruction of all pagan idols. By the time Muhammad died (632 CE), almost all the tribes of the
Arabian Peninsula The Arabian Peninsula (, , or , , ) or Arabia, is a peninsula in West Asia, situated north-east of Africa on the Arabian plate. At , comparable in size to India, the Arabian Peninsula is the largest peninsula in the world. Geographically, the ...
had converted to Islam, but disagreement broke out over who would succeed him as leader of the Muslim community during the Rashidun Caliphate. Among those seeking to be the successor of Muhammad were: * the
Quraysh The Quraysh () are an Tribes of Arabia, Arab tribe who controlled Mecca before the rise of Islam. Their members were divided into ten main clans, most notably including the Banu Hashim, into which Islam's founding prophet Muhammad was born. By ...
tribe Companions of the Prophet known as " The ten to whom Paradise was promised" by Muhammad (''al-ʿashara al-mubashsharūn''), including
Abu Bakr Abd Allah ibn Abi Quhafa (23 August 634), better known by his ''Kunya (Arabic), kunya'' Abu Bakr, was a senior Sahaba, companion, the closest friend, and father-in-law of Muhammad. He served as the first caliph of the Rashidun Caliphate, ruli ...
,
Umar Umar ibn al-Khattab (; ), also spelled Omar, was the second Rashidun caliph, ruling from August 634 until his assassination in 644. He succeeded Abu Bakr () and is regarded as a senior companion and father-in-law of the Islamic prophet Mu ...
, Abu Ubayda ibn al-Jarrah, Uthman, Talha ibn Ubayd Allah Zubayr ibn al-Awwam,
Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas ibn Wuhayb al-Zuhri () was an Arabs, Arab Muslims, Muslim commander. He was the founder of Kufa and served as its governor under Umar, Umar ibn al-Khattab. He played a leading role in the Muslim conquest of Persia and was a cl ...
, and
Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn ʿAwf (; born ʿAbd Amr ibn ʿAwf; ) was one of the companions of the Islamic Prophet Muhammad. One of the wealthiest among the companions, he is known for being one of the ten to whom Paradise was promised. Background ...
; *
Banu Hashim Banu Hashim () is an Arab clan within the Quraysh tribe to which the Islamic prophet Muhammad belonged, named after Muhammad's great-grandfather Hashim ibn Abd Manaf. Members of this clan, and especially their descendants, are also referred ...
; members of the Hashemite clan including Ali and
Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib Al-Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib () was a paternal uncle and sahabi (companion) of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, just three years older than his nephew. A wealthy merchant, during the early years of Islam he protected Muhammad while he was in Mecca, ...
, who were the closest blood relatives to Muhammad; * Ansar; the people of Medina who "fed up" with being dominated by refugees from Mecca. * members of the aristocratic Umayyad clan who had a strong position in Mecca and strong commercial and financial ties.


Timeline

ImageSize = width:700 height:60 PlotArea = width:680 height:30 left:10 bottom:20 Colors = id:yellow value:rgb(0.7,0.7,1) # light yellow id:red value:rgb(1,0.7,0.7) # light red id:green value:rgb(0.7,1,0.7) # light green id:blue value:rgb(1,1,0.7) # light blue id:cyan value:rgb(0.7,1,1) # light blue id:purple value:rgb(1,0.7,1) # light purple id:grey value:gray(0.8) # grey Period = from:630 till:665 TimeAxis = orientation:horizontal ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:5 start:630 ScaleMinor = unit:year increment:1 start:632 BarData= bar:barre1 PlotData= align:center textcolor:black fontsize:8 mark:(line,black) shift:(0,-5) bar:barre1 from: 632 till: 634 color:orange text:
Abu Bakr Abd Allah ibn Abi Quhafa (23 August 634), better known by his ''Kunya (Arabic), kunya'' Abu Bakr, was a senior Sahaba, companion, the closest friend, and father-in-law of Muhammad. He served as the first caliph of the Rashidun Caliphate, ruli ...
from: 634 till: 644 color:yellow text:
Umar Umar ibn al-Khattab (; ), also spelled Omar, was the second Rashidun caliph, ruling from August 634 until his assassination in 644. He succeeded Abu Bakr () and is regarded as a senior companion and father-in-law of the Islamic prophet Mu ...
from: 644 till: 656 color:blue text:
Uthman ibn Affan Uthman ibn Affan (17 June 656) was the third caliph of the Rashidun Caliphate, ruling from 644 until Assassination of Uthman, his assassination in 656. Uthman, a second cousin, son-in-law, and notable Companions of the Prophet, companion of ...
from: 656 till: 661 color:red text: Ali
(Note that a caliph's succession does not necessarily occur on the first day of the new year.) *


Abu Bakr's reign (632–634)


Origin and accession to Caliphate

After Muhammad's death in 632 AD (11 AH), a gathering of the Ansar (), the natives of Medina, took place in the ''Saqifah'' (courtyard) of the Banu Sa'ida clan. The general belief at the time was that the purpose of the meeting was for the Ansar to decide on a new leader of the Muslim community among themselves, with the intentional exclusion of the Muhajirun (migrants from
Mecca Mecca, officially Makkah al-Mukarramah, is the capital of Mecca Province in the Hejaz region of western Saudi Arabia; it is the Holiest sites in Islam, holiest city in Islam. It is inland from Jeddah on the Red Sea, in a narrow valley above ...
), though this has later become the subject of debate. Nevertheless, Abu Bakr and Umar, both prominent companions of Muhammad, upon learning of the meeting became concerned about a potential coup and hastened to the gathering. Upon arriving, Abu Bakr addressed the assembled men with a warning that any attempt to elect a leader outside of Muhammad's own tribe, the
Quraysh The Quraysh () are an Tribes of Arabia, Arab tribe who controlled Mecca before the rise of Islam. Their members were divided into ten main clans, most notably including the Banu Hashim, into which Islam's founding prophet Muhammad was born. By ...
, would likely result in dissension as only they can command the necessary respect among the community. He then took Umar and another companion, Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah, by the hand and offered them to the Ansar as potential choices. He was countered with the suggestion that the Quraysh and the Ansar choose a leader each from among themselves, who would then rule jointly. The group grew heated upon hearing this proposal and began to argue amongst themselves. Umar hastily took Abu Bakr's hand and swore his own allegiance to the latter, an example followed by Abu Ubayda ibn al-Jarrah, the Ansar, the
Quraysh The Quraysh () are an Tribes of Arabia, Arab tribe who controlled Mecca before the rise of Islam. Their members were divided into ten main clans, most notably including the Banu Hashim, into which Islam's founding prophet Muhammad was born. By ...
tribe and other gathered men. Abu Bakr adopted the title of ''Khalīfaṫ Rasūl Allāh'' (, "Successor of the Messenger of God") or simply caliph. Sunni Muslims argue Abu Bakr was near-universally accepted as head of the Muslim community (under the title of Caliph) as a result of Saqifah, though he did face contention as a result of the rushed nature of the event. Shia Muslims argue Muhammad's
Medina Medina, officially al-Madinah al-Munawwarah (, ), also known as Taybah () and known in pre-Islamic times as Yathrib (), is the capital of Medina Province (Saudi Arabia), Medina Province in the Hejaz region of western Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, ...
n companions debated which of them should succeed him in running the affairs of the
Muslims Muslims () are people who adhere to Islam, a Monotheism, monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God ...
while Muhammad's household was busy with his burial. Several companions, most prominent among them being Ali ibn Abi Talib, initially refused to acknowledge his authority. Ali may have been reasonably expected to assume leadership, being both cousin and son-in-law to Muhammad. The theologian Ibrahim al-Nakha'i stated that Ali also had support among the Ansar for his succession, explained by the genealogical links he shared with them. Whether his candidacy for the succession was raised during Saqifah is unknown, though it is not unlikely. Abu Bakr later sent Umar to confront Ali to gain his allegiance, resulting in an altercation which may have involved violence. However, after six months, the group made peace with Abu Bakr and Ali offered him his fealty. In addition, some (Chamieh) argue that the dissension of most of the tribes that had submitted to Islam (along with Ali) demonstrated not disbelief but that Abu Bakr did not have a consensus of the Muslim community to be Caliph.


Ridda Wars

Troubles emerged soon after Muhammad's death, threatening the unity and stability of the new community and state.
Apostasy Apostasy (; ) is the formal religious disaffiliation, disaffiliation from, abandonment of, or renunciation of a religion by a person. It can also be defined within the broader context of embracing an opinion that is contrary to one's previous re ...
(in the form of refusal to obey and pay revenue to Abu Bakr), spread to every tribe in the
Arabian Peninsula The Arabian Peninsula (, , or , , ) or Arabia, is a peninsula in West Asia, situated north-east of Africa on the Arabian plate. At , comparable in size to India, the Arabian Peninsula is the largest peninsula in the world. Geographically, the ...
with the exception of the people in
Mecca Mecca, officially Makkah al-Mukarramah, is the capital of Mecca Province in the Hejaz region of western Saudi Arabia; it is the Holiest sites in Islam, holiest city in Islam. It is inland from Jeddah on the Red Sea, in a narrow valley above ...
and
Medina Medina, officially al-Madinah al-Munawwarah (, ), also known as Taybah () and known in pre-Islamic times as Yathrib (), is the capital of Medina Province (Saudi Arabia), Medina Province in the Hejaz region of western Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, ...
, the Banu Thaqif in
Ta'if Taif (, ) is a city and governorate in Mecca Province in Saudi Arabia. Located at an elevation of in the slopes of the Hijaz Mountains, which themselves are part of the Sarawat Mountains, Sarat Mountains, the city has a population of 563,282 pe ...
, and the Bani Abdul Qais of
Oman Oman, officially the Sultanate of Oman, is a country located on the southeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula in West Asia and the Middle East. It shares land borders with Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, and Yemen. Oman’s coastline ...
. In some cases, entire tribes apostatised. Others merely withheld
zakat Zakat (or Zakāh زكاة) is one of the Five Pillars of Islam. Zakat is the Arabic word for "Giving to Charity" or "Giving to the Needy". Zakat is a form of almsgiving, often collected by the Muslim Ummah. It is considered in Islam a relig ...
, the alms tax, without formally challenging Islam. Many tribal leaders made claims to prophethood; some made it during the lifetime of Muhammad. The first incident of apostasy was fought and concluded while Muhammad still lived; a supposed prophet Aswad Ansi arose and invaded
South Arabia South Arabia (), or Greater Yemen, is a historical region that consists of the southern region of the Arabian Peninsula in West Asia, mainly centered in what is now the Republic of Yemen, yet it has also historically included Najran, Jazan, ...
; he was killed on 30 May 632 (6 Rabi' al-Awwal, 11 Hijri) by Governor Fērōz of Yemen, a Persian Muslim. The news of his death reached Medina shortly after the death of Muhammad. The apostasy of al-Yamama was led by another supposed prophet, Musaylimah,Gianluca Paolo Parolin, ''Citizenship in the Arab World: Kin, Religion and Nation-state'' ( Amsterdam University Press, 2009), p. 52. who arose before Muhammad's death; other centers of the rebels were in the Najd,
Eastern Arabia Eastern Arabia () is a region stretched from Basra to Khasab along the Persian Gulf coast and included parts of modern-day Bahrain, Iraq, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia (Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia, Eastern Province), and the United Arab ...
(known then as ''al-Bahrayn'') and South Arabia (known as ''al-Yaman'' and including the ''Mahra''). Many tribes claimed that they had submitted to Muhammad and that with Muhammad's death, their allegiance was ended. Caliph Abu Bakr insisted that they had not just submitted to a leader but joined an ''
ummah ' (; ) is an Arabic word meaning Muslim identity, nation, religious community, or the concept of a Commonwealth of the Muslim Believers ( '). It is a synonym for ' (, lit. 'the Islamic nation'); it is commonly used to mean the collective com ...
'' (, community) of which he was the new head. The result of this situation was the
Ridda wars The Ridda Wars were a series of military campaigns launched by the first caliph Abu Bakr against rebellious Arabian tribes, some of which were led by rival prophet claimants. They began shortly after the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad in ...
. The campaign against Apostasy or Ridda wars were fought and completed during the eleventh year of the Hijri. The year 12 Hijri dawned on 18 March 633 with the Arabian peninsula united under the caliph in Medina. Abu Bakr divided the Muslim army into several corps. The strongest corps and the primary force of the Muslims was the corps of Khalid ibn al-Walid. This corps was used to fight the most powerful of the rebel forces. Other corps were given areas of secondary importance in which to bring the less dangerous apostate tribes to submission. Abu Bakr's plan was first to clear Najd and Western Arabia near Medina, then tackle Malik ibn Nuwayrah and his forces between the Najd and al-Bahrayn, and finally concentrate against the most dangerous enemy, Musaylimah and his allies in al-Yamama. After a series of successful campaigns Khalid ibn al-Walid defeated Musaylimah in the Battle of Yamama.


Expeditions to Persia and Syria

After Abu Bakr unified Arabia under Islam, he began the incursions into the
Byzantine Empire The Byzantine Empire, also known as the Eastern Roman Empire, was the continuation of the Roman Empire centred on Constantinople during late antiquity and the Middle Ages. Having survived History of the Roman Empire, the events that caused the ...
and the
Sasanian Empire The Sasanian Empire (), officially Eranshahr ( , "Empire of the Iranian peoples, Iranians"), was an List of monarchs of Iran, Iranian empire that was founded and ruled by the House of Sasan from 224 to 651. Enduring for over four centuries, th ...
. Whether or not he intended a full-out imperial conquest is hard to say; he did, however, set in motion a historical trajectory that in just a few short decades would lead to one of the largest empires in history. Abu Bakr began with
Iraq Iraq, officially the Republic of Iraq, is a country in West Asia. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to Iraq–Saudi Arabia border, the south, Turkey to Iraq–Turkey border, the north, Iran to Iran–Iraq border, the east, the Persian Gulf and ...
, the richest province of the
Sasanian Empire The Sasanian Empire (), officially Eranshahr ( , "Empire of the Iranian peoples, Iranians"), was an List of monarchs of Iran, Iranian empire that was founded and ruled by the House of Sasan from 224 to 651. Enduring for over four centuries, th ...
.''The Arab Conquest of Iran and its Aftermath'', 'Abd Al-Husein Zarrinkub, ''The Cambridge History of Iran'', Volume 4, ed. William Bayne Fisher,
Richard Nelson Frye Richard Nelson Frye (January 10, 1920 – March 27, 2014) was an American scholar of Iranian studies, Iranian and Central Asian studies, and Aga Khan Professor Emeritus of Iranian Studies at Harvard University. His professional areas of inte ...
(
Cambridge University Press Cambridge University Press was the university press of the University of Cambridge. Granted a letters patent by King Henry VIII in 1534, it was the oldest university press in the world. Cambridge University Press merged with Cambridge Assessme ...
, 1999), 5–6.
He sent general Khalid ibn al-Walid to invade the Sassanian Empire in 633. He thereafter also sent four armies to invade the Roman province of
Syria Syria, officially the Syrian Arab Republic, is a country in West Asia located in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Levant. It borders the Mediterranean Sea to the west, Turkey to Syria–Turkey border, the north, Iraq to Iraq–Syria border, t ...
, but the decisive operation was only undertaken when Khalid, after completing the conquest of Iraq, was transferred to the Syrian front in 634.


Umar's reign (634–644)

Umar ibn al-Khattab (, c. 586/590 – 644) c. 2 November ( Dhu al-Hijjah 26, 23 Hijri) was a leading companion and adviser to Muhammad, and father-in-law by his daughter Hafsa bint Umar's marriage to Muhammad. He was appointed by a dying Abu Bakr to be his successor and took power on 23 August 634, becoming the second Muslim caliph after Muhammad's death. At least according to Laura Veccia Vaglieri, the expansion of Islam from an "isolated episode" in Arab history to an event of "worldwide importance" can be attributed to Umar's political skills. Upon his accession, Umar adopted the title (Commander of the Faithful) which later became the standard title of caliphs. During his 10-year reign, the Islamic empire expanded at an unprecedented rate. The new caliph continued the war of conquests begun by his predecessor, pushing further into the
Sassanian Empire The Sasanian Empire (), officially Eranshahr ( , "Empire of the Iranian peoples, Iranians"), was an List of monarchs of Iran, Iranian empire that was founded and ruled by the House of Sasan from 224 to 651. Enduring for over four centuries, th ...
, north into
Byzantine The Byzantine Empire, also known as the Eastern Roman Empire, was the continuation of the Roman Empire centred on Constantinople during late antiquity and the Middle Ages. Having survived the events that caused the fall of the Western Roman E ...
territory, and went into
Egypt Egypt ( , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a country spanning the Northeast Africa, northeast corner of Africa and Western Asia, southwest corner of Asia via the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to northe ...
. These were regions of great wealth controlled by powerful states, but the long conflict between Byzantines and Persians had left both sides militarily exhausted, and the Islamic armies easily prevailed against them. By 640, they had brought all of
Mesopotamia Mesopotamia is a historical region of West Asia situated within the Tigris–Euphrates river system, in the northern part of the Fertile Crescent. Today, Mesopotamia is known as present-day Iraq and forms the eastern geographic boundary of ...
,
Syria Syria, officially the Syrian Arab Republic, is a country in West Asia located in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Levant. It borders the Mediterranean Sea to the west, Turkey to Syria–Turkey border, the north, Iraq to Iraq–Syria border, t ...
and
Palestine Palestine, officially the State of Palestine, is a country in West Asia. Recognized by International recognition of Palestine, 147 of the UN's 193 member states, it encompasses the Israeli-occupied West Bank, including East Jerusalem, and th ...
under the control of the Rashidun Caliphate; Egypt was conquered by 642, and almost the entire Sassanian Empire by 643. While the caliphate continued its rapid expansion, Umar laid the foundations of a political structure that could hold it together. He created the Diwan, a bureau for transacting government affairs. The military was brought directly under state control and into its pay. Crucially, in conquered lands, Umar did not require that non-Muslim populations convert to Islam, nor did he try to centralize government. Instead, he allowed subject populations to retain their religion, language, and customs, and he left their government relatively untouched, imposing only a governor (''
amir Emir (; ' (), also transliterated as amir, is a word of Arabic origin that can refer to a male monarch, aristocrat, holder of high-ranking military or political office, or other person possessing actual or ceremonial authority. The title has ...
'') and a financial officer called an ''amil''. These new posts were integral to the efficient network of taxation that financed the empire. With the bounty secured from conquest, Umar was able to support its faith in material ways: the companions of Muhammad were given pensions on which to live, allowing them to pursue religious studies and exercise spiritual leadership in their communities and beyond. Upon entering Jerusalem, Umar ordered that rubbish be cleared away from the mount of the Temple of Solomon and that a mosque be built there. Jebran Chamieh writes that Muslim stories passed down after his death stress Umar's "asceticism, his care for the poor, and ... for public money. Tradition claims that he had a single threadbare dress thawb which he patched with leather whenever it was torn. The purpose of these tales was to emphasize his piety and abnegation, and that he did not take money from the treasury", however history books make no mention of Omar ever donating "his share to the treasury or to the poor". It is difficult to reconcile these stories of self-denial "with the fact that the other leading Companions amassed great wealth", and Umar's share of the spoils from the conquered lands was at least equal to their shares. Umar is also remembered for establishing the Islamic calendar; like the Arabian calendar, it is lunar, but the origin is set in 622, the year of the Hijra when Muhammad emigrated to Medina. While Umar was leading the morning prayers in 644, he was assassinated by the Persian slave Abu Lu'lu'a Firuz. He appointed Suhayb ibn Sinan to lead the prayers.


Uthman's reign (644–656)

Uthman ibn Affan () (c. 573 – 17 June 656), who became the third caliph at the age of 70, was one of the early companions, and son in law of Muhammad by marriage to two of Muhammad and Khadija daughters Ruqayyah and
Umm Kulthum Umm Kulthum (; 31 December 1898 – 3 February 1975) was an Egyptians, Egyptian singer and film actress active from the 1920s to the 1970s. She was given the honorific title (). Immensely popular throughout the Middle East and beyond, Umm Kul ...
. Uthman was born into the powerful Umayyad clan of the Meccan
Quraysh tribe The Quraysh () are an Arab tribe who controlled Mecca before the rise of Islam. Their members were divided into ten main clans, most notably including the Banu Hashim, into which Islam's founding prophet Muhammad was born. By the seventh centu ...
. Under his leadership, the empire expanded into Fars (present-day Iran), some of Khorasan (present-day Afghanistan), and Armenia. His rule ended when he was assassinated. Uthman is perhaps best known for forming the
committee A committee or commission is a body of one or more persons subordinate to a deliberative assembly or other form of organization. A committee may not itself be considered to be a form of assembly or a decision-making body. Usually, an assembly o ...
which standardised and canonised the Quran.


Election of Uthman

Before Umar died, he appointed a committee of six men to decide on the next caliph and charged them with choosing one of their own numbers. All of the men, like Umar, were from the tribe of Quraysh. His plan for choosing the next Caliph has been criticised its small size and unrepresentativeness, which excluded Muslims from Medina, Mecca, Tayef, and other tribes; for Umar's choice of people whom he considered unfit they were for the position of Caliph (Something he told one by one to their face), for his inclusion of a tie breaking seventh member who would be sure to veto Ali, and for instructions to a henchman to execute committee members if the committee was deadlocked. The committee narrowed down the choices to two: Uthman and Ali. Ali was from the Banu Hashim clan (the same clan as Muhammad) of the Quraysh tribe, and he was the cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad and had been one of his companions from the inception of his mission. Uthman was from the
Umayyad The Umayyad Caliphate or Umayyad Empire (, ; ) was the second caliphate established after the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and was ruled by the Umayyad dynasty. Uthman ibn Affan, the third of the Rashidun caliphs, was also a membe ...
clan of the Quraysh. He was the second cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad and one of the early converts of Islam. Uthman was ultimately chosen.


Reign of Uthman

Uthman reigned for twelve years as a caliph. During the first half of his reign, he was the most popular caliph among all the
Rashidun The Rashidun () are the first four caliphs () who led the Muslim community following the death of Muhammad: Abu Bakr (), Umar (), Uthman (), and Ali (). The reign of these caliphs, called the Rashidun Caliphate (632–661), is considered i ...
s, while in the latter half of his reign, he met increasing opposition, led by the Egyptians and concentrated around Ali, who would albeit briefly, succeed Uthman as caliph. Uthman's most lasting project was the final compilation of the Qur'an. Uthman formed the
committee A committee or commission is a body of one or more persons subordinate to a deliberative assembly or other form of organization. A committee may not itself be considered to be a form of assembly or a decision-making body. Usually, an assembly o ...
which was tasked with producing copies of the
Quran The Quran, also Romanization, romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a Waḥy, revelation directly from God in Islam, God (''Allah, Allāh''). It is organized in 114 chapters (, ) which ...
based on text that had been gathered separately on parchment, bones and rocks during the lifetime of Muhammad. Under his authority diacritics were written with Arabic letters so that non-native speakers of Arabic could easily read the Qur'an. Uthman sent copies of the sacred text to each of the Muslim cities and garrison towns and destroyed variant texts. Despite internal troubles, Uthman continued the wars of conquest started by Umar. The
Rashidun army The Rashidun army () was the core of the Rashidun Caliphate's armed forces during the early Muslim conquests in the 7th century. The army is reported to have maintained a high level of discipline, strategic prowess and organization, grantin ...
conquered
North Africa North Africa (sometimes Northern Africa) is a region encompassing the northern portion of the African continent. There is no singularly accepted scope for the region. However, it is sometimes defined as stretching from the Atlantic shores of t ...
from the
Byzantine The Byzantine Empire, also known as the Eastern Roman Empire, was the continuation of the Roman Empire centred on Constantinople during late antiquity and the Middle Ages. Having survived the events that caused the fall of the Western Roman E ...
s and even raided Spain, conquering the coastal areas of the
Iberian Peninsula The Iberian Peninsula ( ), also known as Iberia, is a peninsula in south-western Europe. Mostly separated from the rest of the European landmass by the Pyrenees, it includes the territories of peninsular Spain and Continental Portugal, comprisin ...
, as well as the islands of
Rhodes Rhodes (; ) is the largest of the Dodecanese islands of Greece and is their historical capital; it is the List of islands in the Mediterranean#By area, ninth largest island in the Mediterranean Sea. Administratively, the island forms a separ ...
and
Cyprus Cyprus (), officially the Republic of Cyprus, is an island country in the eastern Mediterranean Sea. Situated in West Asia, its cultural identity and geopolitical orientation are overwhelmingly Southeast European. Cyprus is the List of isl ...
. Coastal
Sicily Sicily (Italian language, Italian and ), officially the Sicilian Region (), is an island in the central Mediterranean Sea, south of the Italian Peninsula in continental Europe and is one of the 20 regions of Italy, regions of Italy. With 4. ...
was raided in 652. The Rashidun army fully conquered the Sasanian Empire, and its eastern frontiers extended up to the lower Indus River.


Assassination of Uthman

Uthman was generous in distributing booty and land to his relatives and Companions in the Quraysh tribe. Governors under his jurisdiction were accused of extravagance and harsh tax collection. This provoked jealousy and anger among excluded Muslims, especially in Egypt and Iraq, at a time when the numbers and power of the Quraysh were being diluted by the vast new conquered lands and converts to Islam. Outraged at what they considered the nepotism and corruption of Uthman, protestors gathered and put Uthman's house under siege, offering Uthman a choice of abdication or death. Early caliphs had no security force to protect them—no praetorian guard or even regular armed forces. They depended in tribal levies from the Arabs whose loyalty came from the deference due to the Caliph as a successor of the Prophet. When Uthman lost that deference he had little left to protect him. Uthman refused the rebels' demand to abdicate declaring, "it is easier for me to die than to disown a mission (the caliphate) that God has entrusted to me." Returning to his room, he read the Quran as the protesters broke into his house from the back and killed him. It was later discovered that the order to kill the rebels did not, in fact, originate from Uthman, but was, rather, part of a conspiracy to overthrow him.


Ali's reign (656–661)

Ali ibn Abi Talib () was Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law. The fourth caliph in Sunni Islam, in
Shia Islam Shia Islam is the second-largest Islamic schools and branches, branch of Islam. It holds that Muhammad in Islam, Muhammad designated Ali ibn Abi Talib () as both his political Succession to Muhammad, successor (caliph) and as the spiritual le ...
, Ali is considered the rightful successor of Muhammad whose appointment was announced at the event of Ghadir Khumm and earlier in his prophetic mission. Among the good and significant deeds he is credited with in Islamic literature, is being the first male to embrace
Islam Islam is an Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the Quran, and the teachings of Muhammad. Adherents of Islam are called Muslims, who are estimated to number Islam by country, 2 billion worldwide and are the world ...
and the person who offered his support when Muhammad first presented Islam to his relatives; facilitating Muhammad's safe escape to
Medina Medina, officially al-Madinah al-Munawwarah (, ), also known as Taybah () and known in pre-Islamic times as Yathrib (), is the capital of Medina Province (Saudi Arabia), Medina Province in the Hejaz region of western Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, ...
by risking his life as the decoy; swearing a pact of brotherhood with Muhammad in Medina; taking the hand of Muhammad's daughter,
Fatimah Fatima bint Muhammad (; 605/15–632 CE), commonly known as Fatima al-Zahra' (), was the daughter of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and his wife Khadija bint Khuwaylid, Khadija. Fatima's husband was Ali, the fourth of the Rashidun caliphs and ...
, in marriage; acting as Muhammad's
secretary A secretary, administrative assistant, executive assistant, personal secretary, or other similar titles is an individual whose work consists of supporting management, including executives, using a variety of project management, program evalu ...
in Medina, and serving as his deputy during the expedition of Tabuk, being (according to many) the most able warrior in Muhammad's army and one of the two Muslim men who represented Islam against a
Christian A Christian () is a person who follows or adheres to Christianity, a Monotheism, monotheistic Abrahamic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus in Christianity, Jesus Christ. Christians form the largest religious community in the wo ...
delegation from Najran; and playing a key role in the collection of the
Quran The Quran, also Romanization, romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a Waḥy, revelation directly from God in Islam, God (''Allah, Allāh''). It is organized in 114 chapters (, ) which ...
, the central text of Islam.


Crisis and fragmentation

Following Uthman's assassination, Muhammad's cousin Ali was elected caliph by the rebels and townspeople of
Medina Medina, officially al-Madinah al-Munawwarah (, ), also known as Taybah () and known in pre-Islamic times as Yathrib (), is the capital of Medina Province (Saudi Arabia), Medina Province in the Hejaz region of western Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, ...
. He transferred the capital to
Kufa Kufa ( ), also spelled Kufah, is a city in Iraq, about south of Baghdad, and northeast of Najaf. It is located on the banks of the Euphrates, Euphrates River. The estimated population in 2003 was 110,000. Along with Samarra, Karbala, Kadhimiya ...
, a garrison city in Iraq. Soon thereafter, Ali dismissed several provincial governors, some of whom were relatives of Uthman, and replaced them with trusted aides, such as Malik al-Ashtar and Salman the Persian. Demands to take revenge for the assassination of Caliph Uthman rose among parts of the population, and a large army of rebels led by Zubayr, Talha and the widow of Muhammad,
Aisha Aisha bint Abi Bakr () was a seventh century Arab commander, politician, Muhaddith, muhadditha and the third and youngest wife of the Prophets and messengers in Islam, Islamic prophet Muhammad. Aisha had an important role in early Islamic h ...
, set out to fight the perpetrators. The army reached
Basra Basra () is a port city in Iraq, southern Iraq. It is the capital of the eponymous Basra Governorate, as well as the List of largest cities of Iraq, third largest city in Iraq overall, behind Baghdad and Mosul. Located near the Iran–Iraq bor ...
and captured it, whereupon 4,000 suspected seditionists were put to death. Subsequently, Ali turned towards Basra and the caliph's army met the rebel army. Though neither Ali nor the leaders of the opposing force, Talha and Zubayr, wanted to fight, a battle broke out at night between the two armies. It is said, according to Sunni Muslim traditions, that those who were involved in the assassination of Uthman initiated combat as they were afraid that negotiations between Ali and the opposing army would result in their capture and execution. The battle thus fought was the first battle between Muslims and is known as the Battle of the Camel. Ali emerged victoriously and the dispute was settled. The eminent companions of Muhammad, Talha, and Zubayr were killed in the battle and Ali sent his son
Hasan ibn Ali Hasan ibn Ali (; 2 April 670) was an Alids, Alid political and religious leader. The eldest son of Ali and Fatima and a grandson of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, Hasan briefly ruled as Rashidun caliphate, Rashidun caliph from January 661 unt ...
to escort Aisha back to Medina. Thereafter, there rose another cry for revenge for the blood of Uthman, this time by Mu'awiya, a kinsman of Uthman and governor of the province of Syria. However, it is regarded more as an attempt by Mu'awiya to assume the caliphate rather than to take revenge for Uthman's murder. Ali fought Mu'awiya's forces to a stalemate at the
Battle of Siffin The Battle of Siffin () was fought in 657 CE (37 Islamic calendar, AH) between the fourth Rashidun caliph Ali ibn Abi Talib and the rebellious governor of Syria (region), Syria Muawiyah I, Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan. The battle is named after its ...
, and then lost a controversial arbitration that ended with the arbiter,
'Amr ibn al-'As Amr ibn al-As ibn Wa'il al-Sahmi (664) was an Arab commander and companion of Muhammad who led the Muslim conquest of Egypt and served as its governor in 640–646 and 658–664. The son of a wealthy Qurayshite, Amr embraced Islam in and wa ...
, pronouncing his support for Mu'awiya. After this Ali was forced to fight the Battle of Nahrawan against the rebellious Kharijites, a faction of his former supporters who, as a result of their dissatisfaction with the arbitration, opposed both Ali and Mu'awiya. Weakened by this internal rebellion and a lack of popular support in many provinces, Ali's forces lost control over most of the caliphate's territory to Mu'awiya while large sections of the empire – such as
Sicily Sicily (Italian language, Italian and ), officially the Sicilian Region (), is an island in the central Mediterranean Sea, south of the Italian Peninsula in continental Europe and is one of the 20 regions of Italy, regions of Italy. With 4. ...
,
North Africa North Africa (sometimes Northern Africa) is a region encompassing the northern portion of the African continent. There is no singularly accepted scope for the region. However, it is sometimes defined as stretching from the Atlantic shores of t ...
, the coastal areas of Spain and some forts in
Anatolia Anatolia (), also known as Asia Minor, is a peninsula in West Asia that makes up the majority of the land area of Turkey. It is the westernmost protrusion of Asia and is geographically bounded by the Mediterranean Sea to the south, the Aegean ...
– were also lost to outside empires. In 661, Ali was assassinated by Ibn Muljam as part of a Kharijite plot to assassinate all the different Islamic leaders in an attempt to end the civil war, but the Kharijites failed to assassinate Mu'awiya and 'Amr ibn al-'As. Ali's son Hasan briefly assumed the caliphate for six months and came to an agreement with Mu'awiya to fix relations between the two groups of Muslims that were each loyal to one of the two men. The treaty stated that Mu'awiya would not name a successor during his reign and that he would let the Islamic world choose the next leader. This treaty would later be broken by Mu'awiya as he named his son Yazid I successor. Hasan was assassinated, and Mu'awiya founded the
Umayyad Caliphate The Umayyad Caliphate or Umayyad Empire (, ; ) was the second caliphate established after the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and was ruled by the Umayyad dynasty. Uthman ibn Affan, the third of the Rashidun caliphs, was also a member o ...
, supplanting the Rashidun Caliphate.


Military expansion

The Rashidun Caliphate expanded steadily; within the span of 24 years, a vast territory was conquered comprising
Mesopotamia Mesopotamia is a historical region of West Asia situated within the Tigris–Euphrates river system, in the northern part of the Fertile Crescent. Today, Mesopotamia is known as present-day Iraq and forms the eastern geographic boundary of ...
, the
Levant The Levant ( ) is the subregion that borders the Eastern Mediterranean, Eastern Mediterranean sea to the west, and forms the core of West Asia and the political term, Middle East, ''Middle East''. In its narrowest sense, which is in use toda ...
, parts of
Anatolia Anatolia (), also known as Asia Minor, is a peninsula in West Asia that makes up the majority of the land area of Turkey. It is the westernmost protrusion of Asia and is geographically bounded by the Mediterranean Sea to the south, the Aegean ...
, and most of the
Sasanian Empire The Sasanian Empire (), officially Eranshahr ( , "Empire of the Iranian peoples, Iranians"), was an List of monarchs of Iran, Iranian empire that was founded and ruled by the House of Sasan from 224 to 651. Enduring for over four centuries, th ...
. Some explanations for the success of the Arab invasion of the empires to the north, west and east initiated by the Rashidun were the weakening of the two empires brought on by wars between them (especially the Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628), and by the
Plague of Justinian The plague of Justinian or Justinianic plague (AD 541–549) was an epidemic of Plague (disease), plague that afflicted the entire Mediterranean basin, Mediterranean Basin, Europe, and the Near East, especially the Sasanian Empire and the Byza ...
, which crippled both states. Arab tribes had served as mercenaries for both empires in decades prior to the invasion and the experience of gave them valuable military tactical skills and familiarity with the battlefields they would fight on against the two empires. Prior to the invasion a good number of Arab infiltrators, known as ''musta 'riba'' "self-styled Arabs", migrated into Syria, Palestine and Iraq. They shared Arab language and customs and "received the invaders with enthusiasm", sometimes joining the invaders' forces. The buffer states of the Lakhmids and Ghasanids that had protected the empires in earlier times had disappeared by the time of the invasion. Other factors include the Arab Bedouin love of raiding and robbing sedentary peoples; the willingness of Bedouin tribes to cease their time honored practice of raiding each other and obey the commands of Hijazi Muslim leaders; and perhaps most decisively the Islamic belief of the invaders that conquering the unbelievers' land was a holy war/jihad of the sword, and that booty taken by them was divinely ordained reward for the invaders. The Arab conquests began as raids against the empires but quickly escalated as the raiders discovered that Byzantines and Persians gave little resistance their assault.


Conquest of the Sasanian Empire

The first military move following the suppression of rebellion in Arabia was the invasion of the Sasanian Empire. In 633 Caliph Abu Bakr sent troops out to Sasanian-controlled Iraq, i.e. southern modern-day Iraq. Abu Bakr sent his general, Khalid ibn al-Walid, to conquer
Mesopotamia Mesopotamia is a historical region of West Asia situated within the Tigris–Euphrates river system, in the northern part of the Fertile Crescent. Today, Mesopotamia is known as present-day Iraq and forms the eastern geographic boundary of ...
after the
Ridda wars The Ridda Wars were a series of military campaigns launched by the first caliph Abu Bakr against rebellious Arabian tribes, some of which were led by rival prophet claimants. They began shortly after the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad in ...
. After entering Iraq with his army of 18,000, Khalid won decisive victories in four consecutive battles: the
Battle of Chains The Battle of Sallasil ( ''Dhat al-Salasil''), often referred to as the Battle of Chains, was the first battle fought between the Rashidun Caliphate and the Sasanian Empire, Sasanian Persian Empire in April 633. The battle was fought in Kazima ( ...
, fought in April 633; the Battle of River, fought in the third week of April 633; the Battle of Walaja, fought in May 633 (where he successfully used a pincer movement), and the Battle of Ullais, fought in mid-May of 633. In the last week of May 633, the capital city of Iraq fell to the Muslims after initial resistance in the Battle of Hira. After resting his armies, Khalid moved in June 633 towards Anbar, which resisted and was defeated, and eventually surrendered after a siege of a few weeks in July 633. Khalid then moved towards the south and conquered the city of Ein ul Tamr in the last week of July 633. By now, almost the whole of Iraq was under Islamic control. Khalid received a call for help from Dumat al-Jandal in Northern Arabia, where another Muslim general, Iyad ibn Ghanm, was trapped among the rebel tribes. Khalid diverted there and defeated the rebels in the Battle of Dawmat al-Jandal in the last week of August 633. Returning from Arabia, he received news that a large Persian army was assembling. Within a few weeks, he decided to defeat them piecemeal in order to avoid the risk of defeat by a large unified Persian army. Four divisions of Persian and
Christian A Christian () is a person who follows or adheres to Christianity, a Monotheism, monotheistic Abrahamic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus in Christianity, Jesus Christ. Christians form the largest religious community in the wo ...
Arab auxiliaries were present at Hanafiz, Zumiel, Sanni, and Muzieh. In November 633, Khalid divided his army into three units and attacked these auxiliaries one by one from three different sides at night, starting with the Battle of Muzieh, then the Battle of Sanni, and finally the Battle of Zumail. These devastating defeats ended Persian control over Iraq. In December 633, Khalid reached the border city of Firaz, where he defeated the combined forces of the Sasanian Persians, Byzantines and Christian Arabs in the Battle of Firaz. This was the last battle in his conquest of Iraq. Khalid then left Mesopotamia to lead another campaign in Syria against the Byzantine Empire, after which Mithna ibn Haris took command in Mesopotamia. The Persians once again concentrated armies to regain Mesopotamia, while Mithna ibn Haris withdrew from central Iraq to the region near the Arabian desert to delay war until reinforcement came from Medina. Umar sent reinforcements under the command of Abu Ubayd al-Thaqafi. This army suffered a severe defeat from the Sasanian army in 634 at the Battle of the Bridge in which Abu Ubayd was killed, and Al-Muthanna saved the army from complete disaster by heroically defending a bridge over the Euphrates. The response was delayed until after a decisive Muslim victory against the Romans in the
Levant The Levant ( ) is the subregion that borders the Eastern Mediterranean, Eastern Mediterranean sea to the west, and forms the core of West Asia and the political term, Middle East, ''Middle East''. In its narrowest sense, which is in use toda ...
at the Battle of Yarmouk in 636. Umar was then able to transfer forces to the east and resume the offensive against the Sasanians. Umar dispatched 36,000 men along with 7500 troops from the Syrian front, under the command of
Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas ibn Wuhayb al-Zuhri () was an Arabs, Arab Muslims, Muslim commander. He was the founder of Kufa and served as its governor under Umar, Umar ibn al-Khattab. He played a leading role in the Muslim conquest of Persia and was a cl ...
against the Persian army. The Battle of al-Qadisiyyah, the decisive battle of the campaign (near modern Najaf) followed, with the Persians prevailing at first, but, on the third day of fighting, the Muslims gained the upper hand. The legendary Persian general Rostam Farrokhzad was killed during the battle. According to some sources, the Persian losses were 20,000, and the Arabs lost 10,500 men. Following this battle, the Arab Muslim armies pushed forward toward the Persian capital of
Ctesiphon Ctesiphon ( ; , ''Tyspwn'' or ''Tysfwn''; ; , ; Thomas A. Carlson et al., “Ctesiphon — ܩܛܝܣܦܘܢ ” in The Syriac Gazetteer last modified July 28, 2014, http://syriaca.org/place/58.) was an ancient city in modern Iraq, on the eastern ba ...
(also called Madā'in in Arabic), which was quickly evacuated by Yazdegerd III after a brief siege. After seizing the city, they continued their drive eastwards, following Yazdgird and his remaining troops as they attempted to regroup in the Zagros mountains. Within a short span of time, the Arab armies defeated a major Sasanian counterattack in the Battle of Jalula, as well as other engagements at Qasr-e Shirin, and Masabadhan. By the mid-7th century, the Arabs controlled all of Mesopotamia, including the area that is now the Iranian province of
Khuzestan Khuzestan province () is one of the 31 Provinces of Iran. Located in the southwest of the country, the province borders Iraq and the Persian Gulf, covering an area of . Its capital is the city of Ahvaz. Since 2014, it has been part of Iran's ...
. It is said that Caliph Umar did not wish to send his troops through the Zagros Mountains and onto the Iranian plateau. One tradition has it that he wished for a "wall of fire" to keep the Arabs and Persians apart. Later commentators explain this as a common-sense precaution against over-extension of his forces. The Arabs had only recently conquered large territories that still had to be garrisoned and administered. The continued existence of the Persian government was, however, incitement to revolt in the conquered territories and unlike the Byzantine army, the Sasanian army was continuously striving to regain their lost territories. Finally, Umar pressed forward, which eventually resulted in the wholesale conquest of the Sasanian Empire. Yazdegerd, the Sasanian king, made yet another effort to regroup and defeat the invaders. By 641, he had raised a new force, which made a stand at the Battle of Nihawānd, some forty miles south of
Hamadan Hamadan ( ; , ) is a mountainous city in western Iran. It is located in the Central District of Hamadan County in Hamadan province, serving as the capital of the province, county, and district. As of the 2016 Iranian census, it had a po ...
in modern Iran. The Rashidun army, under the command of Umar's appointed general Al-Nu'man ibn Muqrin, attacked and again defeated the Persian forces. The Muslims proclaimed it the Victory of Victories (Fath alfotuh), after which the Persians were unable to offer any effective resistance. Though Yazdegerd was unable to raise another army, the invading Arabs advanced slowly because "distances were great, the population hostile, and towns and fortresses had to be captured one by one". Yazdegerd retreating east with a dwindling band of supporters, eventually to Khurasan where he was assassinated. In 642 Umar sent the army to conquer the remainder of the
Persian Empire The Achaemenid Empire or Achaemenian Empire, also known as the Persian Empire or First Persian Empire (; , , ), was an Iranian empire founded by Cyrus the Great of the Achaemenid dynasty in 550 BC. Based in modern-day Iran, it was the larg ...
. The entirety of present-day Iran was conquered, followed by
Greater Khorasan KhorasanDabeersiaghi, Commentary on Safarnâma-e Nâsir Khusraw, 6th Ed. Tehran, Zavvâr: 1375 (Solar Hijri Calendar) 235–236 (; , ) is a historical eastern region in the Iranian Plateau in West Asia, West and Central Asia that encompasses wes ...
(which included the modern Iranian Khorasan province and modern Afghanistan), Transoxania, Balochistan and Makran (part of modern-day Pakistan), Azerbaijan, Dagestan (Russia), Armenia and Georgia; these regions were later re-conquered during Uthman's reign with further expansion into the regions which were not conquered during Umar's reign; hence, the Rashidun Caliphate's frontiers in the east extended to the lower river Indus and north to the Oxus River.


Wars against the Byzantine Empire

Unlike the Sasanian
Persians Persians ( ), or the Persian people (), are an Iranian ethnic group from West Asia that came from an earlier group called the Proto-Iranians, which likely split from the Indo-Iranians in 1800 BCE from either Afghanistan or Central Asia. They ...
, the Byzantines, after losing Syria, retreated back to Anatolia. As a result, they also lost Egypt to the invading Rashidun army, although the civil wars among the Muslims halted the war of conquest for many years, and this gave time for the
Byzantine Empire The Byzantine Empire, also known as the Eastern Roman Empire, was the continuation of the Roman Empire centred on Constantinople during late antiquity and the Middle Ages. Having survived History of the Roman Empire, the events that caused the ...
to recover.


Conquest of Byzantine Syria

After Khalid ibn al-Walid consolidated his control of Iraq, Abu Bakr sent four armies to Syria on the Byzantine front under four different commanders: Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah (acting as their supreme commander), Amr ibn al-As, Yazid ibn Abu Sufyan and Shurhabil ibn Hasana. However, their advance was halted by a concentration of the Byzantine army at Ajnadayn. Abu Ubaidah then sent for reinforcements. Abu Bakr ordered Khalid, who by now was planning to attack
Ctesiphon Ctesiphon ( ; , ''Tyspwn'' or ''Tysfwn''; ; , ; Thomas A. Carlson et al., “Ctesiphon — ܩܛܝܣܦܘܢ ” in The Syriac Gazetteer last modified July 28, 2014, http://syriaca.org/place/58.) was an ancient city in modern Iraq, on the eastern ba ...
, to march from Iraq to Syria with half his army. There were 2 major routes to Syria from Iraq, one passing through
Mesopotamia Mesopotamia is a historical region of West Asia situated within the Tigris–Euphrates river system, in the northern part of the Fertile Crescent. Today, Mesopotamia is known as present-day Iraq and forms the eastern geographic boundary of ...
and the other through Daumat ul-Jandal. Khalid took an unconventional route through the Syrian Desert, and after a perilous march of 5 days, appeared in north-western Syria. The border forts of Sawa, Arak, Tadmur, Sukhnah, al-Qaryatayn and Hawarin were the first to fall to the invading Muslims. Khalid marched on to
Bosra Bosra (), formerly Bostra () and officially called Busra al-Sham (), is a town in southern Syria, administratively belonging to the Daraa District of the Daraa Governorate and geographically part of the Hauran region. Bosra is an ancient cit ...
via the
Damascus Damascus ( , ; ) is the capital and List of largest cities in the Levant region by population, largest city of Syria. It is the oldest capital in the world and, according to some, the fourth Holiest sites in Islam, holiest city in Islam. Kno ...
road. At Bosra, the Corps of Abu Ubaidah and Shurhabil joined Khalid, upon which, per Abu Bakr's orders, Khalid assumed overall command from Abu Ubaidah. Bosra, caught unprepared, surrendered after a brief siege in July 634 (''see'' Battle of Bosra), effectively ending the dynasty of the
Ghassanids The Ghassanids, also known as the Jafnids, were an Tribes of Arabia, Arab tribe. Originally from South Arabia, they migrated to the Levant in the 3rd century and established what would eventually become a Christian state, Christian kingdom unde ...
. From Bosra, Khalid sent orders to the other corps commanders to join him at Ajnadayn, where, according to early Muslim historians, a Byzantine army of 90,000 (modern sources state 9,000) was concentrated to push back the Muslims. The Byzantine army was defeated decisively on 30 July 634 in the Battle of Ajnadayn. It was the first major
pitched battle A pitched battle or set-piece battle is a battle in which opposing forces each anticipate the setting of the battle, and each chooses to commit to it. Either side may have the option to disengage before the battle starts or shortly thereafter. A ...
between the Muslims and Byzantines and cleared the way for the former to capture central Syria.
Damascus Damascus ( , ; ) is the capital and List of largest cities in the Levant region by population, largest city of Syria. It is the oldest capital in the world and, according to some, the fourth Holiest sites in Islam, holiest city in Islam. Kno ...
, the Byzantine stronghold, was conquered shortly after on 19 September 634. The Byzantine army was given a deadline of 3 days to flee as far as they could, with their families and treasure, or simply agree to stay in Damascus and pay tribute. After the three days had passed, the Muslim cavalry, under Khalid's command, attacked the Roman army by catching up to them using an unknown shortcut at the battle of Maraj-al-Debaj. On 22 August 634, Abu Bakr died, making Umar his successor. Umar replaced Khalid with Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah as overall commander of the Muslim armies, though Khalid continuing play an important part in the conquests under Abu Ubaidah. The conquest of Syria slowed down under Abu Ubaidah while he relied heavily on the advice of Khalid, who he kept close at hand. The last large garrison of the Byzantine army was at Fahl, which was joined by survivors of Ajnadayn. With this threat at their rear, the Muslim armies could not move further north nor south. Thus Abu Ubaidah decided to deal with the situation and defeated and routed this garrison at the Battle of Fahl on 23 January 635, which proved to be the "Key to Palestine". After this battle Abu Ubaidah and Khalid marched north towards Emesa; Yazid was stationed in Damascus while Amr and Shurhabil marched south to capture Palestine. While the Muslims were at Fahl, sensing the weak defense of Damascus, Emperor Heraclius sent an army to re-capture the city. This army, however, could not make it to Damascus and was intercepted by Abu Ubaidah and Khalid on their way to Emesa. The army was destroyed in the battle of Maraj-al-Rome and the second battle of Damascus. Emesa and the strategic town of
Chalcis Chalcis (; Ancient Greek and Katharevousa: , ), also called Chalkida or Halkida (Modern Greek: , ), is the chief city of the island of Euboea or Evia in Greece, situated on the Euripus Strait at its narrowest point. The name is preserved from ...
made peace with the Muslims for one year in order to buy time for Heraclius to prepare his defences and raise new armies. The Muslims welcomed the peace and consolidated their control over the conquered territory. However, as soon as the Muslims received the news of reinforcements being sent to Emesa and Chalcis, they marched against Emesa, laid siege to it and eventually captured the city in March 636. The prisoners taken in the battle informed them about Emperor Heraclius's plans to take back Syria. They said that an army possibly 200,000 strong would soon emerge to recapture the province. Khalid stopped here on June 636. As soon as Abu Ubaida heard the news of the advancing Byzantine army, he gathered all his officers to plan their next move. Khalid suggested that they should consolidate all of their forces present in the province of Syria (Syria, Jordan, Palestine) and then move towards the plain of Yarmouk for battle. Abu Ubaida ordered the Muslim commanders to withdraw from all the conquered areas, return the tributes they had previously gathered, and move towards Yarmuk. Heraclius's army also moved towards Yarmuk, but the Muslim armies reached it in early July 636, a week or two before the Byzantines. Khalid's mobile guard defeated the Christian Arab auxiliaries of the Roman army in a
skirmish Skirmishers are light infantry or light cavalry soldiers deployed as a vanguard, flank guard or rearguard to Screening (tactical), screen a tactical position or a larger body of friendly troops from enemy advances. They may be deployed in a sk ...
. In the third week of August, the Battle of Yarmouk was fought, resulting in the whole of Syria falling into Muslim hands. The battle lasted 6 days during which Abu Ubaida transferred the command of the entire army to Khalid. Outnumbered five-to-one, the Muslims nevertheless defeated the Byzantine army in October 636. Abu Ubaida held a meeting with his high command officers, including Khalid, to decide on future conquests, settling on
Jerusalem Jerusalem is a city in the Southern Levant, on a plateau in the Judaean Mountains between the Mediterranean Sea, Mediterranean and the Dead Sea. It is one of the List of oldest continuously inhabited cities, oldest cities in the world, and ...
. The siege of Jerusalem led to great hunger but it negotiated a treaty of surrender with Umar with very generous terms. Christians were promised protection, freedom of worship, that churches would not be turned into mosques, and a tax less heavy than what they had paid Byzantium. Jerusalem surrendered in April 637 and Caliph Umar's appearance wearing a course robe made a strong impression on Jerusalemites accustom to Byzantine splendor. He allowed the
Church of the Holy Sepulchre The Church of the Holy Sepulchre, also known as the Church of the Resurrection, is a fourth-century church in the Christian Quarter of the Old City of Jerusalem, Old City of Jerusalem. The church is the seat of the Greek Orthodox Patriarchat ...
to remain and prayed on a prayer rug outside of the church. Abu Ubaida sent Amr bin al-As, Yazid bin Abu Sufyan, and Sharjeel bin Hassana back to their areas to reconquer them; most submitted without a fight. Abu Ubaida himself, along with Khalid, moved to northern Syria to reconquer it with a 17,000-man army. Khalid, along with his cavalry, was sent to Hazir and Abu Ubaidah moved to the city of Qasreen. Khalid defeated a strong Byzantine army at the Battle of Hazir and reached Qasreen before Abu Ubaidah. The city surrendered to Khalid, and soon after, Abu Ubaidah arrived in June 637. Abu Ubaidah then moved against
Aleppo Aleppo is a city in Syria, which serves as the capital of the Aleppo Governorate, the most populous Governorates of Syria, governorate of Syria. With an estimated population of 2,098,000 residents it is Syria's largest city by urban area, and ...
, with Khalid, as usual, commanding the cavalry. After the Battle of Aleppo the city finally agreed to surrender in October 637.


Occupation of Anatolia

In the mountains of Asia Minor, the Muslims enjoyed less success, with the Byzantines adopting the tactic of "shadowing warfare"—refusing to give battle to the Muslims, while the people retreated into castles and fortified towns when the Muslims invaded; instead, Byzantine forces ambushed Muslim raiders as they returned to Syria carrying plunder and people they had enslaved. Abu Ubaidah and Khalid ibn al-Walid, after conquering all of northern Syria, moved north towards
Anatolia Anatolia (), also known as Asia Minor, is a peninsula in West Asia that makes up the majority of the land area of Turkey. It is the westernmost protrusion of Asia and is geographically bounded by the Mediterranean Sea to the south, the Aegean ...
taking the fort of Azaz to clear the flank and rear of Byzantine troops. On their way to Antioch, a Roman army blocked them near a river on which there was an iron bridge. Because of this, the following battle is known as the Battle of the Iron Bridge. The Muslim army defeated the Byzantines and
Antioch Antioch on the Orontes (; , ) "Antioch on Daphne"; or "Antioch the Great"; ; ; ; ; ; ; . was a Hellenistic Greek city founded by Seleucus I Nicator in 300 BC. One of the most important Greek cities of the Hellenistic period, it served as ...
surrendered on 30 October 637 AD. Later during the year, Abu Ubaidah sent Khalid and Iyad ibn Ghanm at the head of two separate armies against the western part of
Jazira Jazira, al-Jazira, Jazeera, al-Jazeera, etc. are all transcriptions of Arabic language, Arabic meaning "the island" or "the peninsula". The term may refer to: Business *Jazeera Airways, an airlines company based in Kuwait Locations * Al-Jazir ...
, most of which was conquered without strong resistance, including parts of Anatolia, Edessa and the area up to the Ararat plain. Other columns were sent to Anatolia as far west as the
Taurus Mountains The Taurus Mountains (Turkish language, Turkish: ''Toros Dağları'' or ''Toroslar,'' Greek language, Greek'':'' Ταύρος) are a mountain range, mountain complex in southern Turkey, separating the Mediterranean Sea, Mediterranean coastal reg ...
, the important city of Marash, and Malatya, which were all conquered by Khalid in the autumn of 638. During Uthman's reign, the Byzantines recaptured many
forts A fortification (also called a fort, fortress, fastness, or stronghold) is a military construction designed for the defense of territories in warfare, and is used to establish rule in a region during peacetime. The term is derived from ...
in the region and on Uthman's orders, a series of campaigns were launched to regain control of them. In 647 Muawiyah, the governor of Syria sent an expedition against Anatolia, invading
Cappadocia Cappadocia (; , from ) is a historical region in Central Anatolia region, Turkey. It is largely in the provinces of Nevşehir, Kayseri, Aksaray, Kırşehir, Sivas and Niğde. Today, the touristic Cappadocia Region is located in Nevşehir ...
and sacking Caesarea Mazaca. In 648 the Rashidun army raided
Phrygia In classical antiquity, Phrygia ( ; , ''Phrygía'') was a kingdom in the west-central part of Anatolia, in what is now Asian Turkey, centered on the Sangarios River. Stories of the heroic age of Greek mythology tell of several legendary Ph ...
. A major offensive into Cilicia and
Isauria Isauria ( or ; ), in ancient geography, is a rugged, isolated district in the interior of Asia Minor, of very different extent at different periods, but generally covering what is now the district of Bozkır and its surroundings in the Konya P ...
in 650–651 forced the Byzantine Emperor Constans II to enter into negotiations with Muawiyah. The truce that followed allowed a short respite and made it possible for Constans II to hold on to the western portions of Armenia. In 654–655, on the orders of Uthman, an expedition prepared to attack
Constantinople Constantinople (#Names of Constantinople, see other names) was a historical city located on the Bosporus that served as the capital of the Roman Empire, Roman, Byzantine Empire, Byzantine, Latin Empire, Latin, and Ottoman Empire, Ottoman empire ...
, but this plan was not carried out due to the civil war that broke out in 656. The Muslim advance north was stopped by the barrier of the Nur Mountains. The Taurus Mountains in Turkey marked the western frontiers of the Rashidun Caliphate in Anatolia during Caliph Uthman's reign. In the frontier area where
Anatolia Anatolia (), also known as Asia Minor, is a peninsula in West Asia that makes up the majority of the land area of Turkey. It is the westernmost protrusion of Asia and is geographically bounded by the Mediterranean Sea to the south, the Aegean ...
met Syria, the Byzantine state evacuated the entire population and laid waste to the countryside, creating a no man's land where any invading army would find no food. For decades afterwards, a guerrilla war was waged by Christians in the hilly countryside of north-western Syria supported by the Byzantines. At the same time, the Byzantines began a policy of launching raids via sea on the coast of the caliphate with the aim of forcing the Muslims to keep at least some of their forces to defend their coastlines, thus limiting the number of troops available for an invasion of Anatolia. Unlike Syria with its plains and deserts – which favored the offensive – the mountainous terrain of Anatolia favored the defensive, and for centuries afterwards the line between Christian and Muslim lands ran along the border between Anatolia and Syria.


Conquest of Egypt

The Byzantine province of Egypt held strategic importance for its grain production, naval yards, and as a base for further conquests in Africa. Possessing some of the most productive and fertile farmland in the entire world, the Nile Delta made Egypt the "granary" of the Byzantine empire. Control of it meant that the caliphate could weather droughts without the fear of famine. In 639, Egypt was a prefecture of the Byzantine Empire but had been occupied just a decade before by the Sasanian Empire under Khosrau II (616 to 629). The power of the Byzantine Empire was shattered during the Muslim conquest of Syria, and therefore the conquest of Egypt was much easier. The Muslim general Amr ibn al-As began the conquest of the province on his own initiative in 639 The majority of the Byzantine forces in Egypt were locally raised Coptic forces, intended to serve more as a police force; since the vast majority of Egyptians lived in the Nile River valley, surrounded on both the eastern and western sides by desert, Egypt was felt to be a relatively secure province. In December 639, Amr entered the Sinai with a large force and took
Pelusium Pelusium (Ancient Egyptian: ; /, romanized: , or , romanized: ; ; ; ; ) was an important city in the eastern extremes of Egypt's Nile Delta, to the southeast of the modern Port Said. It became a Roman provincial capital and Metropolitan arc ...
, on the edge of the Nile River valley, and then defeated a Byzantine counter-attack at Bibays. Contrary to expectations, the Arabs did not head for
Alexandria Alexandria ( ; ) is the List of cities and towns in Egypt#Largest cities, second largest city in Egypt and the List of coastal settlements of the Mediterranean Sea, largest city on the Mediterranean coast. It lies at the western edge of the Nile ...
, the capital of Egypt, but instead for a major fortress known as
Babylon Babylon ( ) was an ancient city located on the lower Euphrates river in southern Mesopotamia, within modern-day Hillah, Iraq, about south of modern-day Baghdad. Babylon functioned as the main cultural and political centre of the Akkadian-s ...
located at what is now Cairo. They advanced rapidly into the
Nile Delta The Nile Delta (, or simply , ) is the River delta, delta formed in Lower Egypt where the Nile River spreads out and drains into the Mediterranean Sea. It is one of the world's larger deltas—from Alexandria in the west to Port Said in the eas ...
. The imperial garrisons retreated into the walled towns, where they successfully held out for a year or more. Amr was planning to divide the Nile River valley in two. The Arab forces won a major victory at the Battle of Heliopolis in 640, cleverly luring Byzantine forces away from the Babylon Fortress. However Amr found it difficult to advance further because major cities in the
Nile Delta The Nile Delta (, or simply , ) is the River delta, delta formed in Lower Egypt where the Nile River spreads out and drains into the Mediterranean Sea. It is one of the world's larger deltas—from Alexandria in the west to Port Said in the eas ...
were protected by water and because Amr lacked the
machinery A machine is a physical system that uses power to apply forces and control movement to perform an action. The term is commonly applied to artificial devices, such as those employing engines or motors, but also to natural biological macromolec ...
to break down city fortifications. Amr next proceeded in the direction of
Alexandria Alexandria ( ; ) is the List of cities and towns in Egypt#Largest cities, second largest city in Egypt and the List of coastal settlements of the Mediterranean Sea, largest city on the Mediterranean coast. It lies at the western edge of the Nile ...
, which was surrendered to him by a treaty signed on 8 November 641. The
Thebaid The Thebaid or Thebais (, ''Thēbaïs'') was a region in ancient Egypt, comprising the 13 southernmost nome (Egypt), nomes of Upper Egypt, from Abydos, Egypt, Abydos to Aswan. Pharaonic history The Thebaid acquired its name from its proximit ...
seems to have surrendered with scarcely any opposition. The ease with which this valuable province was wrenched from the Byzantine Empire is said to have been due to the treachery of
Cyrus Cyrus () is a Persian-language masculine given name. It is historically best known as the name of several List of monarchs of Iran, Persian kings, most notably including Cyrus the Great, who founded the Achaemenid Empire in 550 BC. It remains wid ...
, prefect of Egypt and
Patriarch of Alexandria The Patriarch of Alexandria is the archbishop of Alexandria, Egypt. Historically, this office has included the designation "pope" (etymologically "Father", like "Abbot"). The Alexandrian episcopate was revered as one of the three major epi ...
, and the incompetence of the Byzantine generals, as well as the loss of most of the Byzantine troops in Syria. Cyrus had persecuted the local Coptic Christians. He was one of the authors of monothelism, a 7th-century heresy, and some supposed him to have been a secret convert to Islam. In 645, during Uthman's reign, the Byzantines briefly regained Alexandria, but it was retaken by Amr in 646. In 654 an invasion fleet sent by Constans II was repulsed. After this, no serious effort was made by the Byzantines to regain possession of the country. The Muslims were assisted by some Copts, who found the Muslims more tolerant than the Byzantines, and of these, some turned to Islam. In return for a tribute of money and food for the occupation troops, the Christian inhabitants of Egypt were excused from military service and left free in the observance of their religion and the administration of their affairs. Others sided with the Byzantines, hoping that they would provide a defense against the Arab invaders. During the reign of Caliph Ali, Egypt was captured by rebel troops under the command of former Rashidun army general Amr ibn al-As, who killed Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr, the governor of Egypt appointed by Ali.


Conquest of the Maghreb

After the withdrawal of the Byzantines from Egypt, the Exarchate of Africa (i.e. that part of Byzantine North Africa west of Egypt), under its exarch (governor), Gregory the Patrician declared its independence. Abdullah ibn Sa'ad sent raiding parties to the west, resulting in considerable booty and encouraging Sa'ad to propose a campaign to conquer the Exarchate, which Uthman approved. A force of 10,000 soldiers was sent as reinforcement. The Rashidun army assembled in Barqa in
Cyrenaica Cyrenaica ( ) or Kyrenaika (, , after the city of Cyrene), is the eastern region of Libya. Cyrenaica includes all of the eastern part of Libya between the 16th and 25th meridians east, including the Kufra District. The coastal region, als ...
, and from there marched west, first capturing Tripoli, and then Sufetula, Gregory's capital. In the ensuing battle in 647, the Exarchate was defeated and Gregory was killed due to the superior tactics of Abdullah ibn Zubayr. Afterward, the people of
North Africa North Africa (sometimes Northern Africa) is a region encompassing the northern portion of the African continent. There is no singularly accepted scope for the region. However, it is sometimes defined as stretching from the Atlantic shores of t ...
sued for peace, agreeing to pay an annual tribute. Instead of annexing
North Africa North Africa (sometimes Northern Africa) is a region encompassing the northern portion of the African continent. There is no singularly accepted scope for the region. However, it is sometimes defined as stretching from the Atlantic shores of t ...
, the Muslims preferred to make North Africa a
vassal state A vassal state is any state that has a mutual obligation to a superior state or empire, in a status similar to that of a vassal in the feudal system in medieval Europe. Vassal states were common among the empires of the Near East, dating back to ...
, fearing a counter offensive. When the stipulated amount of the tribute was paid, the Muslim forces withdrew to Barqa. Following the
First Fitna The First Fitna () was the first civil war in the Islamic community. It led to the overthrow of the Rashidun and the establishment of the Umayyad Caliphate. The civil war involved three main battles between the fourth Rashidun caliph, Ali, an ...
, the first Islamic civil war, Muslim forces withdrew from North Africa to Egypt. The
Umayyad Caliphate The Umayyad Caliphate or Umayyad Empire (, ; ) was the second caliphate established after the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and was ruled by the Umayyad dynasty. Uthman ibn Affan, the third of the Rashidun caliphs, was also a member o ...
would later re-invade North Africa in 664.


Campaign against Nubia (Sudan)

A campaign was undertaken against
Nubia Nubia (, Nobiin language, Nobiin: , ) is a region along the Nile river encompassing the area between the confluence of the Blue Nile, Blue and White Nile, White Niles (in Khartoum in central Sudan), and the Cataracts of the Nile, first cataract ...
during the Caliphate of Umar in 642, but failed after the Makurians won the First Battle of Dongola. The Muslim army pulled out of Nubia with nothing to show for it. Ten years later, Uthman's governor of Egypt, Abdullah ibn Saad, sent another army to Nubia. This army penetrated deeper into Nubia and laid siege to the Nubian capital of Dongola. The Muslims damaged the
cathedral A cathedral is a church (building), church that contains the of a bishop, thus serving as the central church of a diocese, Annual conferences within Methodism, conference, or episcopate. Churches with the function of "cathedral" are usually s ...
in the center of the city, but Makuria also won this
battle A battle is an occurrence of combat in warfare between opposing military units of any number or size. A war usually consists of multiple battles. In general, a battle is a military engagement that is well defined in duration, area, and force co ...
. As the Muslims were unable to overpower Makuria, they negotiated a mutual non-aggression treaty with their king, Qalidurut. Each side also agreed to afford free passage to each other through their respective territories. Nubia agreed to provide 360 slaves to Egypt every year, while Egypt agreed to supply grain, horses, and textiles to Nubia according to demand.


Conquest of the islands of the Mediterranean Sea

During Umar's reign, the governor of Syria, Muawiyah I, sent a request to build a naval force to invade the islands of the
Mediterranean Sea The Mediterranean Sea ( ) is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by the Mediterranean basin and almost completely enclosed by land: on the east by the Levant in West Asia, on the north by Anatolia in West Asia and Southern Eur ...
but Umar rejected the proposal because of the risk to the soldiers. Once Uthman became caliph, however, he approved Muawiyah's request. In 650, Muawiyah attacked
Cyprus Cyprus (), officially the Republic of Cyprus, is an island country in the eastern Mediterranean Sea. Situated in West Asia, its cultural identity and geopolitical orientation are overwhelmingly Southeast European. Cyprus is the List of isl ...
, conquering the capital, Constantia, after a brief siege, but signed a treaty with the local rulers. During this expedition, a relative of Muhammad, Umm-Haram, fell from her mule near the Salt Lake at Larnaca and was killed. She was buried in that same spot, which became a holy site for many local Muslims and Christians and in 1816, the Hala Sultan Tekke was built there by the
Ottomans Ottoman may refer to: * Osman I, historically known in English as "Ottoman I", founder of the Ottoman Empire * Osman II, historically known in English as "Ottoman II" * Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire (), also called the Turkish Empir ...
. After apprehending a breach of the treaty, the Arabs re-invaded the island in 654 with five hundred ships. This time, however, a garrison of 12,000 men was left in Cyprus, bringing the island under Muslim influence. After leaving Cyprus, the Muslim fleet headed towards
Crete Crete ( ; , Modern Greek, Modern: , Ancient Greek, Ancient: ) is the largest and most populous of the Greek islands, the List of islands by area, 88th largest island in the world and the List of islands in the Mediterranean#By area, fifth la ...
and then
Rhodes Rhodes (; ) is the largest of the Dodecanese islands of Greece and is their historical capital; it is the List of islands in the Mediterranean#By area, ninth largest island in the Mediterranean Sea. Administratively, the island forms a separ ...
and conquered them without much resistance. From 652 to 654, the Muslims launched a naval campaign against
Sicily Sicily (Italian language, Italian and ), officially the Sicilian Region (), is an island in the central Mediterranean Sea, south of the Italian Peninsula in continental Europe and is one of the 20 regions of Italy, regions of Italy. With 4. ...
and captured a large part of the island. Soon after this, Uthman was murdered, ending his expansionist policy, and the Muslims accordingly retreated from Sicily. In 655 Byzantine Emperor Constans II led a fleet in person to attack the Muslims at Phoinike (off
Lycia Lycia (; Lycian: 𐊗𐊕𐊐𐊎𐊆𐊖 ''Trm̃mis''; , ; ) was a historical region in Anatolia from 15–14th centuries BC (as Lukka) to 546 BC. It bordered the Mediterranean Sea in what is today the provinces of Antalya and Muğ ...
) but it was defeated: both sides suffered heavy losses in the
battle A battle is an occurrence of combat in warfare between opposing military units of any number or size. A war usually consists of multiple battles. In general, a battle is a military engagement that is well defined in duration, area, and force co ...
, and the emperor himself narrowly avoided death.


Rashidun military

The Rashidun military was the primary arm of the Islamic armed forces of the 7th century, serving alongside the Rashidun navy. The army maintained a very high level of discipline, strategic prowess, and organization, along with the motivation and initiative of the officer corps. For much of its history, this army was one of the most powerful and effective military forces throughout the region. At the height of the Rashidun Caliphate, the maximum size of the army was around 100,000 troops.


Army

The Rashidun army was divided into
infantry Infantry, or infantryman are a type of soldier who specialize in ground combat, typically fighting dismounted. Historically the term was used to describe foot soldiers, i.e. those who march and fight on foot. In modern usage, the term broadl ...
and
light cavalry Light cavalry comprised lightly armed and body armor, armored cavalry troops mounted on fast horses, as opposed to heavy cavalry, where the mounted riders (and sometimes the warhorses) were heavily armored. The purpose of light cavalry was p ...
. Reconstructing the military equipment of early Muslim armies is problematic. Compared with Roman armies or later medieval Muslim armies, the range of visual representation is very small, often imprecise. Physically, very little material evidence has survived, and much of it is difficult to date. The soldiers wore iron and bronze segmented helmets from Iraq, of Central Asian type. The standard form of body armor was chainmail. There are also references to the practice of wearing two coats of mail (''dir'ayn''), the one under the main one being shorter or even made of fabric or leather. Hauberks and large wooden or wickerwork shields were also used as protection in combat. The soldiers were usually equipped with swords hung in a baldric. They also possessed spears and daggers. Umar was the first Muslim ruler to organize the army as a state department, in 637. A beginning was made with the Quraysh and the Ansar and the system was gradually extended to the whole of Arabia and to Muslims of conquered lands. The basic strategy of early Muslim armies on the campaign was to exploit every possible weakness of the enemy. Their key strength was mobility. The cavalry had both horses and camels, the latter used as both transport and food for long marches through the desert (''e.g.'', Khalid ibn al-Walid's extraordinary march from the Persian border to Damascus). The cavalry was the army's main strike force and also served as a strategic mobile reserve. The common tactic was to use the infantry and archers to engage and maintain contact with the enemy while the cavalry was held back till the enemy was fully engaged. Once fully engaged, the enemy reserves were held by the infantry and archers, while the cavalry executed a pincer movement (like modern tank and mechanized divisions) to attack the enemy from the sides or to assault their base camps. The Rashidun army was, in quality and strength, below the standard set by the Sasanian and Byzantine armies. Khalid ibn al-Walid was the first general of the Rashidun Caliphate to successfully conquer foreign lands. During his campaign against the Sasanian Empire (Iraq, 633–634) and the Byzantine Empire (Syria, 634–638), Khalid developed brilliant tactics that he used effectively against both enemy armies. Abu Bakr's strategy was to give his generals their mission, the geographical area in which that mission would be carried out, and resources for that purpose. He would then leave it to his generals to accomplish their missions in whatever manner they chose. On the other hand, Umar, in the latter part of his Caliphate, adopted a more hands-on approach, directing his generals where to stay and when to move to the next target and who was to command the left and right wing of the army in each particular battle. This made conquests comparatively slower but made the campaigns well-organized. Uthman and Ali reverted to Abu Bakr's method, giving missions to their generals and leaving the details to them.


Rashidun navy

The early caliphate naval conquest managed to mark long time legacy of Islamic maritime enterprises from the Conquest of
Cyprus Cyprus (), officially the Republic of Cyprus, is an island country in the eastern Mediterranean Sea. Situated in West Asia, its cultural identity and geopolitical orientation are overwhelmingly Southeast European. Cyprus is the List of isl ...
, the famous Battle of the Masts up to of their successor states such as the area Transoxiana from area located in between the Jihun River (Oxus/Amu Darya) and Syr Darya, to Sindh (present day Pakistan), by
Umayyad The Umayyad Caliphate or Umayyad Empire (, ; ) was the second caliphate established after the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and was ruled by the Umayyad dynasty. Uthman ibn Affan, the third of the Rashidun caliphs, was also a membe ...
, naval cove of privateer in La Garde-Freinet by Cordoban Emirate, and the Sack of Rome by the
Aghlabids The Aghlabid dynasty () was an Arab dynasty centered in Ifriqiya (roughly present-day Tunisia) from 800 to 909 that conquered parts of Sicily, Southern Italy, and possibly Sardinia, nominally as vassals of the Abbasid Caliphate. The Aghlabids ...
in later era.


Governance

The four Rashidun Caliphs (all companions of Muhammad) not only conquered large amounts of territory but established "a system of government" and formulated "political principles for the Muslim Community", according to Jebran Chamieh. Because they were the only Muslim rulers who followed the teachings of Islam "in their purity", their example should be followed. Abdus Salam Nadvi sees piety and virtue as the common thread of the Rashidun.


Political theory or system

Some of the distinctive features of the polity (according to Chamieh)—that were sometimes followed by succeeding dynasties—were internal instability (as noted above—three of the four caliphs died by assassination), use of force rather than consultation (shura), calls for total obedience to the Caliph enforced by coercion (as reflected in Abu Bakr's demand that followers hear and obey, and by his lieutenant Umar's threat against any who would vote against him); often disregarding the advice of other Companions; a privileged position for the
Quraysh The Quraysh () are an Tribes of Arabia, Arab tribe who controlled Mecca before the rise of Islam. Their members were divided into ten main clans, most notably including the Banu Hashim, into which Islam's founding prophet Muhammad was born. By ...
tribe, whose members were the only ones who could be caliphs, no police, providing autonomy to conquered imperial administrations by allowing them to continue operating under their own administration; the using a bay'ah (pledge of obedience) from Muslims to legitimise the caliph's rule, but without formalising who the pledge-givers were to be and how many of them were needed to make the caliph's rule legitimate. Abu Bakr and Umar supported the supremacy of the Arabs over other Muslims and the
Quraysh The Quraysh () are an Tribes of Arabia, Arab tribe who controlled Mecca before the rise of Islam. Their members were divided into ten main clans, most notably including the Banu Hashim, into which Islam's founding prophet Muhammad was born. By ...
tribe over other Arabs, marginalizing Medinites, Hashemites, and Umayyads to repay them for their opposition to Abu Bakr and himself. And also following Abu Bakr he used political and civil coercion to enforce his will.


Use of previous administrations

The conquests begun under caliphs Abu Bakr and expanded under Umar resulted in an empire of vast size, covering a diversity of races, customs, and types of government. To deal with this diversity, Caliph Umar allowed the local administration of occupied countries to carry on much as before, (according to scholar Laura Veccia Vaglieri), and confined himself to appointing a commander or governor (''amir'') with full powers, sometimes assisted by an agent (''amil''), responsible directly to the empire's capital in Medina, to take care of financial matters. He then kept a "tight rein" on these officials. During his reign, Abu Bakr established the ''Bayt al-Mal'' (state treasury). Umar expanded the treasury and established a government building to administer the state finances.


Choosing the caliph

According to historians Bosworth Marín and Ayalon, with the exception of Umar, who was appointed by Abu Bakr, the
Rashidun The Rashidun () are the first four caliphs () who led the Muslim community following the death of Muhammad: Abu Bakr (), Umar (), Uthman (), and Ali (). The reign of these caliphs, called the Rashidun Caliphate (632–661), is considered i ...
caliphs were chosen by a small group of prominent members of the
Quraysh The Quraysh () are an Tribes of Arabia, Arab tribe who controlled Mecca before the rise of Islam. Their members were divided into ten main clans, most notably including the Banu Hashim, into which Islam's founding prophet Muhammad was born. By ...
tribe called (, ). Journalist historian Thomas W. Lippman describes the selection of Abu Bakr as being a choice of "insiders" who presented it to the Muslim community as a "''fiat accompli''" and argues that this precedent and the failure to establish a "formal system" to select a caliph ensured that "difficulties would arise in the choice of later caliphs".
Fred Donner Fred McGraw Donner (born 1945) is a scholar of Islam and Peter B. Ritzma Professor of Near Eastern History at the University of Chicago.
, in his book ''The Early Islamic Conquests'' (1981), describes a standard Arabian practice followed during the early Caliphates were the prominent men of a kinship group, or tribe, gathered after a leader's death and elect a leader from amongst themselves, although there was no specified procedure for this
shura Shura () is the term for collective decision-making in Islam. It can, for example, take the form of a council or a referendum. The Quran encourages Muslims to decide their affairs in consultation with each other. Shura is mentioned as a praise ...
, or consultative assembly. Candidates were usually from the same lineage as the deceased leader, but they were not necessarily his sons. Capable men who would lead well were preferred over an ineffectual direct heir, as there was no basis in the majority Sunni view that the head of state or governor should be chosen based on lineage alone. At least two historians (Wilferd Madelung and Jebran Chamieh) deny the Rashidun used shura and describe a more complicated process of selection. Madelung writes that Abu Bakr, acting as a shrewd politician, ensuring his selection as Muhammad's successor by avoiding the use of a shura (because it "would have backed hereditary success"), "sidelining" the Ansar and early "
Companions of the Prophet The Companions of the Prophet () were the Muslim disciples and followers of the Islamic prophet Muhammad who saw or met him during his lifetime. The companions played a major role in Muslim battles, society, hadith narration, and governance ...
" in favor of his supporters among the Meccan Quraysh. The next two Caliphs Umar and Uthman also had support of the Quraysh but would not have had that of the shura (according to Madelung). Chamieh writes that Umar, an ally of Abu Bakr in his quest for the caliphate was appointed by Abu Bakr when he felt his death was near with the order: "Do you accept whom I have chosen for you? I have considered the question seriously and I have not chosen a relative of mine; my choice for you is Umar ibn al-Khattab, so hear and obey." As Umar lay mortally wounded, he chose a committee of six Companions to choose the next caliph from among them, adding his son to make a tie-breaking vote if one was needed. Five of six of this committee were related to Muhammad and were part of "the elite of the Muslim community"; Ali, received bay'a (pledge of loyalty) from companions in Medina, but had opponents in southern Iraq, and in the governor of Syria. The committee ultimately choose Uthman over Ali. While Chamieh believes Umar fixed the committee to choose Uthman, Bernard Lewis describes Umar's process of appointing a shura as one "deemed" by Muslim as the "classic" way to pick a Caliph, though it was not repeated for any other caliph.


Treatment of conquered peoples

The conquered people of the caliphate (the vast majority of the population) were non-Muslim. Those who were monotheists – Jews, Zoroastrians, and Christians – in conquered lands were called ''dhimmis'' (the protected people). ''Dhimmis'' were allowed to "practice their religion, and to enjoy a measure of communal autonomy" and were guaranteed their personal safety and security of property, but only in return for paying tax (''
jizya Jizya (), or jizyah, is a type of taxation levied on non-Muslim subjects of a state governed by Sharia, Islamic law. The Quran and hadiths mention jizya without specifying its rate or amount,Sabet, Amr (2006), ''The American Journal of Islamic Soc ...
'')Cl. Cahen in Encyclopedia of Islam – Jizya and acknowledging Muslim rule. The Rashidun caliphs had placed special emphasis on relatively fair and just treatment of the ''dhimmis'' which were also provided "protection" by the Caliphate and were not expected to fight as Muslims were. Sometimes, particularly when there were not enough qualified Muslims, ''dhimmis'' were allowed to hold important positions in the government. In the following decades Islamic jurists elaborated a legal framework in which other religions would have a protected but subordinate status. Islamic law followed the Byzantine precedent of classifying subjects of the state according to their religion, in contrast to the Sasanian model which put more weight on social than on religious distinctions. In theory, only monotheists could be ''dhimmi'' and severe restrictions were placed on paganism, as the Byzantine empire had. But in practice most non-Abrahamic communities of the former Sasanian territories were classified as possessors of a scripture (''ahl al-kitab'') and granted protected ('' dhimmi'') status. According to Bernard Lewis, one minority (the Jews) found their position "somewhat improved" from the rule of the
Sassanid The Sasanian Empire (), officially Eranshahr ( , "Empire of the Iranian peoples, Iranians"), was an List of monarchs of Iran, Iranian empire that was founded and ruled by the House of Sasan from 224 to 651. Enduring for over four centuries, th ...
s and Christian Byzantines. However, according to Jebran Chamieh, the treatment of the non-Muslims by Caliph Omar (at least) was "harsh ... In 635–636, he expelled the Christians of Najran from their region and the Jews of Khaybar from their city. The Jews went to Jericho in Jordan and the Christians to Syria and Iraq. No Jew or Christian remained in Hejaz. To Caliph Omar also are attributed the "Edicts" that discriminate against the "People of the Book".


Conquered land

According to Islamic law, Muslim conquerors may do as they wish with the property of non-Muslims who did not surrender before being conquered, (enemy who surrendered under terms of a treaty were generally allowed to keep their land), and many Muslims called for Umar to distributed the land of the conquered as spoils among the Arabs (according to a pious work by Abdus Salam Nadvi based on Muslim literature). Instead, Umar allowed the non-Muslims landowners to keep their land and set up a system of taxation of land. (Nadvi attributing this to Umar's benevolence, and non-Muslim scholar Laura Vaglieri to Umar's good sense – the conquering rank and file who the land might have been divided among being Bedouin, who knew herding and raiding but not the cultivation skills of peasantry.)


Districts or provinces

Under Abu Bakr, the empire was not clearly divided into provinces, though it had many administrative districts. Under Umar the Empire was divided into a number of
province A province is an administrative division within a country or sovereign state, state. The term derives from the ancient Roman , which was the major territorial and administrative unit of the Roman Empire, Roman Empire's territorial possessions ou ...
s which were as follows: #
Arabia The Arabian Peninsula (, , or , , ) or Arabia, is a peninsula in West Asia, situated north-east of Africa on the Arabian plate. At , comparable in size to India, the Arabian Peninsula is the largest peninsula in the world. Geographically, the ...
was divided into two provinces,
Mecca Mecca, officially Makkah al-Mukarramah, is the capital of Mecca Province in the Hejaz region of western Saudi Arabia; it is the Holiest sites in Islam, holiest city in Islam. It is inland from Jeddah on the Red Sea, in a narrow valley above ...
and
Medina Medina, officially al-Madinah al-Munawwarah (, ), also known as Taybah () and known in pre-Islamic times as Yathrib (), is the capital of Medina Province (Saudi Arabia), Medina Province in the Hejaz region of western Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, ...
; #
Iraq Iraq, officially the Republic of Iraq, is a country in West Asia. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to Iraq–Saudi Arabia border, the south, Turkey to Iraq–Turkey border, the north, Iran to Iran–Iraq border, the east, the Persian Gulf and ...
was divided into two provinces,
Basra Basra () is a port city in Iraq, southern Iraq. It is the capital of the eponymous Basra Governorate, as well as the List of largest cities of Iraq, third largest city in Iraq overall, behind Baghdad and Mosul. Located near the Iran–Iraq bor ...
and
Kufa Kufa ( ), also spelled Kufah, is a city in Iraq, about south of Baghdad, and northeast of Najaf. It is located on the banks of the Euphrates, Euphrates River. The estimated population in 2003 was 110,000. Along with Samarra, Karbala, Kadhimiya ...
; #
Jazira Jazira, al-Jazira, Jazeera, al-Jazeera, etc. are all transcriptions of Arabic language, Arabic meaning "the island" or "the peninsula". The term may refer to: Business *Jazeera Airways, an airlines company based in Kuwait Locations * Al-Jazir ...
was divided into two provinces, the
Tigris The Tigris ( ; see #Etymology, below) is the eastern of the two great rivers that define Mesopotamia, the other being the Euphrates. The river flows south from the mountains of the Armenian Highlands through the Syrian Desert, Syrian and Arabia ...
and the
Euphrates The Euphrates ( ; see #Etymology, below) is the longest and one of the most historically important rivers of West Asia. Tigris–Euphrates river system, Together with the Tigris, it is one of the two defining rivers of Mesopotamia (). Originati ...
; #
Syria Syria, officially the Syrian Arab Republic, is a country in West Asia located in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Levant. It borders the Mediterranean Sea to the west, Turkey to Syria–Turkey border, the north, Iraq to Iraq–Syria border, t ...
was a province; #
Palestine Palestine, officially the State of Palestine, is a country in West Asia. Recognized by International recognition of Palestine, 147 of the UN's 193 member states, it encompasses the Israeli-occupied West Bank, including East Jerusalem, and th ...
was divided in two provinces: Aylya and Ramlah; #
Egypt Egypt ( , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a country spanning the Northeast Africa, northeast corner of Africa and Western Asia, southwest corner of Asia via the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to northe ...
was divided into two provinces:
Upper Egypt Upper Egypt ( ', shortened to , , locally: ) is the southern portion of Egypt and is composed of the Nile River valley south of the delta and the 30th parallel North. It thus consists of the entire Nile River valley from Cairo south to Lake N ...
and
Lower Egypt Lower Egypt ( ') is the northernmost region of Egypt, which consists of the fertile Nile Delta between Upper Egypt and the Mediterranean Sea, from El Aiyat, south of modern-day Cairo, and Dahshur. Historically, the Nile River split into sev ...
; #
Persia Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran (IRI) and also known as Persia, is a country in West Asia. It borders Iraq to the west, Turkey, Azerbaijan, and Armenia to the northwest, the Caspian Sea to the north, Turkmenistan to the nort ...
was divided into three provinces: Khorasan,
Azerbaijan Azerbaijan, officially the Republic of Azerbaijan, is a Boundaries between the continents, transcontinental and landlocked country at the boundary of West Asia and Eastern Europe. It is a part of the South Caucasus region and is bounded by ...
, and Fars. In his testament Umar had instructed his successor, Uthman, not to make any change in the administrative setup for one year after his death, which Uthman honored; however, after the expiration of the moratorium, he made Egypt one province and created a new province comprising
North Africa North Africa (sometimes Northern Africa) is a region encompassing the northern portion of the African continent. There is no singularly accepted scope for the region. However, it is sometimes defined as stretching from the Atlantic shores of t ...
. During Uthman's reign the caliphate was divided into 12 provinces. These were: #
Medina Medina, officially al-Madinah al-Munawwarah (, ), also known as Taybah () and known in pre-Islamic times as Yathrib (), is the capital of Medina Province (Saudi Arabia), Medina Province in the Hejaz region of western Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, ...
; #
Mecca Mecca, officially Makkah al-Mukarramah, is the capital of Mecca Province in the Hejaz region of western Saudi Arabia; it is the Holiest sites in Islam, holiest city in Islam. It is inland from Jeddah on the Red Sea, in a narrow valley above ...
; #
Yemen Yemen, officially the Republic of Yemen, is a country in West Asia. Located in South Arabia, southern Arabia, it borders Saudi Arabia to Saudi Arabia–Yemen border, the north, Oman to Oman–Yemen border, the northeast, the south-eastern part ...
; #
Kufa Kufa ( ), also spelled Kufah, is a city in Iraq, about south of Baghdad, and northeast of Najaf. It is located on the banks of the Euphrates, Euphrates River. The estimated population in 2003 was 110,000. Along with Samarra, Karbala, Kadhimiya ...
; #
Basra Basra () is a port city in Iraq, southern Iraq. It is the capital of the eponymous Basra Governorate, as well as the List of largest cities of Iraq, third largest city in Iraq overall, behind Baghdad and Mosul. Located near the Iran–Iraq bor ...
; #
Jazira Jazira, al-Jazira, Jazeera, al-Jazeera, etc. are all transcriptions of Arabic language, Arabic meaning "the island" or "the peninsula". The term may refer to: Business *Jazeera Airways, an airlines company based in Kuwait Locations * Al-Jazir ...
; # Fars; #
Azerbaijan Azerbaijan, officially the Republic of Azerbaijan, is a Boundaries between the continents, transcontinental and landlocked country at the boundary of West Asia and Eastern Europe. It is a part of the South Caucasus region and is bounded by ...
; # Khorasan; #
Syria Syria, officially the Syrian Arab Republic, is a country in West Asia located in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Levant. It borders the Mediterranean Sea to the west, Turkey to Syria–Turkey border, the north, Iraq to Iraq–Syria border, t ...
; #
Egypt Egypt ( , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a country spanning the Northeast Africa, northeast corner of Africa and Western Asia, southwest corner of Asia via the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to northe ...
; #
Maghreb The Maghreb (; ), also known as the Arab Maghreb () and Northwest Africa, is the western part of the Arab world. The region comprises western and central North Africa, including Algeria, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, and Tunisia. The Maghreb al ...
. During Ali's reign, with the exception of Syria (which was under Muawiyah I's control) and Egypt (lost during the latter years of his caliphate to the rebel troops of Amr ibn Al-A'as), the remaining ten provinces were under his control, with no change in administrative organisation. The provinces were further divided into
district A district is a type of administrative division that in some countries is managed by the local government. Across the world, areas known as "districts" vary greatly in size, spanning regions or county, counties, several municipality, municip ...
s. Each of the 100 or more districts of the empire, along with the main cities, were administered by a
governor A governor is an politician, administrative leader and head of a polity or Region#Political regions, political region, in some cases, such as governor-general, governors-general, as the head of a state's official representative. Depending on the ...
('' Wāli''). Other officers at the provincial level were: # ''Katib'', the Chief
Secretary A secretary, administrative assistant, executive assistant, personal secretary, or other similar titles is an individual whose work consists of supporting management, including executives, using a variety of project management, program evalu ...
; # ''Katib-ud-Diwan'', the
Military A military, also known collectively as armed forces, is a heavily armed, highly organized force primarily intended for warfare. Militaries are typically authorized and maintained by a sovereign state, with their members identifiable by a d ...
Secretary A secretary, administrative assistant, executive assistant, personal secretary, or other similar titles is an individual whose work consists of supporting management, including executives, using a variety of project management, program evalu ...
; # ''Sahib-ul-Kharaj'', the
Revenue In accounting, revenue is the total amount of income generated by the sale of product (business), goods and services related to the primary operations of a business. Commercial revenue may also be referred to as sales or as turnover. Some compan ...
Collector; # ''Sahib-ul-Ahdath'', the Police Chief; # ''Sahib-ul-Bait-ul-Mal'', the
Treasury A treasury is either *A government department related to finance and taxation, a finance ministry; in a business context, corporate treasury. *A place or location where treasure, such as currency or precious items are kept. These can be ...
Officer; # ''Qadi'', the Chief Judge. In some districts there were separate military officers, though the governor was in most cases the commander-in-chief of the army quartered in the province. The officers were appointed by the Caliph. Every appointment was made in writing. At the time of appointment, an instrument of instructions was issued to regulate the conduct of the governors. On assuming office, the Governor was required to assemble the people in the main
mosque A mosque ( ), also called a masjid ( ), is a place of worship for Muslims. The term usually refers to a covered building, but can be any place where Salah, Islamic prayers are performed; such as an outdoor courtyard. Originally, mosques were si ...
and read the instrument of instructions before them. Umar's general instructions to his officers were: During the reign of Abu Bakr, the state was economically weak, while during Umar's reign because of an increase in revenues and other sources of income, the state was on its way to economic prosperity. Hence Umar felt it necessary to treat the officers strictly in order to prevent corruption. During his reign, at the time of appointment, every officer was required to swear an oath: # That he would not ride a Turkic horse (''which was a symbol of pride''); # That he would not wear fine clothes; # That he would not eat sifted flour; # That he would not keep a porter at his door; # That he would always keep his door open to the public. Caliph Umar himself followed the above postulates strictly. During the reign of Uthman the state became more economically prosperous than ever before; the allowance of the citizens was increased by 25%, and the economic condition of the ordinary person was more stable, which led Caliph Uthman to revoke the second and third postulates of the oath. At the time of an officer's appointment, a complete inventory of all his possessions was prepared and kept on record. If there was later an unusual increase in his possessions, he was immediately called to account, and the unlawful property confiscated by the State. The principal officers were required to come to Mecca on the occasion of the
Hajj Hajj (; ; also spelled Hadj, Haj or Haji) is an annual Islamic pilgrimage to Mecca, Saudi Arabia, the holiest city for Muslims. Hajj is a mandatory religious duty for capable Muslims that must be carried out at least once in their lifetim ...
, during which people were free to present any complaint against them. In order to minimize the chances of corruption, Umar made it a point to pay high salaries to the staff. Provincial governors received as much as five to seven thousand
dirham The dirham, dirhem or drahm is a unit of currency and of mass. It is the name of the currencies of Moroccan dirham, Morocco, the United Arab Emirates dirham, United Arab Emirates and Armenian dram, Armenia, and is the name of a currency subdivisi ...
s annually besides their share of the spoils of war (if they were also the commander-in-chief of the army of their sector).


Judicial administration

The judicial administration, like the rest of the administrative structure of the Rashidun Caliphate, was set up by Umar, and it remained basically unchanged throughout the duration of the Caliphate. In order to provide adequate and speedy justice for the people, justice was administered according to the principles of Islam. Accordingly, '' Qadis'' (judges) were appointed at all administrative levels. The ''Qadis'' were chosen for their integrity and learning in Islamic law. Wealthy men and men of high social status, compensated highly by the Caliphate, were appointed in order to make them resistant to bribery or undue influence based on social position. The ''Qadis'' also were not allowed to engage in trade. Judges were appointed in sufficient numbers to staff every district with at least one.


Accountability of rulers

Sunni Islamic lawyers have commented on when it is permissible to disobey, impeach or remove rulers in the Caliphate. This is usually when the rulers are not meeting public responsibilities obliged upon them under Islam. Al-Mawardi said that if the rulers meet their Islamic responsibilities to the public, the people must obey their laws, but if they become either unjust or severely ineffective, then the Caliph or ruler must be impeached via the Majlis al-Shura. Al-Juwayni argued that Islam is the goal of the ummah, so any ruler that deviates from this goal must be impeached. Al-Ghazali believed that
oppression Oppression is malicious or unjust treatment of, or exercise of power over, a group of individuals, often in the form of governmental authority. Oppression may be overt or covert, depending on how it is practiced. No universally accepted model ...
by a caliph is enough for impeachment. Rather than just relying on impeachment, Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani obliged
rebellion Rebellion is an uprising that resists and is organized against one's government. A rebel is a person who engages in a rebellion. A rebel group is a consciously coordinated group that seeks to gain political control over an entire state or a ...
upon the people if the caliph began to act with no regard for Islamic law. Al-Asqalani said that to ignore such a situation is ''
haraam ''Haram'' (; ) is an Arabic term meaning 'taboo'. This may refer to either something sacred to which access is not allowed to the people who are not in a state of purity or who are not initiated into the sacred knowledge; or, in direct cont ...
'', and those who cannot revolt inside the caliphate should launch a struggle from outside. He used two ayahs from the Qur'an to justify this: Islamic lawyers have commented that when the rulers refuse to step down via successful impeachment through the Majlis, becoming dictators through the support of a corrupt army, the majority, upon agreement, has the option to launch a
revolution In political science, a revolution (, 'a turn around') is a rapid, fundamental transformation of a society's class, state, ethnic or religious structures. According to sociologist Jack Goldstone, all revolutions contain "a common set of elements ...
against them. Many noted that this option is only exercised after factoring in the potential cost of life.


Spoils


Impact on conquerors

The Arab conquests extended to Merv (in what is now Turkestan) by 652. The victorious armies returned to Medina with booty including slave and gold. It was "as if the sky had opened with a flood of gold". Abu Hasan al-Mas'udi (d.957) also writes of the great mass of wealth acquired in a relatively short period of times. Taha Husain writes:


Distribution


Beginning of the allowance

After the Battle of the Yarmuk and Battle of al-Qadisiyyah the Muslims won heavy spoils, filling the coffers at Medina. The problem before Umar was what to do with this money. Someone suggested that the money should be kept in the treasury as a reserve for public expenditures. However, this view was not acceptable to the general body of Muslims. Accordingly, a consensus was reached to distribute whatever was received during a year to the citizens as "allowances" (aka pensions), the register of which was called the ''dīwān''. The next question was what system should be adopted for distribution. One suggestion was to distribute it equally on an ad hoc basis. Others objected that, as the spoils were considerable, the proposal would make the people very rich. It was therefore agreed that, instead of ad hoc division, the amount of the allowance to the stipend should be determined beforehand and this allowance should be paid regardless of the amount of the spoils. Umar drew up lists of who had a right to booty from the conquests, ranking recipients according to how early they had converted to Islam and how close they were in bloodline to the Prophet Muhammad. Blood relationship was organized by clan. Bani Hashim appeared as the first clan, then the clan of Abu Bakr, and then the clan of Umar. Umar accepted the first two placements but relegated his clan lower on the relationship scale. The main provisions of the final scale of allowance approved by Umar were: # The widows of Muhammad received 12,000 dirhams each # 'Abbas ibn 'Abd al-Muttalib, the uncle of Muhammad, received an annual allowance of 7,000 dirhams # The grandsons of Muhammad,
Hasan ibn Ali Hasan ibn Ali (; 2 April 670) was an Alids, Alid political and religious leader. The eldest son of Ali and Fatima and a grandson of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, Hasan briefly ruled as Rashidun caliphate, Rashidun caliph from January 661 unt ...
and
Husayn ibn Ali Husayn ibn Ali (; 11 January 626 – 10 October 680 Common Era, CE) was a social, political and religious leader in early medieval Arabia. The grandson of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and an Alids, Alid (the son of Ali ibn Abu Talib ibn Abd a ...
received 5,000 dirhams each # Those who had become Muslims by the time of the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah got 4,000 dirhams each # The veterans of the Apostasy wars received 3,000 dirhams each Under this scale, Umar's son Abdullah ibn Umar received an allowance of 3,000 dirhams, while Usama ibn Zaid got 4,000. The ordinary Muslim citizens were given allowances of between 2,000 and 2,500. The regular annual allowance was given only to the urban population because they formed the backbone of the state's economic resources. The Bedouin living in the desert, cut off from the state's affairs and making no contributions to development, were nevertheless often given stipends. On assuming office, Uthman increased these stipends by 25%.


Economy

According to a pious work on early Islam by Abdus Salam Nadvi, among their other virtues, the Rashidun were known for their leniency in levying taxation.


Treasury and coinage

''Bait-ul-Maal'' (lit., ''the house of money''), aka treasury, aka state exchequer, was established by Abu Bakr. Umar built the building housing it. Revenues for the ''Bait'' came from taxes on lands left in the hands of their owners, rents from confiscated lands, and to a lesser extent
zakat Zakat (or Zakāh زكاة) is one of the Five Pillars of Islam. Zakat is the Arabic word for "Giving to Charity" or "Giving to the Needy". Zakat is a form of almsgiving, often collected by the Muslim Ummah. It is considered in Islam a relig ...
tithe paid by Muslims, one fifth the value of booty, and tribute and personal taxes paid by the conquered. A "major portion" of the funds collected for the ''Bait-ul-Maal'' (at least under caliph Umar) went to stipends or allowances that Muslims gave themselves as conquerors of the land. After consulting the Companions, Umar decided to establish the central Treasury at Medina. Abdullah bin Arqam was appointed as the Treasury Officer. He was assisted by Abdur Rahman bin Awf and Muiqib. A separate Accounts Department was also set up to maintain spending records. Later treasuries were set up in the provinces. After meeting the local expenditure, the provincial treasuries were required to remit the surplus revenue to the central treasury at Medina. According to Yaqubi, the salaries and stipends charged to the central treasury amounted to over 30 million dirhams. A separate building was constructed for the royal treasury, the ''bait ul maal'' which, in large cities, was protected by as many as 400 guards. Most historical accounts state that, among the Rashidun caliphs, Uthman was the first to strike coins; some accounts, however, state that Umar was the first to do so. When Persia was conquered, three types of coins were current there: the Baghli, of eight dang; Tabari of four dang; and Maghribi of three dang. Umar (or Uthman, according to some accounts) first struck an Islamic dirham of six dang.
Social welfare Welfare spending is a type of government support intended to ensure that members of a society can meet basic human needs such as food and shelter. Social security may either be synonymous with welfare, or refer specifically to social insurance p ...
and
pension A pension (; ) is a fund into which amounts are paid regularly during an individual's working career, and from which periodic payments are made to support the person's retirement from work. A pension may be either a " defined benefit plan", wh ...
s were introduced in early
Islamic law Sharia, Sharī'ah, Shari'a, or Shariah () is a body of religious law that forms a part of the Islamic tradition based on scriptures of Islam, particularly the Qur'an and hadith. In Islamic terminology ''sharīʿah'' refers to immutable, intan ...
as forms of ''zakāt'' (charity), one of the Five Pillars of Islam, since the time of Umar. The
tax A tax is a mandatory financial charge or levy imposed on an individual or legal entity by a governmental organization to support government spending and public expenditures collectively or to regulate and reduce negative externalities. Tax co ...
es (including ''zakāt'' and ''jizya'') collected in the
treasury A treasury is either *A government department related to finance and taxation, a finance ministry; in a business context, corporate treasury. *A place or location where treasure, such as currency or precious items are kept. These can be ...
of an Islamic
government A government is the system or group of people governing an organized community, generally a State (polity), state. In the case of its broad associative definition, government normally consists of legislature, executive (government), execu ...
were used to provide income for the needy, including the poor, elderly, orphans, widows, and the disabled. According to the Islamic jurist
Al-Ghazali Al-Ghazali ( – 19 December 1111), archaically Latinized as Algazelus, was a Shafi'i Sunni Muslim scholar and polymath. He is known as one of the most prominent and influential jurisconsults, legal theoreticians, muftis, philosophers, the ...
(Algazel, 1058–1111), the government was also expected to stockpile food supplies in every region in case a
disaster A disaster is an event that causes serious harm to people, buildings, economies, or the environment, and the affected community cannot handle it alone. '' Natural disasters'' like avalanches, floods, earthquakes, and wildfires are caused by na ...
or
famine A famine is a widespread scarcity of food caused by several possible factors, including, but not limited to war, natural disasters, crop failure, widespread poverty, an Financial crisis, economic catastrophe or government policies. This phenom ...
occurred. Many Muslim thus argue the Rashidun caliphate was thus one of the earliest
welfare state A welfare state is a form of government in which the State (polity), state (or a well-established network of social institutions) protects and promotes the economic and social well-being of its citizens, based upon the principles of equal oppor ...
s. (se
online
File:Rashidun coin Pseudo-Byzantine types.jpg, Coin in use during the Rashidun Caliphate (661–750 CE). Pseudo-Byzantine type with depictions of the
Byzantine Emperor The foundation of Constantinople in 330 AD marks the conventional start of the Eastern Roman Empire, which Fall of Constantinople, fell to the Ottoman Empire in 1453 AD. Only the emperors who were recognized as legitimate rulers and exercised s ...
Constans II holding the cross-tipped staff and ''
globus cruciger The for, la, globus cruciger, cross-bearing orb, also known as ''stavroforos sphaira'' () or "the orb and cross", is an Sphere, orb surmounted by a Christian cross, cross. It has been a Christian Church, Christian symbol of authority since the M ...
''. File:First Islamic coins by caliph Uthman-mohammad adil rais.jpg, The Rashidun caliphs used the Sassanids symbols (
Star and crescent The conjoined representation of a star and a crescent is used in various historical contexts, including as a prominent symbol of the Ottoman Empire, and in contemporary times, as a national symbol by some countries, and by some Muslims as a sym ...
, fire temple, the picture of the last emperor Khosrau II) by adding the phrase ''bismillah'' on their coins, instead of designing a new one. File:Islamic coin, Time of the Rashidun. Khosrau type. AH 31-41 AD 651-661.jpg, Coin of the Rashidun Caliphate. Imitation of Sasanid Empire ruler Khosrau II type. BYS ( Bishapur) mint. Dated YE 25 = AH 36 (AD 656). Sasanian style bust imitating Khosrau II right; ''bismillah'' in margin/ Fire altar with ribbons and attendants; star and crescent flanking flames; date to left, mint name to right.


Taxation

A "regular system of revenue" for Iraq was set up during Umar's caliphate. According to Abdus Salam Nadvi, Umar chose to set up a system of taxation of the current (non-Muslim) owners of land of the conquered people instead of distributing the land as spoils among the conquering Arabs. Among other benevolences reported in Muslim literature, the Rashidun were said to be lenient in their tax collection. He appointed capable Companions of the Prophet to organise an assessment of arable/taxable land, confiscating only land from pagan temples, "absconders and the rebellious", and some others, and set taxes according to crops raised on the land, giving the taxpayer the choice of several tax collectors to collect their taxes. In doing all this he sought advise from "venerable persons" for improvement of his work, including non-Muslims Zimmi subject. Outside of Iraq, he forbade extra confiscation of crops above the rate of tribute taxation and forbade Muslims (who received stipends) from taking possession of the conquered people's land, threatening or punishing those who did. He also confiscated land from those who did not cultivate it. Caliph Ali reportedly advised a newly appointed tax collector: The economic resources of the State were: # ''Zakāt'' # ''Ushr'' # ''Jizya'' # ''Fay'' # ''Khums'' # ''Kharaj''


Zakat

'' Zakāt'' tax on Muslims to give to the poor (usually amounting to 2.5% of dormant wealth over a certain amount). The Rashidun reportedly complied with the practice of Muhammad of not taking the best goods of the taxpayers by way of Zakat.


Ushr

''Ushr'' was another tax on non-Muslims. It was a reciprocal 10% levy on agricultural land as well as merchandise imported from states that taxed the Muslims on their products. Umar was the first Muslim ruler to levy ''ushr''. Umar issued instructions that ''ushr'' should be levied in such a way so as to avoid hardship, so as not to affect trade within the Caliphate. The tax was levied only on merchandise meant for sale; goods imported for consumption or personal use but not for sale were not taxed. Merchandise valued at 200 dirhams or less was not taxed. Imports by citizens for trade purposes were subject to the customs duty or import tax at lower rates. In the case of the ''dhimmis'', the rate was 5% and, in the case of the Muslims, 2.5%, the same as that of ''zakāt''. The levy was thus regarded as a part of ''zakāt'' rather than a separate tax.


Jizya

''Jizya'' was a
per capita ''Per capita'' is a Latin phrase literally meaning "by heads" or "for each head", and idiomatically used to mean "per person". Social statistics The term is used in a wide variety of social science, social sciences and statistical research conte ...
tax A tax is a mandatory financial charge or levy imposed on an individual or legal entity by a governmental organization to support government spending and public expenditures collectively or to regulate and reduce negative externalities. Tax co ...
imposed on able bodied (disabled were exempt) non-Muslim men (known as Zimmis). Nadvi states that collectors were forbidden from torturing the Zimmis while collecting Jizyah.


Fay

''Fay'' was the income from state land, whether an agricultural land or a meadow or land with any natural
mineral In geology and mineralogy, a mineral or mineral species is, broadly speaking, a solid substance with a fairly well-defined chemical composition and a specific crystal structure that occurs naturally in pure form.John P. Rafferty, ed. (2011): Mi ...
reserves.


Khums

''Ghanimah'' or ''Khums'' represented war booty, four-fifths of which was distributed among serving soldiers, while one-fifth was allotted to the state.


Kharaj

''Kharaj'' was a tax on agricultural land. Initially, after the first Muslim conquests in the 7th century, ''kharaj'' usually denoted a lump-sum duty levied upon the conquered provinces and collected by the officials of the former Byzantine and Sasanian empires, or, more broadly, any kind of tax levied by Muslim conquerors on their non-Muslim subjects, dhimmis. At that time, ''kharaj'' was synonymous with ''jizyah'', which later emerged as a
poll tax A poll tax, also known as head tax or capitation, is a tax levied as a fixed sum on every liable individual (typically every adult), without reference to income or resources. ''Poll'' is an archaic term for "head" or "top of the head". The sen ...
paid by dhimmis. Muslim landowners, on the other hand, paid only ushr, a religious
tithe A tithe (; from Old English: ''teogoþa'' "tenth") is a one-tenth part of something, paid as a contribution to a religious organization or compulsory tax to government. Modern tithes are normally voluntary and paid in money, cash, cheques or v ...
, which carried a much lower rate of taxation.Lewis (2002), p. 72


Public works

Upon conquest, in almost all cases, the caliphs were burdened with the maintenance and construction of roads and bridges in return for the conquered nation's political loyalty. Civil welfare in Islam started in the form of the construction and purchase of wells. During the caliphate, the Muslims repaired many of the aging wells in the lands they conquered. In addition to wells, the Muslims built many tanks and
canal Canals or artificial waterways are waterways or engineered channels built for drainage management (e.g. flood control and irrigation) or for conveyancing water transport vehicles (e.g. water taxi). They carry free, calm surface ...
s. Many canals were purchased and new ones constructed. While some canals were excluded for the use of monks (such as a spring purchased by Talhah) and the needy, most canals were open to general public use. Some canals were constructed between settlements, such as the Saad canal that provided water to Anbar, and the Abi Musa Canal to provide water to
Basra Basra () is a port city in Iraq, southern Iraq. It is the capital of the eponymous Basra Governorate, as well as the List of largest cities of Iraq, third largest city in Iraq overall, behind Baghdad and Mosul. Located near the Iran–Iraq bor ...
. During a famine, Umar ibn al-Khattab ordered the construction of a canal in Egypt connecting the
Nile The Nile (also known as the Nile River or River Nile) is a major north-flowing river in northeastern Africa. It flows into the Mediterranean Sea. The Nile is the longest river in Africa. It has historically been considered the List of river sy ...
with the sea. The purpose of the canal was to facilitate the transport of grain to Arabia through a sea-route, hitherto transported only by land. The canal was constructed within a year by Amr ibn al-As, and Abdus Salam Nadiv writes that "Arabia was rid of famine for all the times to come." After four floods hit Mecca after Muhammad's death, Umar ordered the construction of two dams to protect the
Kaaba The Kaaba (), also spelled Kaba, Kabah or Kabah, sometimes referred to as al-Kaba al-Musharrafa (), is a stone building at the center of Islam's most important mosque and Holiest sites in Islam, holiest site, the Masjid al-Haram in Mecca, Sa ...
. He also constructed a dam near Medina to protect its fountains from flooding.


Settlements

The area of
Basra Basra () is a port city in Iraq, southern Iraq. It is the capital of the eponymous Basra Governorate, as well as the List of largest cities of Iraq, third largest city in Iraq overall, behind Baghdad and Mosul. Located near the Iran–Iraq bor ...
was very sparsely populated when it was conquered by the Muslims. During the reign of Umar, the Muslim army found it a suitable place to construct a base. Later the area was settled and a mosque was erected. Upon the conquest of Madyan, it was settled by Muslims. However, soon the environment was considered harsh, and Umar ordered the resettlement of the 40,000 settlers to Kufa. The new buildings were constructed from mud bricks instead of reeds, a material that was popular in the region but caught fire easily. During the conquest of Egypt, the area of Fustat was used by the Muslim army as a base. Upon the conquest of Alexandria in 641, the Muslims returned and settled in the same area. Initially the land was primarily used for pasture, but later buildings were constructed. Other already populated areas were greatly expanded. At
Mosul Mosul ( ; , , ; ; ; ) is a major city in northern Iraq, serving as the capital of Nineveh Governorate. It is the second largest city in Iraq overall after the capital Baghdad. Situated on the banks of Tigris, the city encloses the ruins of the ...
, Arfaja al-Bariqi, at the command of Umar, constructed a fort, a few churches, a mosque and a locality for the Jewish population.


Miracles

According to a work by
al-Suyuti Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti (; 1445–1505), or al-Suyuti, was an Egyptians, Egyptian Sunni Muslims, Muslim polymath of Persians, Persian descent. Considered the mujtahid and mujaddid of the Islamic 10th century, he was a leading Hadith studies, muh ...
(in his History of the Caliphs (''Tarikh al-Khulafa''), Umar performed several miracles according to different
hadith Hadith is the Arabic word for a 'report' or an 'account f an event and refers to the Islamic oral tradition of anecdotes containing the purported words, actions, and the silent approvals of the Islamic prophet Muhammad or his immediate circle ...
. One series of hadith describe how Umar interrupted a ''khutbah'' (Friday prayer sermon) to call out "Sariyah, the mountain!" to the confusion of his listeners who saw no Sariyah. It later turned out that Sariyah was a commander of an army Umar had sent to fight, and which at that moment was losing its battle. Though a long distance away, Sariya heard Umar's cry and realized he must position his army with its rear to a close by mountain, whereupon Sariya was victorious over the enemy. In another series of hadith, Umar told a stranger he met to "Go to your family for they have been burnt", which the man did and found they had been victims of a fire; and on another occasion Umar was able to detect whenever a lie is being told to him. Amr ibn al-As, a military commander and governor who served under the Rashidun, learned of an Egyptian tradition where a virgin was sacrificed by being drown in the Nile river at the beginning of the year, "without which he Niledoes not flow". Al-As forbade this as unIslamic, but after the human sacrifice stopped, the river stopped flowing, seeming to prove the tradition right. In answer to the Egyptians fears of famine, Al-As gave them a slip of paper to throw in the river upon which a request was written for Allah to make the river flow. The day after the paper was thrown, the river rose sixteen cubits.


Significance and legacy


Notable features

* All four Rashidun caliphs were connected to Muhammad through marriage and were early converts to Islam, and so were thought to be "a continuation of the prophetic period with all its virtues and sanctity"; the daughters of Abu Bakr and Umar,
Aisha Aisha bint Abi Bakr () was a seventh century Arab commander, politician, Muhaddith, muhadditha and the third and youngest wife of the Prophets and messengers in Islam, Islamic prophet Muhammad. Aisha had an important role in early Islamic h ...
and Hafsa respectively, were married to Muhammad, and two of Muhammad's daughters Ruqayyah,
Umm Kulthum Umm Kulthum (; 31 December 1898 – 3 February 1975) was an Egyptians, Egyptian singer and film actress active from the 1920s to the 1970s. She was given the honorific title (). Immensely popular throughout the Middle East and beyond, Umm Kul ...
were married to Uthman, and another daughter,
Fatimah Fatima bint Muhammad (; 605/15–632 CE), commonly known as Fatima al-Zahra' (), was the daughter of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and his wife Khadija bint Khuwaylid, Khadija. Fatima's husband was Ali, the fourth of the Rashidun caliphs and ...
, to Ali. * Were Muhammad's closest companions by association and support, often praised by him, and delegated roles of leadership within the nascent Muslim community.


According to different schools


Sunni

Among the notable features of the dynasty according to Sunnis were that: * Likewise, their succession was not hereditary, something that would become the custom after them, beginning with the subsequent Umayyad Caliphate. Council decision or caliph's choice determined the successor originally. They were chosen according to will of leaders of the Muslim community, rather than inheriting the title through their family relation to their predecessor like most later caliphs; * They are among the ten Muslims explicitly promised paradise according to several hadiths in
Sunni Islam Sunni Islam is the largest Islamic schools and branches, branch of Islam and the largest religious denomination in the world. It holds that Muhammad did not appoint any Succession to Muhammad, successor and that his closest companion Abu Bakr ...
. The term or phrase ''
Rashidun The Rashidun () are the first four caliphs () who led the Muslim community following the death of Muhammad: Abu Bakr (), Umar (), Uthman (), and Ali (). The reign of these caliphs, called the Rashidun Caliphate (632–661), is considered i ...
''/"Rightly Guided" is derived from a famous Sunni
hadith Hadith is the Arabic word for a 'report' or an 'account f an event and refers to the Islamic oral tradition of anecdotes containing the purported words, actions, and the silent approvals of the Islamic prophet Muhammad or his immediate circle ...
where Muhammad foretold that the caliphate after him would last for 30 years (the length of the Rashidun Caliphate) and would then be followed by kingship (the Umayyad Caliphate being hereditary and often compared to a monarchy). The Rightly Guided Caliphate is also featured in other hadiths about endtimes in Sunan Abu Dawood and Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal, where it is foretold they will be restored once again by God in the time before
Judgement Day The Last Judgment is a concept found across the Abrahamic religions and the ''Frashokereti'' of Zoroastrianism. Christianity considers the Second Coming of Jesus, Jesus Christ to entail the final judgment by God in Abrahamic religions, God of a ...
. The first four caliphs are particularly significant to modern intra-Islamic debates: for Sunni Muslims, they are models of righteous rule; for Shia Muslims (at least Twelver Shia), the first three of the four were usurpers. Accepted traditions of both Sunni and Shia Muslims detail disagreements and tensions between the four rightly guided caliphs. In
Sunni Islam Sunni Islam is the largest Islamic schools and branches, branch of Islam and the largest religious denomination in the world. It holds that Muhammad did not appoint any Succession to Muhammad, successor and that his closest companion Abu Bakr ...
, the application of the label "rightly-guided" to the first caliphs signifies their status as models whose actions and opinions (Arabic: ) should be followed and emulated from a religious point of view. In this sense, they are both rightly-guided and rightly-guiding: the religious narratives about their lives serve as a guide to right belief. For example, pious Sunni historian Salam Nadvi emphasizes that as Companions of the Prophet the Rashidun were "deserving for Divine caliphate" because of their "beliefs and good deeds", their "moral characteristics", adherence to "the true path", their forbidding others from doing evil deeds, reluctance to be rulers, humility about their abilities ("O people! I do not wish to be a Caliph. If you expect following the Sunnah, I shall not be able to do so do not follow me"), disinterest in comfort and pleasure (sleeping on pebble covered ground. The Sunni have long viewed the period of the Rashidun as an exemplary system of governance—based upon Islamic righteousness and merit – which they seek to emulate. The Sunni also equate this system with the worldly success that was promised by Allah, in the Quran and
hadith Hadith is the Arabic word for a 'report' or an 'account f an event and refers to the Islamic oral tradition of anecdotes containing the purported words, actions, and the silent approvals of the Islamic prophet Muhammad or his immediate circle ...
, to those Muslims who pursued His pleasure; this spectacular success has further added to the emulatory appeal of the Rashidun era. In the modern Sunni Salafi movement some have asserted that only was "perfect justice and fairness ... fully realized" under the Rashidun, and that Muslims should "strive to replicate", its religious practices, but that Muslims should strive to follow (what they believe to be) everyday practices of the Rashidun, such as miswak teeth cleaning, not wearing neckties, not applauding speakers, etc. Islamists and fundamentalists see Rashidun as not only a model but the successor Ummayads as "religious deviates". At the same time, it has been noted that the domination of
Arabs Arabs (,  , ; , , ) are an ethnic group mainly inhabiting the Arab world in West Asia and North Africa. A significant Arab diaspora is present in various parts of the world. Arabs have been in the Fertile Crescent for thousands of yea ...
over non-Arabs on an ethnic basis during Umar's reign and the widespread nepotism of Uthman's caliphate are in essential conflict with the call of Islam.


Twelver Shia

The (Twelver) Shia view is that, similar to the past prophets in the
Quran The Quran, also Romanization, romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a Waḥy, revelation directly from God in Islam, God (''Allah, Allāh''). It is organized in 114 chapters (, ) which ...
, the succession to Muhammad was settled by divine appointment (not consensus), and chosen from Muhammad's family. Specifically, the successor was Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, Ali, who Muhammad announced as his rightful successor (according to Shia doctrine) shortly before his death at the event of Ghadir Khumm and on other occasions, e.g., at the event of Dhul Asheera. In the Shia view, while direct revelation ended with Muhammad's death, Ali remained the righteous guide or
Imam Imam (; , '; : , ') is an Islamic leadership position. For Sunni Islam, Sunni Muslims, Imam is most commonly used as the title of a prayer leader of a mosque. In this context, imams may lead Salah, Islamic prayers, serve as community leaders, ...
towards God, similar to the successors of the past prophets in the Quran. After Muhammad's death, Ali inherited Muhammad's divine knowledge and his authority to correctly interpret the
Quran The Quran, also Romanization, romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a Waḥy, revelation directly from God in Islam, God (''Allah, Allāh''). It is organized in 114 chapters (, ) which ...
, especially its allegorical and metaphorical verses ( ''mutashabihat''). In the Shia view, since the time of the first prophet,
Adam Adam is the name given in Genesis 1–5 to the first human. Adam is the first human-being aware of God, and features as such in various belief systems (including Judaism, Christianity, Gnosticism and Islam). According to Christianity, Adam ...
, the earth has never remained without an Imam, in the form of prophets and their divinely-appointed successors. Likewise,
Imamate The term imamate or ''imamah'' (, ''imāmah'') means "leadership" and refers to the office of an ''imam'' or a Muslim theocratic state ruled by an ''imam''. Theology *Imamate in Shia doctrine, the doctrine of the leadership of the Muslim commu ...
was passed on from Ali to the next Imam, Hasan, by divinely-inspired designation (''nass''). After Hasan's death, Husayn and nine of his descendants are the Shia Imams, the last of whom,
Mahdi The Mahdi () is a figure in Islamic eschatology who is believed to appear at the Eschatology, End of Times to rid the world of evil and injustice. He is said to be a descendant of Muhammad in Islam, Muhammad, and will appear shortly before Jesu ...
, went into occultation in 260 AH, due to the hostility of Mahdi's enemies and the danger to his life. His advent is awaited by the Shia and Sunni alike, although the Sunni hold different views about Mahdi. In his absence, the vacuum in the Shia leadership is partly filled by '' marjaiyya'' and, more recently, by ''wilayat al-faqqih'', i.e., guardianship of the Islamic jurist.


Views of other Shia

While the Ismaili Shi'ites accept a closely-related understanding of Imamate as the Twelver Shia, the Ismailis under the leadership of the
Aga Khan Aga Khan (; ; also transliterated as ''Aqa Khan'' and ''Agha Khan'') is a title held by the Imamate in Nizari doctrine, Imām of the Nizari Isma'ilism, Nizari Isma'ilism, Ismāʿīli Shia Islam, Shias. The current holder of the title is the ...
s do recognize the caliphates of the first three caliphs before Ali ibn Abi Talib while distinguishing Imamate as a separate office apart from the Caliphate: The Nizari Ismailis on the other hand, have come to accept the caliphates of Abu Bakr, Umar, and Uthman in the modern times under the leadership and teachings of the Aga Khans, even though polemics against those early caliphs were prevalent during the
Fatimid The Fatimid Caliphate (; ), also known as the Fatimid Empire, was a caliphate extant from the tenth to the twelfth centuries CE under the rule of the Fatimid dynasty, Fatimids, an Isma'ili Shi'a dynasty. Spanning a large area of North Africa ...
period. For instance, the Fatimid Ismaili Imam-Caliph Al-Hakim bi Amr Allah ordered the public cursing of the first three caliphs in the year 1005 in Cairo. The Zaydi Shia Muslims believe the first three caliphs to be legitimate leaders.


Kharijites

The Kharijites recognize only part of Uthman's caliphate as being legitimate, and only the caliphate of Ali before the
Battle of Siffin The Battle of Siffin () was fought in 657 CE (37 Islamic calendar, AH) between the fourth Rashidun caliph Ali ibn Abi Talib and the rebellious governor of Syria (region), Syria Muawiyah I, Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan. The battle is named after its ...
.


Questions about virtue and guidance

Some secular scholars/historians/observers have questioned the traditional reverent
Sunni Sunni Islam is the largest branch of Islam and the largest religious denomination in the world. It holds that Muhammad did not appoint any successor and that his closest companion Abu Bakr () rightfully succeeded him as the caliph of the Mu ...
view of the Rashidun. Fred Halliday, for example noting that "of the four caliphs, the first, Abu Baker, lived less than two years - too short a time to validate any political system - and the other three, Umar, Uthaman and Ali, were all murdered". Jebran Chamieh, quoting Ahmad Amin, lists quarrels that sometimes led to bloodshed between the Rashidun and other Companions that arose after Muhammad died over who should rule: Similarly, Shia view the companions, including the Rashidun Caliphs, as less than models of piety, instead accusing many of them of conspiring after the Prophet's death to dispossess Ali ibn Abi Talib and his descendants of the divinely ordained right to leadership. In this Shi'ite perspective, many of the companions and their successors were usurpers, even hypocrites, who never ceased to subvert the religion for their own interests. Robert G. Hoyland has questioned the alleged moral superiority of the Rashidun (or at least of Uthman and Ali) to their Umayyad successors, noting Ali was involved in the first civil war (
First Fitna The First Fitna () was the first civil war in the Islamic community. It led to the overthrow of the Rashidun and the establishment of the Umayyad Caliphate. The civil war involved three main battles between the fourth Rashidun caliph, Ali, an ...
) and Uthman had "already inaugurated a nepotistic style of government", Hoyland, ''In God's Path'', 2015: p. 134 for which later Caliphs were condemned.
Fred Donner Fred McGraw Donner (born 1945) is a scholar of Islam and Peter B. Ritzma Professor of Near Eastern History at the University of Chicago.
points out the difficulty in reconciling the alleged virtue of the Rashidun with their infighting. Muslims might find Abu Bakr and Umar rightly guided and moral paragons, but since Ali and Uthman were enemies whose supporters were waging civil war and killing each other, logically, at least one of them had to be in error and not "rightfully" guided.


Skeptical assessments

Donner and Jebran Chamieh write that it was only later when memories of fighting had faded that the community came to consider them both rightly guided. Chamieh and Ahmad Amin note earlier historians saw the Rashidun as mortals who possessed both great achievement and human weaknesses such as competition for political power and pursuit of worldly riches and pleasure.Amin, Ahmad, ''Doha al Islam'' (The Forenoon of Islam), v. 3, p. 75; quoted in Chamieh, ''Traditionalists, Militants and Liberal in Present Islam'', 1977, p. 40) With the political and intellectual decline of the Abassid dynasty and rise of the religiously conservative ''Ahl al-Naql'' (People of Revelation), the idea that the Rashidun caliphate was a "utopia" that Muslims can recreate by imitating its (alleged) purity, took root. In the centuries hence (starting around 874 according to Chamieh), the idea "assumed the character of an absolute truth which accepts no argument." Historian Hoyland questions not only the virtue of the Rashidun but also how much is known about them. He argues that "writers who lived at the same time as the first four caliphs ... recorded next to nothing about them, and their names do not appear on coins, inscriptions, or documents. Coins struck during the Rashidun rule are inscribed "In the name of God," but do not include the name of Muhammad.Ghabban, A.I.I., Translation and concluding remarks by and Hoyland, R., 2008, The inscription of Zuhayr, the oldest Islamic inscription (24 AH/AD 644–645), the rise of the Arabic script and the nature of the early Islamic state 1. ''Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy'', 19(2), pp. 210–237. It is only with the fifth caliph", Muawiyah I (661–680), "that was have evidence of a functioning Arab government, since his name appears on all official state media". Hoyland, ''In God's Path'', 2015, p. 98 Hoyland explains the idea of a divinely guided "golden age" of early Islam as coming not from the historical virtue of the Rashidun and other
Companions of the Prophet The Companions of the Prophet () were the Muslim disciples and followers of the Islamic prophet Muhammad who saw or met him during his lifetime. The companions played a major role in Muslim battles, society, hadith narration, and governance ...
(aṣ-ṣaḥāba), but from the desire of the religious scholars (
Ulama In Islam, the ''ulama'' ( ; also spelled ''ulema''; ; singular ; feminine singular , plural ) are scholars of Islamic doctrine and law. They are considered the guardians, transmitters, and interpreters of religious knowledge in Islam. "Ulama ...
) of the late Umayyad and Abbasid to have Caliphs of their era defer to them (the ulama) in religious matters. By differentiating the first caliphs (who had more power in law making) from contemporary Caliphs, they could argue for taking away the religious power of post-Rashidun Caliphs. Consequently, the companions were "given a makeover" as "model's of piety and beyond reproach". Hoyland, ''In God's Path'', 2015, p. 227


List of Rashidun caliphs


See also

* The Four Companions *
Islamic Golden Age The Islamic Golden Age was a period of scientific, economic, and cultural flourishing in the history of Islam, traditionally dated from the 8th century to the 13th century. This period is traditionally understood to have begun during the reign o ...
* Talut * The ten to whom Paradise was promised * Timeline of Medina


Notes


References


Sources

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *


Further reading

* * * * {{Authority control 632 establishments 661 disestablishments 7th century in Egypt 7th century in Iran 7th-century disestablishments in Africa 7th-century disestablishments in Asia 7th-century Islam Caliphates Countries in medieval Africa Early Muslim conquests Former countries in West Asia Historical transcontinental empires History of Central Asia History of the Arabian Peninsula Medieval history of Iraq Medieval history of Jordan Medieval history of Palestine Medieval history of Syria Muslim conquest of Egypt States and territories disestablished in the 7th century States and territories established in the 630s