Păcală (
Romanian
Romanian may refer to:
*anything of, from, or related to the country and nation of Romania
**Romanians, an ethnic group
**Romanian language, a Romance language
***Romanian dialects, variants of the Romanian language
**Romanian cuisine, traditional ...
, from ''a păcăli'', "to dupe";
[Victor Crăciun, "Pe urmele unui personaj. Păcală", in ''Ateneu'', Vol. IV, Issue 5, May 1967, p. 8] Romanian Cyrillic: Пъкалъ; sometimes rendered Pâcală or Pîcală) is a fictional character in
Romanian folklore
The folklore of Romania is the collection of traditions of the Romanians. A feature of Romanian culture is the special relationship between folklore and the learned culture, determined by two factors. First, the rural character of the Romania ...
,
literature
Literature is any collection of Writing, written work, but it is also used more narrowly for writings specifically considered to be an art form, especially novels, Play (theatre), plays, and poetry, poems. It includes both print and Electroni ...
and
humor
Humour ( Commonwealth English) or humor (American English) is the tendency of experiences to provoke laughter and provide amusement. The term derives from the humoral medicine of the ancient Greeks, which taught that the balance of fluids i ...
. Primarily associated with
Transylvania
Transylvania ( or ; ; or ; Transylvanian Saxon dialect, Transylvanian Saxon: ''Siweberjen'') is a List of historical regions of Central Europe, historical and cultural region in Central Europe, encompassing central Romania. To the east and ...
and
Oltenia
Oltenia (), also called Lesser Wallachia in antiquated versions – with the alternative Latin names , , and between 1718 and 1739 – is a historical province and geographical region of Romania in western Wallachia. It is situated between the Da ...
, he is depicted as a native of
Vaideeni
Vaideeni is a commune located in Vâlcea County, Oltenia, Romania
Romania is a country located at the crossroads of Central Europe, Central, Eastern Europe, Eastern and Southeast Europe. It borders Ukraine to the north and east, Hungary to ...
, located in an area of contact between those two regions. An irreverent young man, seemingly a peasant, he reserves contempt and irony for the village authorities (whether
Orthodox priest,
boyar
A boyar or bolyar was a member of the highest rank of the feudal nobility in many Eastern European states, including Bulgaria, Kievan Rus' (and later Russia), Moldavia and Wallachia (and later Romania), Lithuania and among Baltic Germans. C ...
or judge), but often plays the fool, or displays an erratic and criminal behavior that scholars attribute to the eclecticism of sources weaved into the narrative. Păcală seems to be at least partly modeled on other characters in
European folklore
European folklore or Western folklore refers to the folklore of the Western world, especially when discussed comparatively.
The history of Christendom during the Early Modern period has resulted in a number of traditions that are shared in many E ...
, in particular
Giufà and
Till Eulenspiegel
Till Eulenspiegel (; ) is the protagonist of a European narrative tradition. A German chapbook published around 1510 is the oldest known extant publication about the folk hero (a first edition of is preserved fragmentarily), but a background i ...
. He may therefore be borrowed from Western
chapbook
A chapbook is a type of small printed booklet that was a popular medium for street literature throughout early modern Europe. Chapbooks were usually produced cheaply, illustrated with crude woodcuts and printed on a single sheet folded into 8, 1 ...
s, with scholar
Traian Bratu hypothesizing that Romanians were introduced to the Eulenspiegel anecdotes by their prolonged contact with the
Transylvanian Saxons
The Transylvanian Saxons (; Transylvanian Saxon dialect, Transylvanian Saxon: ''Siweberjer Såksen'' or simply ''Soxen'', singularly ''Sox'' or ''Soax''; Transylvanian Landler dialect, Transylvanian Landler: ''Soxn'' or ''Soxisch''; ; seldom ''sa ...
. The stories were then adapted and, in at least some cases, substantially modified, for instance by the addition of a native mythological layer, and by the appearance of a sidekick, the more slow-witted Tândală.
The first written mentions of Păcală are found in early-to-mid 19th-century Saxon and other German collections of Romanian tales, which identify him as distinct from Eulenspiegel. He then became a subject of interest for Romanian writers, originally with spin-off parodies of oral accounts, generally with political content. These were produced by authors from various regions—including
Costache Negruzzi,
Alexandru Pelimon,
Ion Heliade Rădulescu
Ion Heliade Rădulescu or Ion Heliade (also known as ''Eliade'' or ''Eliade Rădulescu''; ; 6 January 1802 – 27 April 1872) was a Wallachian, later Romanian academic, Romanticism, Romantic and Classicism, Classicist poet, essayist, memoi ...
,
Vasile Alecsandri
Vasile Alecsandri (; 21 July 182122 August 1890) was a Romanian patriot, poet, dramatist, politician and diplomat. He was one of the key figures during the 1848 revolutions in Moldavia and Wallachia. He fought for the unification of the Roma ...
, and
Iosif Vulcan
Iosif Vulcan (March 31, 1841 – September 8, 1907) was an ethnic Romanian Austria-Hungary, Austro-Hungarian magazine editor, poet, playwright, novelist and cultural figure. He founded the literary magazine ''Familia (literary magazine), Famil ...
. From the 1860s, the stories were also collected and expanded upon in a number of editions, creating an opportunity for updated and polished versions of the myth. Several derivative works codify the various versions of Păcală-themed anecdotes. Early on,
Petre Ispirescu
Petre Ispirescu (; January 1830 – 21 November 1887) was a Romanian editor, folklorist, printer, and publicist. He is best known for his work as a gatherer of Romanian folk tales, recounting them with a remarkable talent.
Career
Petre Ispire ...
issued a printed version as ''Întâmplările lui Păcală'' ("The Adventures of Păcală"), part of ''
Legende sau basmele românilor''. This was followed closely by ''Isprăvile lui Păcală'' ("Păcală's Achievements"), authored by
Petre Dulfu
Petre Dulfu (10 March 1856 – 31 October 1953) was an Imperial Austrian-born Romanian poet, translator and playwright.
Born in Tohat, Sălaj County, his parents were Nichifor Dulfu and his wife Agapia (''née'' Bran), members of the rural i ...
, then by ''Păcală în satul lui'' ("Păcală in His Village"), composed by
Ioan Slavici. Some variants obscure those accounts which have Păcală interacting with figures in
Christian mythology
Christian mythology is the body of myths associated with Christianity. The term encompasses a broad variety of legends and narratives, especially those considered sacred narratives. Mythological themes and elements occur throughout Christian l ...
, and focus more or less exclusively on his relationship with
anti-clericalism
Anti-clericalism is opposition to clergy, religious authority, typically in social or political matters. Historically, anti-clericalism in Christian traditions has been opposed to the influence of Catholicism. Anti-clericalism is related to secul ...
. Many versions, particularly derivative ones produced under the
communist regime
A communist state, also known as a Marxist–Leninist state, is a one-party state in which the totality of the power belongs to a party adhering to some form of Marxism–Leninism, a branch of the communist ideology. Marxism–Leninism was ...
, promote his image as an anti-establishment
folk hero
A folk hero or national hero is a type of hero – real, fictional or mythology, mythological – with their name, personality and deeds embedded in the popular consciousness of a people, mentioned frequently in Folk music, folk songs, folk tales ...
.
First adapted as a character for Romanian theater in three plays by Alecsandri, he was readapted by
Victor Eftimiu
Victor Eftimiu (; 24 January 1889 – 27 November 1972) was a Romanian poet and playwright. He was a contributor to ''Sburătorul'', a Romanian literary magazine. His works have been performed in the State Jewish Theater of Romania.
Eftimi ...
in 1911, with ''
Înșir'te mărgărite'', and again by
Horia Furtună, in 1927; numerous
puppet
A puppet is an object, often resembling a human, animal or Legendary creature, mythical figure, that is animated or manipulated by a person called a puppeteer. Puppetry is an ancient form of theatre which dates back to the 5th century BC in anci ...
and
children's theater versions have followed.
Romanian cinema had begun exploring the notion of a Păcală-based feature film in 1914, with
Aurel Petrescu Aurel may refer to:
Places
* Aurel, Drôme, France
* Aurel, Vaucluse, France
Other uses
* Aurel (given name)
* Aurel Awards, a Slovak music award
* AuRel, a dragon in E. E. Knight's ''Age of Fire
Age of Fire is a series of fantasy/Adventure ...
working the subject matter into the first product of
Romanian animation (in 1921), and then into a live-action film (1926). Also the subject of an opera by
Sabin Drăgoi
Sabin Vasile Drăgoi (; 6 June 1894 – 31 December 1968) was a Romanian composer, who specialized in folk music. His oeuvre includes orchestral and chamber works, film music and operas.
He was born in a peasant family from Seliște, Arad ...
, he inspired
Tudor Arghezi
Ion Nae Theodorescu (21 May 1880 – 14 July 1967) was a Romanian writer who wrote under the pen name Tudor Arghezi (. He is best known for his unique contribution to poetry and children's literature.
Biography
Early life
He graduated from Sai ...
to write a poetic cycle and encourage a new project in cinema, undertaken by
Geo Saizescu
Geo Saizescu (14 November 1932 – 23 September 2013) was a Romanian film director, screenwriter, and actor. He appeared in 22 films between 1963 and 2009 and directed 16 films between 1956 and 2012.
He was born in Oprișor, Prisăceaua, Me ...
. Saizescu only completed his film in 1974—a box-office success, it made its lead,
Sebastian Papaiani
Sebastian Papaiani (; 25 August 1936 – 27 September 2016) was a Romanian film and television actor.
He was born in Pitești; his father was of Greeks, Greek origin. He graduated from the Caragiale National University of Theatre and Film, T ...
, be widely perceived as Păcală's real-life version.
Borrowings and specificity
Păcală, Eulenspiegel, Bertoldo
The Păcală stories are not traditionally connected to all regions covered by Romanian-speakers, with his presence being the least attested in eastern areas. As noted in 1936 by Bratu, in
Western Moldavia
Western Moldavia (, ''Moldova de Apus'', or , also known as Moldavia, is the core historic and geographical part of the former Principality of Moldavia situated in eastern and north-eastern Romania. Until its union with Wallachia in 1878, the P ...
(and, by extension,
Bessarabia
Bessarabia () is a historical region in Eastern Europe, bounded by the Dniester river on the east and the Prut river on the west. About two thirds of Bessarabia lies within modern-day Moldova, with the Budjak region covering the southern coa ...
) he is less popular than another stock character, known as "Pepelea". In a 1988 overview, folklorist Cristea Sandu Timoc included Pepelea as a stand-in for Păcală, concluding: "There are today over 100 known variants of the ''Păcală'' cycle, spread out all over the historical provinces, and more frequently encountered in Transylvania." He himself authenticated five Păcală anecdotes from
Serbian Romanian communities on the
Timok Valley
The Timok Valley (; ; ) is a geographical region in east Serbia around the Timok River. The Timok Valley corresponds to parts of two Serbian districts ( Bor and Zaječar), with a total 2022 census population of 200,785.
Name
The Serbian name is ...
(a sample which includes
Vlach
Vlach ( ), also Wallachian and many other variants, is a term and exonym used from the Middle Ages until the Modern Era to designate speakers of Eastern Romance languages living in Southeast Europe—south of the Danube (the Balkan peninsula) ...
villages). Writer
Ion Agârbiceanu
Ion Agârbiceanu (first name also Ioan, last name also Agărbiceanu and Agîrbiceanu; 12 September 1882 – 28 May 1963) was an Austro-Hungarian-born Romanian writer, journalist, politician, theologian and Greek-Catholic priest. Born among the ...
, who lived at
Yelisavetgrad
Kropyvnytskyi (, ) is a city in central Ukraine, situated on the Inhul, Inhul River. It serves as the administrative center of Kirovohrad Oblast. Population:
Over its history, Kropyvnytskyi has changed its name several times. The settlement ...
in 1917, reported being the person to have introduced
Ukrainian Romanians (or "
Moldavians") to Păcală's narrative cycle; by contrast, the non-Romanian
Gagauz people
The Gagauz (; ) are a Turkic ethnic group native to southern Moldova ( Gagauzia, Taraclia District, Basarabeasca District) and southwestern Ukraine (Budjak). Gagauz are mostly Eastern Orthodox Christians. The term Gagauz is also often used ...
have adopted Păcală as a stock character, alongside
Nasreddin
Nasreddin () or Nasreddin Hodja (variants include Mullah Nasreddin Hodja, Nasruddin Hodja, Mullah Nasruddin, Mullah Nasriddin, Khoja Nasriddin, Khaja Nasruddin) (1208–1285) is a character commonly found in the folklores of the Muslim world, ...
. Păcală's archetypal nature, however, connects him to the areal covered by
European folklore
European folklore or Western folklore refers to the folklore of the Western world, especially when discussed comparatively.
The history of Christendom during the Early Modern period has resulted in a number of traditions that are shared in many E ...
—prompting comparisons from as early as the 1880s, when
Simeon Mangiuca
Simeon Mangiuca (September 2, 1831 – ) was an Austria-Hungary, Austro-Hungarian ethnic Romanian folklorist.
Born in Oravița, Broșteni, Caraș-Severin County, in the Banat region, his father Ioachim was a Romanian Orthodox priest; his mothe ...
noted links with
Kullervo
Kullervo () is an ill-fated character in the ''Kalevala'', the Finnish national epic compiled by Elias Lönnrot.
Growing up in the aftermath of the massacre of his entire tribe, he comes to realise that the same people who had brought him up, ...
and
Giufà. Ethnologist Ion Taloș describes the Kullervo theory as baseless, while noting that Păcală's origin in
Italian folklore
Folklore of Italy refers to the folklore and urban legends of Italy. Within the Italian territory, various people have followed each other over time, each of which has left its mark on current culture. Some tales also come from Christianization, ...
is entirely plausible. Scholar
Ovidiu Bârlea similarly noted analogies between Păcală, Giufà, and Djoha, the latter of whom is widely present in
Arab culture
Arab culture is the culture of the Arabs, from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to the Arabian Sea in the east, in a region of the Middle East and North Africa known as the Arab world. The various religions the Arabs have adopted throughout Histor ...
.
The stories' mention of Vaideei as Păcală's village ties Păcală closely to an ethnographic area bridging Transylvania and northern Oltenia,
though some authors prefer the similarly named
Vaideeni
Vaideeni is a commune located in Vâlcea County, Oltenia, Romania
Romania is a country located at the crossroads of Central Europe, Central, Eastern Europe, Eastern and Southeast Europe. It borders Ukraine to the north and east, Hungary to ...
,
Vâlcea County
Vâlcea County (also spelt ''Vîlcea''; ) is a county (județ) that lies in south-central Romania. Located in the Historical regions of Romania, historical regions of Oltenia and Muntenia (which are separated by the Olt (river), Olt River), it i ...
—also in Oltenia.
[Ovidiu Ghidirmic, "Un arheolog al spiritului oltenesc. C. S. Nicolăescu-Plopșor", in ''Cuvîntul Libertății'', July 17, 1991, pp. I, II] The first reconstructed variant of the name is ''Vaideești'', appearing a 1498 writ. The modern ''Vaideeni'' is generally approximated as ''vai de ei'', "woe to them", but linguists have criticized that reading as
folk etymology
Folk etymology – also known as (generative) popular etymology, analogical reformation, (morphological) reanalysis and etymological reinterpretation – is a change in a word or phrase resulting from the replacement of an unfamiliar form by a mo ...
, or as an intentional pun:
Iorgu Iordan
Iorgu Iordan (; also known as ''Jorgu Jordan'' or ''Iorgu Jordan''; – September 20, 1986) was a Romanian linguist, philologist, diplomat, journalist, and left-wing agrarian, later communist, politician. The author of works on a large variety o ...
recalled an
informant
An informant (also called an informer or, as a slang term, a "snitch", "rat", "canary", "stool pigeon", "stoolie", "tout" or "grass", among other terms) is a person who provides privileged information, or (usually damaging) information inten ...
from Vaideeni that "it's as a jest that we call it Vaideei" (''ne rîdem noi de-i zicem Vaideei''). A local tradition recorded by novelist
Ioana Postelnicu contrarily reports that Vaideeni was originally known as Vaideei, identifying its settlers by their striking poverty. In this version, the Oltenian village was founded by shepherds fleeing
Habsburg Transylvania. A field report by ethnographer Ioana Armășescu dates the name to the 16th century, noting that it referred to the original inhabitants being pushed into serfdom by
Bistrița Monastery
The Bistrița Monastery (, ) is a Romanian Orthodox monastery located 8 km west of Piatra Neamț. It was dedicated in 1402, having as original ctitor the Moldavian Voivode Alexandru cel Bun whose remains are buried here.
The church is h ...
; she recounts that the Transylvanian arrivals were in fact a privileged population, attracted on the estate with fiscal privileges and kept distinct from the surrounding Oltenians. All readings as ''vai de ei'' are rejected by philologist Diomid Strungaru, who proposes that "Vaideeni" and "Vaideei" are actually
genitives of ''
Vayda
Vayda is a surname
In many societies, a surname, family name, or last name is the mostly hereditary portion of one's personal name that indicates one's family. It is typically combined with a given name to form the full name of a person, ...
''.
Bratu also notes that Păcală developed in close proximity to the
Transylvanian Saxons
The Transylvanian Saxons (; Transylvanian Saxon dialect, Transylvanian Saxon: ''Siweberjer Såksen'' or simply ''Soxen'', singularly ''Sox'' or ''Soax''; Transylvanian Landler dialect, Transylvanian Landler: ''Soxn'' or ''Soxisch''; ; seldom ''sa ...
, who may have introduced locals to
Till Eulenspiegel
Till Eulenspiegel (; ) is the protagonist of a European narrative tradition. A German chapbook published around 1510 is the oldest known extant publication about the folk hero (a first edition of is preserved fragmentarily), but a background i ...
and the
Schildbürger chapbooks. He reports that the Romanian cycle includes punchlines which only make sense in German—his cooking of two dogs named after condiments, seems to be entirely based on a fragment of Eulenspiegel, which centers on an
untranslatable wordplay on the word ''Hopfen'' ("
hops
Hops are the flowers (also called seed cones or strobiles) of the hop plant ''Humulus lupulus'', a member of the Cannabaceae family of flowering plants. They are used primarily as a bittering, flavouring, and stability agent in beer, to whic ...
"); the Păcală cycle also draws heavily on elements of
material culture
Material culture is culture manifested by the Artifact (archaeology), physical objects and architecture of a society. The term is primarily used in archaeology and anthropology, but is also of interest to sociology, geography and history. The fie ...
that were at the time not popular among Romanians, but prevalent among the urbanized Saxons (such as
roof tiles
Roof tiles are overlapping tiles designed mainly to keep out precipitation such as rain or snow, and are traditionally made from locally available materials such as clay or slate. Later tiles have been made from materials such as concrete, glass ...
and
waste collection
Waste collection is a part of the process of waste management. It is the transfer of solid waste from the point of use and disposal to the point of treatment or landfill. Waste collection also includes the curbside collection of recyclabl ...
). Writer János Ábrahám also reports that
Hungarian folklore
Hungarian mythology includes the myths, legends, folk tales, fairy tales and gods of the Magyars, Hungarians.
Sources of knowledge
Much of Magyar mythology is believed to be lost. However, in the last hundred years scholars of the history of H ...
in Transylvania (as written down by
László Merényi) conserves the character "Jankó Gügye", who appears as an unluckier version of Păcală.
[János Ábrahám, "Mozijegy. A bohókás ember", in ''Utunk'', Vol. XXXIX, Issue 28, July 1984, p. 7] Scholar Victor Crăciun proposes that the theme originates in the
Early Modern period
The early modern period is a Periodization, historical period that is defined either as part of or as immediately preceding the modern period, with divisions based primarily on the history of Europe and the broader concept of modernity. There i ...
, when Romanians in both
Danubian Principalities
The Danubian Principalities (, ) was a conventional name given to the Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia, which emerged in the early 14th century. The term was coined in the Habsburg monarchy after the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca (1774) ...
, as well as in the
Principality of Transylvania, became acquainted not just with Eulenspiegel, but also with
Aesop's Fables
Aesop's Fables, or the Aesopica, is a collection of fables credited to Aesop, a Slavery in ancient Greece, slave and storyteller who lived in ancient Greece between 620 and 564 Before the Common Era, BCE. Of varied and unclear origins, the stor ...
and with
Giulio Cesare Croce's ''Bertoldo'' series, synthesizing all disparate elements into a coherent new lore; their first written anecdotes are in early-19th-century
almanac
An almanac (also spelled almanack and almanach) is a regularly published listing of a set of current information about one or multiple subjects. It includes information like weather forecasting, weather forecasts, farmers' sowing, planting dates ...
s.
Specific episodes narrated about Păcală include his being tied in a
burlap
Hessian (, ), burlap in North America, or crocus in Jamaica and the wider Caribbean, is a woven fabric made of vegetable fibres, usually the skin of the jute plant or sisal leaves. It is generally used (in the crude tow form known as gunny) ...
sack, which is similar to a Bertoldo anecdote.
Playwright and essayist
Victor Eftimiu
Victor Eftimiu (; 24 January 1889 – 27 November 1972) was a Romanian poet and playwright. He was a contributor to ''Sburătorul'', a Romanian literary magazine. His works have been performed in the State Jewish Theater of Romania.
Eftimi ...
also identified episodes and
plot device
A plot device or plot mechanism
is any technique in a narrative used to move the plot forward.
A clichéd plot device may annoy the reader and a contrived or arbitrary device may confuse the reader, causing a loss of the suspension of disbelief ...
s taken from "other peoples", including "The Hunchback's Tale" from ''
One Thousand and One Nights
''One Thousand and One Nights'' (, ), is a collection of Middle Eastern folktales compiled in the Arabic language during the Islamic Golden Age. It is often known in English as ''The Arabian Nights'', from the first English-language edition ( ...
'' and
Breton
Breton most often refers to:
*anything associated with Brittany, and generally
**Breton people
**Breton language, a Southwestern Brittonic Celtic language of the Indo-European language family, spoken in Brittany
** Breton (horse), a breed
**Gale ...
variants of "
Idiot John" ''(see
The Hedley Kow)''.
Victor Eftimiu
Victor Eftimiu (; 24 January 1889 – 27 November 1972) was a Romanian poet and playwright. He was a contributor to ''Sburătorul'', a Romanian literary magazine. His works have been performed in the State Jewish Theater of Romania.
Eftimi ...
, "Evocare. Petre Dulfu și Păcală", in ''Gazeta Literară Gazeta may refer to:
Newspapers Albanian language
* Gazeta 55, daily newspaper
* Gazeta Express, a Kosovo newspaper published in Pristina
* Gazeta Rilindja Demokratike, daily newspaper
* Gazeta Shqip, daily newspaper
* Gazeta Sot, a daily newsp ...
'', Vol. XIII, Issue 47, November 1966, p. 3
An early complete variant of Păcală was itself the product of foreign influence. As noted by philologist
Ovidiu Papadima, this work was done in German by Arthur Schott, a
Württemberger
The Württemberger, Baden-Württemberger or Württemberg is a Warmblood horse breed originating in Germany. They are primarily riding horses, and are selectively bred for dressage and show jumping.
Breed History
The breed registry studbook was ...
agronomist in
Austrian Transylvania; it adapts the hero's name as ''Bakála''. In this version, published in 1845 at
Stuttgart
Stuttgart (; ; Swabian German, Swabian: ; Alemannic German, Alemannic: ; Italian language, Italian: ; ) is the capital city, capital and List of cities in Baden-Württemberg by population, largest city of the States of Germany, German state of ...
, there were 13 individual anecdotes. A Saxon folklorist,
Franz Obert, was similarly active in collecting stories from Romanian Transylvanian peasants, rendering the character's name as ''Bacale''. A century later, Bratu reported on there being "over 30 Păcală achievements", of which only eight were Eulenspiegel-modeled. The adaptation often has hints of national specificity, especially as a form of irreverent protest against boyars and landowners; according to Crăciun, it closely mirrors other wisecracking tricksters, with different names, appearing in tales by Creangă,
Anton Pann, and
Ion Luca Caragiale
Ion Luca Caragiale (; According to his birth certificate, published and discussed by Constantin Popescu-Cadem in ''Manuscriptum'', Vol. VIII, Nr. 2, 1977, pp. 179–184 – 9 June 1912), commonly referred to as I. L. Caragiale, was a Romanians, ...
;
a similar point was made by scholar
Nicolae Manolescu
Nicolae Manolescu (; 27 November 1939 – 23 March 2024) was a Romanian literary critic. Elected a corresponding member of the Romanian Academy in 1997, he was upgraded to titular member in 2013.
Life and career
Manolescu was born in Râmnicu ...
, in reference to Creangă's
Dănilă Prepeleac.
Wickedness versus heroism
Local input resulted in the creation of some 85 Păcală types, all of them inventoried by Dulfu in his 1890s investigation of folk literature. In a 1927 piece, columnist
Pamfil Șeicaru Pamfil is a Romanian given name and surname. Notable people with the name include:
* Pamfil Polonic (1858–1943), Romanian archaeologist and topographer
* Pamfil Yurkevich
Pamfil Danilovich Yurkevich (; 28 February 1826 – 16 October 1874) w ...
spoke of the definitive Păcală as embodying "the Romanian people's satirical intelligence, a devilish exploitation of all forms of human weakness only for the pleasure of laughing out loud"; "underneath his rather silly facade, a parody of naivete,
eis the first Romanian satirical poet, one who, instead of writing, turned satire into deeds."
Pamfil Șeicaru Pamfil is a Romanian given name and surname. Notable people with the name include:
* Pamfil Polonic (1858–1943), Romanian archaeologist and topographer
* Pamfil Yurkevich
Pamfil Danilovich Yurkevich (; 28 February 1826 – 16 October 1874) w ...
, "Cronica dramatică. Teatrul Național: ''Păcală'', păcăleală în 4 acte de d. Horia Furtună", in ''Cuvântul
''Cuvântul'' (, meaning "The Word") was a daily newspaper, published by philosopher Nae Ionescu in Bucharest, Romania, from 1926 to 1934, and again in 1938. It was primarily noted for progressively adopting a far-right and fascist agenda, an ...
'', March 21, 1927, p. 2 According to Eftimiu: "Another popular figure
n Romanian folkloreis that lad Păcală, who has all sorts of adventures, who makes a mockery of brigands, of publicans, of priests, of the devil himself. He embodies a Romanian type, filled with revolt and yet cheerful, resourceful and yet improvident."
Victor Eftimiu
Victor Eftimiu (; 24 January 1889 – 27 November 1972) was a Romanian poet and playwright. He was a contributor to ''Sburătorul'', a Romanian literary magazine. His works have been performed in the State Jewish Theater of Romania.
Eftimi ...
, "Mitologie românească", in '' Rampa'', February 22, 1925, p. 1 Film critic and psychiatrist
Ion Filotti Cantacuzino likewise notes: "Păcală
tands forall the humorous and common-sense qualities, all the glittering wit and biting irony one sees in the Romanian peasant."
[ Ion Filotti Cantacuzino, "Ecranul la timpul trecut. Păcală pe ecran", in ''Informația Bucureștiului'', June 9, 1967, p. 2] Păcală and Pepelea's negative traits, including their "wickedness", were recognized by Bratu, and before him by
Moses Gaster
Moses Gaster (17 September 1856 – 5 March 1939) was a Romanian, later British scholar, the ''Hakham'' of the Spanish and Portuguese Jewish congregation, London, and a Hebrew and Romanian linguist. Moses Gaster was an active Zionist in Rom ...
and
Lazăr Șăineanu
Lazăr Șăineanu (, also spelled Șeineanu, born Eliezer Schein;Leopold, p.383, 417 Francization , Francisized Lazare Sainéan, , Alexandru Mușina"Țara turcită", in ''România Literară'', Nr. 19/2003 or Sainéanu; April 23, 1859 – May 11, ...
, as differentiating them from Bertoldo and Eulenspiegel (though, Bratu notes, the episodes in which Păcală instigates or carries out murder are exceptionally crass, and therefore must be seen as tongue-in-cheek). Eftimiu entertained the belief that Păcală was ultimately a "
Nibelung
The term Nibelung ( German) or Niflungr (Old Norse) is a personal or clan name with several competing and contradictory uses in Germanic heroic legend. It has an unclear etymology, but is often connected to the root ''Nebel'', meaning mist. The ...
, a demonic character", whose name was ultimately derived from a
Slavic
Slavic, Slav or Slavonic may refer to:
Peoples
* Slavic peoples, an ethno-linguistic group living in Europe and Asia
** East Slavic peoples, eastern group of Slavic peoples
** South Slavic peoples, southern group of Slavic peoples
** West Slav ...
term for fog (producing the Romanian ''
pâclă''). However, he objected to Șăineanu and
Ion Aurel Candrea's description of Păcală as an "imbecile".
The issue of Păcală's occasional foolishness was explored by critic
Dumitru Evolceanu, within his larger essay about the sources of folklore. As Evolceanu puts it: "Folk poetry
..travels around by word of mouth, and in its travels gets picked up by more or less clever people, endlessly transforming itself in accordance with the heads it comes into contact with." As a result, "one of the better known Păcală stories has him displaying all the signs of a perfect imbecile on one page, and then on the next he is a skilled diplomat." An intermediary position was advanced by Bârlea, who writes that Păcală, Pepelea, Eulenspiegel and Djoha all personify "unrelenting aspiration of the popular masses toward social justice and equity". He adds:
In our national repertoire, the figure of Păcală (Pepelea) is a more complex one, resulting from juxtaposition and contamination. He appears in certain anecdotes as the embodiment of inveterate stupidity—according to unanimous opinion, this belongs to the most archaic stratum, already present among the primitive peoples, where a culture hero
A culture hero is a mythological hero specific to some group (Culture, cultural, Ethnic group, ethnic, Religion, religious, etc.) who changes the world through invention or Discovery (observation), discovery. Although many culture heroes help with ...
is also the buffoon .. In our own folklore, Păcală sometimes simulates stupidity, in that his accomplished deeds presuppose a submerged deftness, as revealed in circumstances where he exploits the literal sense of figurative expressions, or even figurative words, only for the purpose of drawing out the most irrepressible chuckles".
The "devilish aspects" of Păcală's career are also highlighted by philosopher Liviu Mitrănescu, who points out that, in one of the anecdotes, he leads an entire village into drowning by assuring it that there are cattle grazing at the bottom of a river. Most of his mischief, however, is focused on the middle and upper classes—such as when he agrees to serve a boyar, using subterfuge to get a hungry wolf into his sheep-cot, or when he takes revenge on exploitative cattle-traders. In the version penned by
Ioan Slavici and paraphrased by his critical biographer
Pompiliu Marcea, the drowned (defined here as "all the men of a village, led by their priest") are in fact punished for their greed: "they trusted Păcală's account about gold treasures being located on the river bottom." As Marcea proposes, this rendering makes Păcală into the "instrument of an ethical principle". Sandu Timoc similarly estimates that, in the Serbian Romanian variants of the cycle, Păcală most often exchanges his lines with either boyars or
Romanies, and that the "moral and physical defects of people" are favorite targets of his satire.
As Bratu notes, the slow transformation into a
folk hero
A folk hero or national hero is a type of hero – real, fictional or mythology, mythological – with their name, personality and deeds embedded in the popular consciousness of a people, mentioned frequently in Folk music, folk songs, folk tales ...
ultimately separated Păcală from Eulenspiegel—Păcală is implictly depicted as immortal, whereas, outside of
Charles De Coster
Charles-Theodore-Henri De Coster (20 August 1827 – 7 May 1879) was a Belgian novelist whose efforts laid the basis for a native Belgian literature.
Early life and education
He was born in Munich; his father, Augustin De Coster, was a n ...
's ''
Legend of Thyl'', Eulenspiegel is presented as someone to have lived in the past, and whose grave still exists. However, some modernized versions of Păcală similarly end with him "disappearing into the mist", for only his memory to live on, "on the people's lips".
[ Gabriella Csire, "Román mesék magyarul", in '' Előre'', March 28, 1979, p. 4] Longer versions of the Păcală cycle, which are seen by folklorist Ion Burada as less authentic, include other
fantasy
Fantasy is a genre of speculative fiction that involves supernatural or Magic (supernatural), magical elements, often including Fictional universe, imaginary places and Legendary creature, creatures.
The genre's roots lie in oral traditions, ...
elements, such as his visit to
Heaven
Heaven, or the Heavens, is a common Religious cosmology, religious cosmological or supernatural place where beings such as deity, deities, angels, souls, saints, or Veneration of the dead, venerated ancestors are said to originate, be throne, ...
and his subsequent playing of a magic flute or bagpipe. The instrument is awarded to him by God, who is thankful that Păcală has rid Him of disease by burning a bagful of
frankincense
Frankincense, also known as olibanum (), is an Aroma compound, aromatic resin used in incense and perfumes, obtained from trees of the genus ''Boswellia'' in the family (biology), family Burseraceae. The word is from Old French ('high-quality in ...
.
The episode was upheld as emblematic by Schott and other reviewers, who proposed that Păcală the piper was the distant echo of a
solar deity.
According to Eftimiu, this description misses the point; he draws instead parallels between Păcală, on one hand, and, on the other, instrument-playing, animal-taming figures of
Greek mythology
Greek mythology is the body of myths originally told by the Ancient Greece, ancient Greeks, and a genre of ancient Greek folklore, today absorbed alongside Roman mythology into the broader designation of classical mythology. These stories conc ...
(
Amphion
There are several characters named Amphion in Greek mythology:
* Amphion, son of Zeus and Antiope, and twin brother of Zethus (see Amphion and Zethus). Together, they are famous for building Thebes. Pausanias recounts an Egyptian legend acco ...
,
Orpheus
In Greek mythology, Orpheus (; , classical pronunciation: ) was a Thracians, Thracian bard, legendary musician and prophet. He was also a renowned Ancient Greek poetry, poet and, according to legend, travelled with Jason and the Argonauts in se ...
, and
Pan).
Another nationally-specific element is the appearance of a sidekick, Tândală, who is likewise diversely depicted. According to Eftimiu, he is mostly a "dense yokel, slow-witted, lazy, and a fumbler."
Crăciun notes that he shares traits with
Sancho Panza
Sancho Panza (; ) is a fictional character in the novel ''Don Quixote'' written by Spain, Spanish author Miguel de Cervantes, Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra in 1605. Sancho acts as squire to Don Quixote and provides comments throughout the novel, ...
; though sometimes serving as an embodiment of stupidity, and therefore antithetical to Păcală, he is generally depicted as "quite smart
.. more malleable, less of a trickster, and more persistent than his companion."
Novelist
Liviu Rebreanu
Liviu Rebreanu (; November 27, 1885 – September 1, 1944) was a Romanian novelist, playwright, short story writer, and journalist.
Life
Born in Felsőilosva (now Târlișua, Bistrița-Năsăud County, Transylvania), then part of the King ...
gave a short definition of the duo: ''Păcală — deștept și leneș; Tândală — prost și muncitor'' ("Păcală — smart and lazy; Tândală — stupid and hard-working");
[Niculae Gheran, "Rebreanu: romane fără sfîrșit", in '']Ramuri
''Ramuri'' ("Twigs" or "Branches") is a Romanian literary magazine put out from Craiova, the regional center of Oltenia region. Its first edition appeared from December 1905, and was closely tied to Nicolae Iorga's ''Sămănătorul'', published i ...
'', Vol. X, Issue 3, March 1973, p. 13 a similar note was made by literary critic Carol Isac, who distinguished between Păcală's "practical cleverness" and Tândală's "naivete". The stories sometimes show Tândală parting ways with Păcală and trying out his talents in other geographical areas, which serves as a plot device.
In one variant, which closely mirrors the Schildbürger cycle, Tândală is imprisoned by an angry mob for lying that "in his village there is an egg, big as an ox (or a head of cabbage, big as a house)". Păcală miraculously arrives in time to save his friend; he presents himself as an independent witness, one who has "seen in my own village, in some peasant's yard, a duck, big as a storehouse (or a cauldron, one as tall as the bell tower)".
Adaptations
Early retellings
Păcală entered high literature in the age of
Neoclassicism
Neoclassicism, also spelled Neo-classicism, emerged as a Western cultural movement in the decorative arts, decorative and visual arts, literature, theatre, music, and architecture that drew inspiration from the art and culture of classical antiq ...
and
Romanticism
Romanticism (also known as the Romantic movement or Romantic era) was an artistic and intellectual movement that originated in Europe towards the end of the 18th century. The purpose of the movement was to advocate for the importance of subjec ...
. An early mention in
Moldavia
Moldavia (, or ; in Romanian Cyrillic alphabet, Romanian Cyrillic: or ) is a historical region and former principality in Eastern Europe, corresponding to the territory between the Eastern Carpathians and the Dniester River. An initially in ...
, which closely predates Schott's collection, is
Constantin Negruzzi's
sketch story
A sketch story, literary sketch or simply sketch, is a piece of writing that is generally shorter than a short story, and contains very little, if any, plot. The genre was invented after the 16th century in England, as a result of increasing publ ...
—called ''Păcală și Tândală'', and first appearing in ''
Albina Românească'' of 1842. It is largely a soliloquy putting together Romanian proverbs—and is posthumously hailed as an early standard of Romanian humor. The story was more substantially used in comedic verse by
Wallachia
Wallachia or Walachia (; ; : , : ) is a historical and geographical region of modern-day Romania. It is situated north of the Lower Danube and south of the Southern Carpathians. Wallachia was traditionally divided into two sections, Munteni ...
's
Ion Heliade Rădulescu
Ion Heliade Rădulescu or Ion Heliade (also known as ''Eliade'' or ''Eliade Rădulescu''; ; 6 January 1802 – 27 April 1872) was a Wallachian, later Romanian academic, Romanticism, Romantic and Classicism, Classicist poet, essayist, memoi ...
. His ''Tandalida'', issued in 1854, mocked national stereotypes, showing Păcală as a Romanian and Tândală, in the leading and anti-heroic role, as a
Pole; it saw print in the
French Empire, where Heliade was living at the time. That year,
Alexandru Pelimon, also a Wallachian citizen, printed his musical comedy, ''Păcală și Tândală sau Și-a găsit tingirea capac'' ("Păcală and Tândală, or Here's a Lid for Your Pot"); Pelimon's retouched characters are partly based on Truffaldino and
Pantalone
Pantalone (), spelled Pantaloon in English, is one of the most important principal characters found in commedia dell'arte. With his exceptional greed and status at the top of the social order, Pantalone is "money" in the ''commedia'' world. His ...
, from ''
The Servant of Two Masters
''The Servant of Two Masters'' () is a comedy by the Italian playwright Carlo Goldoni written in 1746. Goldoni originally wrote the play at the request of actor Antonio Sacco, one of the great Harlequins in history. His earliest drafts had larg ...
''.
Moldavia's
Vasile Alecsandri
Vasile Alecsandri (; 21 July 182122 August 1890) was a Romanian patriot, poet, dramatist, politician and diplomat. He was one of the key figures during the 1848 revolutions in Moldavia and Wallachia. He fought for the unification of the Roma ...
similarly penned a "political dialogue", ''Păcală și Tândală'', first printed by ''
Stéoa Dunărei'', in 1856. The stock characters were transformed to make a point about
Romanian nationalism
Romanian nationalism is a form of nationalism that asserts that Romanians are a nation and promotes the identity and cultural unity of Romanians. Its extremist variation is Romanian ultranationalism.
History
Antecedents
The predecessors of ...
—Alecsandri canvassed support for the
Danubian Principalities' union, with Păcală as the wise and debonair unionist, and Tândală as a retrograde boyar. Early performances in Moldavian theaters doubled as explicitly nationalist manifestations, with performances of ''
Hora Unirii
"Hora Unirii" ('Hora of the Union') is a poem by Vasile Alecsandri, published in 1856. The music of the song was composed by . The song is sung and danced especially on 24 January, the anniversary of the day in which the Romanian United Principali ...
''. This cultural elevation was continued by Romanian writers in the 19th-century
Kingdom of Hungary
The Kingdom of Hungary was a monarchy in Central Europe that existed for nearly a millennium, from 1000 to 1946 and was a key part of the Habsburg monarchy from 1526-1918. The Principality of Hungary emerged as a Christian kingdom upon the Coro ...
(which included Transylvania after 1867). The first folklorist to collect the accounts into a book of fairy-tales was Mircea Vasile Stănescu Arădanul in 1860.
Some three years later,
Iosif Vulcan
Iosif Vulcan (March 31, 1841 – September 8, 1907) was an ethnic Romanian Austria-Hungary, Austro-Hungarian magazine editor, poet, playwright, novelist and cultural figure. He founded the literary magazine ''Familia (literary magazine), Famil ...
, a leader of the
Romanian community in
Budapest
Budapest is the Capital city, capital and List of cities and towns of Hungary, most populous city of Hungary. It is the List of cities in the European Union by population within city limits, tenth-largest city in the European Union by popul ...
, began publishing there the satirical journal ''Umoristul'', with a permanent column of "Păcală's letters to Tândală". Ion Hintz-Hințescu put out the first Păcală-only volume in 1876, at
Brașov
Brașov (, , ; , also ''Brasau''; ; ; Transylvanian Saxon dialect, Transylvanian Saxon: ''Kruhnen'') is a city in Transylvania, Romania and the county seat (i.e. administrative centre) of Brașov County.
According to the 2021 Romanian census, ...
,
effectively translating from Schott, though the following year saw anecdotes, collected on-site by peasant Ioan Panea, being published in Budapest by Vulcan's ''Șezătoarea''. In the
Banat
Banat ( , ; ; ; ) is a geographical and Historical regions of Central Europe, historical region located in the Pannonian Basin that straddles Central Europe, Central and Eastern Europe. It is divided among three countries: the eastern part lie ...
subregion, Mangiuca produced a more extensive version in 1882, adding two more stories and specifying regional variations.
In the
Romanian Principality, which resulted from the success of unionist campaigning, the Păcală narratives continued to be sampled for their general value—
Petre Ispirescu
Petre Ispirescu (; January 1830 – 21 November 1887) was a Romanian editor, folklorist, printer, and publicist. He is best known for his work as a gatherer of Romanian folk tales, recounting them with a remarkable talent.
Career
Petre Ispire ...
included them in his 1860s corpus of Romanian fairy tales (''
Legende sau basmele românilor''), and they were condensed into a didactic story by
Ion Creangă (1874). Păcală legends served to inspire other creations, including the eponymous satirical magazine put out by
Pantazi Ghica in June–November 1860. Alecsandri was also revisiting the theme, with the highly influential fairy-tale comedy, ''
Sânziana și Pepelea'', where Păcală and Tândală are depicted as cowardly lackeys to an emperor (a motif probably borrowed from
Carlo Gozzi
__NOTOC__
Carlo, Count Gozzi (; 13 December 1720 – 4 April 1806) was an Italian ( Venetian) playwright and champion of ''Commedia dell'arte''.
Early life
Gozzi was born and died in Venice; he came from a family of minor Venetian aristocracy, t ...
), and then with a manuscript play, ''Turnul Balamucului'' ("Bedlam Tower"), which has "Old Man Păcală" as one of the lead characters.
Dulfu and Slavici
The successor
Kingdom of Romania
The Kingdom of Romania () was a constitutional monarchy that existed from with the crowning of prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen as King of Romania, King Carol I of Romania, Carol I (thus beginning the Romanian royal family), until 1947 wit ...
produced a complete edition, ''Năzdrăvăniile lui Păcală'' ("Păcală's Mischief"), authored by
Iosif Nădejde—originally a series in ''
Contemporanul
''Contemporanul'' (''The Contemporary'') was a Romanian literary magazine published in Iaşi, Romania
Romania is a country located at the crossroads of Central Europe, Central, Eastern Europe, Eastern and Southeast Europe. It borders Ukrain ...
'' magazine. Its two distinctive features were the retelling of the story as a
picaresque novel
The picaresque novel ( Spanish: ''picaresca'', from ''pícaro'', for ' rogue' or 'rascal') is a genre of prose fiction. It depicts the adventures of a roguish but appealing hero, usually of low social class, who lives by his wits in a corrup ...
, with a unifying thread, and the removal of most references to miraculous phenomena.
An illustrated version, appearing in 1896, had drawings by I. K. Hlavsa.
[Mariana Enache Vida, "Observații cu privire la ilustrații de I. K. Hlavsa aflate în patrimoniul Bibliotecii Academiei Române", in ''Revista Muzeelor'', Issue 1, 1990, p. 26] This version was highly popular, serving as a template for Dulfu's even more popular
verse novel
A verse novel is a type of narrative poetry in which a novel-length narrative is told through the medium of poetry rather than prose. Either simple or complex stanzaic verse-forms may be used, but there is usually a large cast, multiple voices, ...
and stage adaptation of it, both of which were produced in Transylvania.
The former volume, ''Isprăvile lui Păcală'', is seen by Manolescu as "classical" in format, preserving a standard of Romanian fairy-tales that authors such as
Mihai Eminescu
Mihai Eminescu (; born Mihail Eminovici; 15 January 1850 – 15 June 1889) was a Romanians, Romanian Romanticism, Romantic poet, novelist, and journalist from Moldavia, generally regarded as the most famous and influential Romanian poet. Emin ...
had already modified into a "romantic and poetic" form. Its 1894 edition, which received an award from the
Romanian Academy
The Romanian Academy ( ) is a cultural forum founded in Bucharest, Romania, in 1866. It covers the scientific, artistic and literary domains. The academy has 181 active members who are elected for life.
According to its bylaws, the academy's ma ...
, was illustrated by two artists, Hlavsa and
Constantin Jiquidi; a 1920 reprint additionally included a cover drawing by
Ary Murnu.
In all, there were 21 other editions of ''Isprăvile'' published before 1972—the success is attributed by folklorist Iordan Datcu to Dulfu's "tonic" vision, as well as to his respect for the character, whom Dulfu refused to depict as "an idiot". The staff critic at ''
Gazeta Transilvaniei
''Gazeta de Transilvania'' was the first Romanian-language newspaper to be published in Transylvania. It was founded by George Bariț in 1838 in Brașov. It played a very important role in the awakening of the Romanian national conscience in Tran ...
'' similarly commented that: "Păcală in
ulfu'swork is superior to his type in many a folk anecdote." The novel had its critics, including Șeicaru, who rated it as "simplistic".
Dulfu was also exposed for subtly changing the content of some editions, to make Păcală an exponent of antisemitic ideas, and to include racial stereotypes of
Romanian Jews
The history of the Jews in Romania concerns the Jews both of Romania and of Romanian origins, from their first mention on what is present-day Romanian territory. Minimal until the 18th century, the size of the Jewish population increased after ...
(including in a new set of illustrations). Also in Transylvania,
Ioan Slavici, seen by Crăciun as Păcală's "true literary father", reworked the story into a modern narrative,
probably using oral reports from in and around
Arad as his basis. It first saw print in ''
Tribuna'' of September 1886, and was also issued as a booklet. According to Marcea, Slavici also exploited the "Păcală motif" in one of his own comedic stories, ''Petrea prostul'' ("Petrea the Dunce"), whose protagonist manages to miss out on a long series of material opportunities, but is rewarded by God with a "magical bagpipe". The original myth was by then becoming known to peasants from the
Duchy of Bukovina
The Duchy of Bukovina (; ; ) was a constituent land of the Austrian Empire from 1849 and a Cisleithanian crown land of Austria-Hungary from 1867 until 1918.
Name
The name ''Bukovina'' came into official use in 1775 with the region's annexation ...
, where woodcarver Ion Pâșlea crafted a critically acclaimed group-statue of a musical band, which was in fact Păcală playing various instruments.
In 1911, Eftimiu experienced success with his fairy-tale play ''
Înșir'te mărgărite'', which has a Păcală-themed
subplot
In fiction, a subplot or side story is a strand of the plot that is a supporting side story for any story or for the main plot. Subplots may connect to main plots, in either time and place or thematic significance. Subplots often involve supporti ...
. Three years later, Colonel Petrescu announced that he had obtained financing for a
Romanian feature film called ''Din viața lui Păcală'' ("Scenes of Păcală's Life"), though it was never produced—and neither was a similar project announced the following decade by
Jean Mihail (the latter survived as a screenplay, authored by
Scarlat Froda). Another stage adaptation based on Dulfu was done in 1927 by
Horia Furtună—receiving poor reviews from Șeicaru, who saw it as a "systematic mockery" of Romanian folklore,
and, retrospectively, from literary historian
George Călinescu
George Călinescu (; 19 June 1899 – 12 March 1965) was a Romanian literary critic, historian, novelist, academician and journalist, and a writer of classicist and humanist tendencies. He is currently considered one of the most important Romani ...
, who found it "chatty". Cartoonist
Aurel Petrescu Aurel may refer to:
Places
* Aurel, Drôme, France
* Aurel, Vaucluse, France
Other uses
* Aurel (given name)
* Aurel Awards, a Slovak music award
* AuRel, a dragon in E. E. Knight's ''Age of Fire
Age of Fire is a series of fantasy/Adventure ...
had meanwhile released, in April 1921, the film ''Păcală în lună'' ("Păcală on the Moon"), considered as the first work in
Romanian animation. Petrescu also managed to release a live-action ''Păcală și Tândală la București'' ("Păcală și Tândală in
Bucharest
Bucharest ( , ; ) is the capital and largest city of Romania. The metropolis stands on the River Dâmbovița (river), Dâmbovița in south-eastern Romania. Its population is officially estimated at 1.76 million residents within a greater Buc ...
") in 1926, but
all prints are lost.
Also then, both characters were being used as the inspiration for a highly successful
revue
A revue is a type of multi-act popular theatre, theatrical entertainment that combines music, dance, and sketch comedy, sketches. The revue has its roots in 19th century popular entertainment and melodrama but grew into a substantial cultural pre ...
act, performed by
Constantin Tănase
Constantin Tănase (; 5 July 1880 – 29 August 1945) was a Romanian actor and writer for stage, a key figure in the revue style of theater in Romania.
Life
He was born into a working-class family living in a peasant house in Vaslui, Roma ...
, with Păcală also appearing in the debut performance of a
puppeteer troupe at
Tinerimea Română.
In the late interwar, Rebreanu intended to work the motif into a "national novel",
but never managed to write it. As described in his notebooks, the narrative would have included all protagonists of Rebreanu's previous novels, and would have shown a modernized Păcală socially rewarded for the most unscrupulous acts (including desertion from the trenches of World War I).
Before his death in 1935, George Emil Botez had been working on new prose and verse version of the stories, probably reusing Nădejde as his source. At the height of World War II, epigrammatist Virgiliu Slăvescu was putting out a new humor magazine titled ''Păcală''. Wartime also witnessed other puppet-theater adaptations, such as one in which Lucia Bârsescu and her Păcală doll entertained the children of
Grivița
Grivița () is a district of Bucharest, Romania, centered on the Grivița Railway Yards (''Atelierele CFR Grivița''), which were and still are an important landmark within the manufacturing landscape of the city. Located near Gara de Nord, the ...
. Another unfinished film project was inaugurated by
Jean Georgescu
Jean Georgescu (25 February 1904 – 8 April 1994) was a Romanian film director, actor, and screenwriter. Born in Bucharest, Romania (where he also died), he was most notable for directing films including '' In Our Village'' (1951, in collaborati ...
around 1944. His version, based on Dulfu, was to star
Grigore Vasiliu Birlic as Păcală and
Radu Beligan as his sidekick. Uniquely, Păcală's relatives were to be played by Birlic's real-life family, including sculptor Vasile Vasiliu-Falti.
Communist and post-communist revivals
Interest in the stories was renewed during the
Romanian communist regime (1948–1989). In 1949, Siminel Gheorghiu rewrote some accounts of the Păcală corpus as a short novel, depicting its titular character as the embodiment of "toiling peasants", who always managed to outsmart his boyar employer. A rearrangement of the stories was done in 1950 by Marin D. Marin, as ''Minunatele isprăvi ale lui Păcală'' ("Păcală's Wondrous Achievements"). Focusing on the hero's status as a "rebel against the feudal regime" (''revoltat împotriva orînduirii feudale'') and a friend of the serfs, it adopted the stylistic canons of
socialist realism, through direct borrowings from
Leonid Solovyov. Writing at the time, Ion Burada suggested that Dulfu's account, which also depicted Păcală's pranks on the more destitute villagers, had required an ideological correction; the updated version also excluded all the remaining fragments which saw Păcală engaging with
Christian mythology
Christian mythology is the body of myths associated with Christianity. The term encompasses a broad variety of legends and narratives, especially those considered sacred narratives. Mythological themes and elements occur throughout Christian l ...
, such as his visit to Heaven. As reported by Eftimiu, Dulfu himself was again revising his ''Isprăvile'', before his age at age 97, this time striving for a "more correct, contemporary versification".
Early communism saw a number of new publications and performances based on the folkloric tales—including, in 1952,
Ion Atanasiu-Atlas' puppet play, ''Năzdrăvăniile lui Păcală''; in 1959,
Sabin Drăgoi
Sabin Vasile Drăgoi (; 6 June 1894 – 31 December 1968) was a Romanian composer, who specialized in folk music. His oeuvre includes orchestral and chamber works, film music and operas.
He was born in a peasant family from Seliște, Arad ...
finished a comedic opera based on the stories. Echoes of the folk myth appear in scattered poems by
Tudor Arghezi
Ion Nae Theodorescu (21 May 1880 – 14 July 1967) was a Romanian writer who wrote under the pen name Tudor Arghezi (. He is best known for his unique contribution to poetry and children's literature.
Biography
Early life
He graduated from Sai ...
and
Mihai Beniuc
Mihai Beniuc (; 20 November 1907 – 24 June 1988) was a Romanian socialist realist poet, dramatist, and novelist.
Biography
He was born in 1907 in Sebiș, Arad County (at the time in Austria-Hungary), the son of Athanasie and Vaseline Beniuc. H ...
;
in 1957, the former published a satirical volume, ''Stihuri pestrițe'' ("Motley Verses"). One work in this cycle shows Păcală engaged in a polemic with the
Romanian diaspora
The Romanian diaspora is the Romanians, ethnically Romanian population outside Romania and Moldova. The concept does not usually include the ethnic Romanians who live as natives in nearby states, chiefly those Romanians who live in Ukraine, Hun ...
, assuring it that he prefers communism to the "old regime". Also included therein is ''Balada maeștrilor'' ("Ballad of the Maestros"), in which Păcală, visiting town to find a cure for his aging donkey, is impressed with the titles that members of the urban elite bestow on each other. The hero himself utters the punchline:
The updated and posthumous Dulfu edition came out in 1966, at
Editura Tineretului—with an unusually high circulation of 80,000 copies.
Children-oriented sequels of the Nădejde–Dulfu account were also being created at that stage. They include
Nicolae Labiș
Nicolae Labiș () (December 2, 1935 in Poiana Mărului, Suceava County, Romania – December 22, 1956 in Bucharest) was a Romanian poet.
Early life
His father, Eugen, was the son of a forest brigade soldier and himself fought in World War II; ...
's ''Păcălici și Tîndăleț'' of 1962, which imagines that Păcală and his sidekick both had children of their own; the same author had published a "strange poem", ''Slutul'' ("Ugly Mug"), which references the anecdotes with an added "note of tragedy". The children's-story angle was taken by
Constantin S. Nicolăescu-Plopșor
Constantin S. Nicolăescu-Plopșor or Nicolaescu-Plopșor, sometimes shortened to N. Plopșor (; April 20, 1900 – May 30, 1968), was a Romanian historian, archaeologist, anthropologist and ethnographer, also known as a folkorist and children's w ...
's ''Tivisoc și Tivismoc'', which is sometimes read as an "ambitious attempt to complete a folk novel". It specifies Păcală's Oltenian origin and profession (as a salt merchant), but switches focus on his two "unborn children", which give the book its name.
In 1973, Corneliu Buzinschi published another ''Păcală și Tândală'', which combines the old anecdotes with a layer of illustrated Romanian proverbs—and is thus Romania's "first
paremiological novel". Another full retelling of the Dulfu cycle was done in 1975 by
Alexandru Mitru.
According to children's author
Gabriella Csire, it followed the general lines established by Dulfu, but was "cleaner and more comprehensible, even by the children."
Put out by
Editura Ion Creangă, with illustrations by
Done Stan, it took a bronze medal at the
Leipzig Book Fair
The Leipzig Book Fair () is the second largest book fair in Germany after the Frankfurt Book Fair. The fair takes place annually over four days at the Leipzig Trade Fairground in the northern part of Leipzig, Saxony. It is the first large trad ...
of 1977. Two years later, the same company issued a Hungarian translation, penned by Zoltán Veress, which named Păcală as ''Pável Csala'' (from ''csalás'', meaning "fraud") and ''Tódor Suta'' (from ''suta'', "kludgy").
In that context, Păcală also inspired artist
Sandu Florea
Sandu Florea (; born 28 June 1946) is a Romanian-American comic book and comic strip Comic book creator, creator, also known as an inker and Illustration, book illustrator. A trained architect and a presence on the science fiction scene during the ...
to create his first comic strip. It was published in the 1968 edition of ''Luminița'' magazine, the same year as the performance of another puppet-theater play, ''Păcală argat'' ("Păcală as Servant Boy"), by Tudor Cetin and Matei Mureșanu, and Letiția Popa's other adaptation for children, at
Ion Creangă Theater (starring Mihai Ioniță). A year later,
naive painter Elisabeta Ștefăniță exhibited at the
Romanian Atheneum
The Romanian Athenaeum () is a concert hall in the center of Bucharest, Romania, and a landmark of the Romanian capital city. Opened in 1888, the ornate, domed, circular building is the city's most prestigious concert hall and home of the "Geor ...
a canvass depicting scenes from the stories. At around the same time,
Tudor Mușatescu was also delving into children's theater, with ''D-ale lui Păcală'' ("Păcală Stuff"). A ''Păcală'' revue, set to a new text by
Ștefan Tita
Ștefan Tita (born Teodor Solomon; 14 August 1905 – 1 September 1977) was a Romanian left-wing activist and writer in multiple genres. He had his poetic debut as a teenager in 1919, after which he became noted first for his pacifist prose, and ...
, was staged in 1971 by the Ion Vasilescu Troupe. Similar fragments from Dulfu were included in
Ion Lucian's children's show ''Snoave cu măști'' ("Masked Anecdotes"), a main feature of the Ion Creangă Theater throughout the 1970s and '80s. A Tândală-themed
street-theater performance, based on a text by Mihai Crișan, was produced in 1981, with Ștefan Săndulescu appearing as Păcală. The two-man play ''Păcală și popa'', with Dan Tudor and Vasile Tudor, earned its protagonists a debut prize from the
Ministry of Culture Ministry of Culture may refer to:
* Ministry of Tourism, Cultural Affairs, Youth and Sports (Albania)
* Ministry of Culture (Algeria)
* Ministry of Culture (Argentina)
* Minister for the Arts (Australia)
* Ministry of Culture (Azerbaijan)Ministry o ...
in 1998. Later children's theater versions include
Cristian Pepino and Ioan Brancu's adaptation for
Țăndărică Theater, in 2002, and a 2006 production at Merlin Theater of
Timișoara
Timișoara (, , ; , also or ; ; ; see #Etymology, other names) is the capital city of Timiș County, Banat, and the main economic, social and cultural center in Western Romania. Located on the Bega (Tisza), Bega River, Timișoara is consider ...
, for which Ștefan Sasu adapted fragments from Creangă and Dulfu.
Decades after ''Păcală în lună'', the folk hero became the main protagonist in a live-action film, directed by
Geo Saizescu
Geo Saizescu (14 November 1932 – 23 September 2013) was a Romanian film director, screenwriter, and actor. He appeared in 22 films between 1963 and 2009 and directed 16 films between 1956 and 2012.
He was born in Oprișor, Prisăceaua, Me ...
—a project for which he first consulted Arghezi.
The first production, issued in 1974 and eponymously titled, was based on a screenplay by
Dumitru Radu Popescu
Dumitru Radu Popescu (; 19 August 1935 – 2 January 2023) was a Romanian novelist, poet, dramatist, essayist and short story writer. He was a corresponding member of the Romanian Academy and was, between 1980 and 1990, Chairman of the Romanian W ...
and starred
Sebastian Papaiani
Sebastian Papaiani (; 25 August 1936 – 27 September 2016) was a Romanian film and television actor.
He was born in Pitești; his father was of Greeks, Greek origin. He graduated from the Caragiale National University of Theatre and Film, T ...
(who came to embody Păcală in the popular mind).
[Călin Căliman, "D.R.P. '80", in '']Contemporanul
''Contemporanul'' (''The Contemporary'') was a Romanian literary magazine published in Iaşi, Romania
Romania is a country located at the crossroads of Central Europe, Central, Eastern Europe, Eastern and Southeast Europe. It borders Ukrain ...
'', Vol. XXVI, Issue 8, August 2015, p. 22 The film shows Păcală as a
culture hero
A culture hero is a mythological hero specific to some group (Culture, cultural, Ethnic group, ethnic, Religion, religious, etc.) who changes the world through invention or Discovery (observation), discovery. Although many culture heroes help with ...
battling an unseen villain, Stupidity.
It had a record-breaking attendance of 20 million,
[Magda Bratu, "Cultură. ''Păcală se întoarce'' pe marile ecrane", in ''Cuvântul Libertății'', June 9, 2006, p. 10] but was panned in a yearly retrospective by critic Florian Potra: "''Păcală''
..was perhaps the only attempt at consolidating the rather fragile territory of Romanian film comedy, adopting an unusual formula—that of 'comedic ballad'; the authors gave us a viable Păcală, but one who is not fully expressive for the specific humor that folk genius has bestowed upon him, in the oral tradition." Ábrahám commended Popescu's writing, which had made the story-line "contiguous and vivid, subject to its own laws. He showed a bit of value-saving disrespect for the source material, combined, omitted, condensed, but in such a way that he not only cleared the dust of oblivion from the story that became a film, but also covered a tiny bit of it with the glimmers of skepticism and irony of modern age."
Saizescu, who in 2003 was chairman of a Păcală Humorous Society,
[ Ștefan Cazimir, "Lecturi în vacanță. Umorul masochist", in '']România Literară
''România Literară'' is a cultural and literary magazine from Romania. In its original edition, it was founded on 1 January 1855 by Vasile Alecsandri and published in Iași until 3 December 1855, when it was suppressed. The new series appeared ...
'', Issue 33/2003, p. 15 released a 2006 sequel, ''Păcală se întoarce'', assigning the title role to
Denis Ștefan; Papaiani had a supporting role.
Notes
References
{{DEFAULTSORT:Pacala
Fictional Romanian people
European folklore characters
Romanian folklore
Romanian mythology
Humor and wit characters
Romanian humour
Male characters in literature
Mythological tricksters
Fictional servants
Fictional rebels
Culture of Transylvania
Oltenia