''Pusô'' or ''tamu'', sometimes known in
Philippine English
Philippine English is a variety of English native to the Philippines, including those used by the media and the vast majority of educated Filipinos and English learners in the Philippines from adjacent Asian countries. English is taught ...
as "hanging rice", is a
Filipino rice cake
A rice cake may be any kind of food item made from rice that has been shaped, condensed, or otherwise combined into a single object. A wide variety of rice cakes exist in many different cultures in which rice is eaten. Common variations include ...
made by boiling rice in a
woven
Woven fabric is any textile formed by weaving. Woven fabrics, often created on a loom, are made of many threads woven in a warp and weft. Technically, a woven fabric is any fabric made by interlacing two or more threads at right angles to one anot ...
pouch of
palm
Palm most commonly refers to:
* Palm of the hand, the central region of the front of the hand
* Palm plants, of family Arecaceae
** List of Arecaceae genera
**Palm oil
* Several other plants known as "palm"
Palm or Palms may also refer to:
Music ...
leaves. It is most commonly found in
octahedral
In geometry, an octahedron (: octahedra or octahedrons) is any polyhedron with eight faces. One special case is the regular octahedron, a Platonic solid composed of eight equilateral triangles, four of which meet at each vertex. Many types of i ...
, diamond, or rectangular shapes, but it can also come in various other intricately woven complex forms. It is known under many different names throughout the Philippines with numerous variations, but it is usually associated with the street food cultures of the
Visayan
Visayans ( Cebuano: ''mga Bisayà'' ) are a Philippine ethnolinguistic family group or metaethnicity native to the Visayas, to the southernmost islands south of Luzon, and to a significant portion of Mindanao. They are composed of numerous di ...
and
Moro people
The Moro people or Bangsamoro people are the 13 Muslim-majority ethnolinguistic Austronesian groups of Mindanao, Sulu, and Palawan, native to the region known as the Bangsamoro (lit. ''Moro nation'' or ''Moro country''). As Muslim-majority ...
s.
''Pusô'' refers to the way of cooking and serving rice on woven leaves, and thus does not refer to a specific recipe. It can actually refer to many different ways of preparing rice, ranging from plain, to savory or sweet. Regardless, all of them are woven pouches where rice is poured inside and cooked by boiling. ''Pusô'' are differentiated from other leaf-wrapped Filipino dishes like ''
suman'', ''
binalot
Binalot is a method of wrapping and serving food in the Philippines using banana leaves and alike. The term is derived from the root word ''balot'' (wrap) + -''in''- meaning "wrapped".
See also
*Pastil - A similar but Halal meal whose preparat ...
'', and ''
pastil
''Pastil'' is a Philippine cuisine, Filipino dish made with steamed rice wrapped in banana leaves with dry shredded beef, chicken, or fish. It originates from the Maguindanao people and is a popular, cheap breakfast meal in Mindanao, especial ...
'', in that the latter use leaves that are simply wrapped around the food and folded or tied. ''Pusô'', in contrast, uses intricate woven leaves as the pouch.
''Pusô'' is traditionally prepared as a way to pack rice for journeys and is eaten held in the hands while standing, usually paired with meat or seafood cooked on
skewer
A skewer is a thin metal or wood stick used to hold pieces of food together. The word may sometimes be used as a metonym, to refer to the entire food item served on a skewer, as in "chicken skewers". Skewers are used while grilling or roasting ...
s (''
inihaw
Inihaw ( ), also known as sinugba or inasal, are various types of grilled or spit-roasted barbecue dishes from the Philippines. They are usually made from pork or chicken and are served on bamboo skewers or in small cubes with a soy sauce and ...
'' or ''
satti''). It is still eaten this way from street food peddlers (''pungkò-pungkò''). In seated dining, it is commonly cut into pieces and served on a plate in place of regular rice.
''Pusô'' were once culturally important among pre-Hispanic Filipinos as offerings to the ''
diwatà'' spirits and as an extension of the basic skill of weaving among women. It became linked to festivities since they were commonly served during religious events, especially the more complex woven variations. It is still used in rituals in some parts of the Philippines today, though the rituals themselves have been mostly Christianized. Similarly, it remained culturally important to
Muslim Filipinos, where it became symbolic of the
Hari Raya
Eid al-Fitr () is the first of the two main festivals in Islam, the other being Eid al-Adha. It falls on the first day of Shawwal, the tenth month of the Islamic calendar. Eid al-Fitr is celebrated by Muslims worldwide because it marks the ...
feast.
''Pusô'' is related to similar dishes in other
rice-farming Austronesian
Austronesian may refer to:
*The Austronesian languages
*The historical Austronesian peoples
The Austronesian people, sometimes referred to as Austronesian-speaking peoples, are a large group of peoples who have settled in Taiwan, maritime Sout ...
cultures, most notably the
Indonesian ''
ketupat
''Ketupat'' (in Indonesian and Malay), or ''kupat'' (in Javanese and Sundanese), or ''tipat'' (in Balinese) is a Javanese rice cake packed inside a diamond-shaped container of woven palm leaf pouch. Originating in Indonesia, it is also ...
'', although the latter is restricted to diamond shapes and is woven differently.
A very similar
octahedron
In geometry, an octahedron (: octahedra or octahedrons) is any polyhedron with eight faces. One special case is the regular octahedron, a Platonic solid composed of eight equilateral triangles, four of which meet at each vertex. Many types of i ...
-shaped version called ''atupat'' was also found in pre-colonial
Guam
Guam ( ; ) is an island that is an Territories of the United States, organized, unincorporated territory of the United States in the Micronesia subregion of the western Pacific Ocean. Guam's capital is Hagåtña, Guam, Hagåtña, and the most ...
, before the ancient rice cultivation in the island was replaced by
corn
Maize (; ''Zea mays''), also known as corn in North American English, is a tall stout Poaceae, grass that produces cereal grain. It was domesticated by indigenous peoples of Mexico, indigenous peoples in southern Mexico about 9,000 years ago ...
brought by the Spanish.
Filipinos often ate Pusô with Roasted Monkey.
Names
''Pusô'' (also spelled ''puso'', ''poso'', or ''pusó'') literally means "heart" in
Cebuano, due to its resemblance to a heart with the two loose ends of the coconut leaf emerging at the top resembling the
aorta
The aorta ( ; : aortas or aortae) is the main and largest artery in the human body, originating from the Ventricle (heart), left ventricle of the heart, branching upwards immediately after, and extending down to the abdomen, where it splits at ...
and the
venae cavae
In anatomy, the ''venae cavae'' (; ''vena cava'' ; ) are two large veins (great vessels) that return deoxygenated blood from the body into the heart. In humans they are the superior vena cava and the inferior vena cava, and both empty into the ...
. Its other most common name, ''patupat'', originally means "four-cornered
ectangle or cube,
a
reduplication
In linguistics, reduplication is a Morphology (linguistics), morphological process in which the Root (linguistics), root or Stem (linguistics), stem of a word, part of that, or the whole word is repeated exactly or with a slight change.
The cla ...
of
Proto-Malayo-Polynesian
Proto-Malayo-Polynesian (PMP) is the reconstructed ancestor of the Malayo-Polynesian languages, which is by far the largest branch (by current speakers) of the Austronesian language family. Proto-Malayo-Polynesian is ancestral to all Austronesia ...
''*epat'' ("four"). This form is still evident in old
Chamorro cognate
In historical linguistics, cognates or lexical cognates are sets of words that have been inherited in direct descent from an etymological ancestor in a common parent language.
Because language change can have radical effects on both the s ...
''atupat''.
''Pusô'' is also known by various names in different
ethnic groups in the Philippines
The Philippines is inhabited by more than 182 Ethnolinguistic group, ethnolinguistic groups, many of which are classified as "Indigenous Peoples" under the country's Indigenous Peoples' Rights Act of 1997. Traditionally-Muslim minorities from ...
, including ''piyusopusó'' in
Mindoro
Mindoro is the seventh largest and eighth-most populous island in the Philippines. With a total land area of 10,571 km2 ( 4,082 sq.mi ), it has a population of 1,408,454, as of the 2020 census. It is located off the southwestern coast of ...
languages; ''piyoso'' in
Maranao
The Maranao people ( Maranao: ''Bangsa'' ''Mëranaw''; Filipino: ''mga'' ''Maranaw''), also spelled Meranaw, Maranaw, and Mëranaw, is a predominantly Muslim Filipino ethnic group native to the region around Lanao Lake in the island of Mi ...
,
Iranun
The Iranun are an Austronesian ethnic group native to southwestern Mindanao, Philippines. They are ethnically and culturally closely related to the Maranao, and Maguindanaon, all three groups being denoted as speaking Danao languages and giv ...
and
Maguindanaon; ''langbay'', ''lambay'', or ''linambay'' in
Waray; ''bugnóy'' in
Hiligaynon; ''tam-o'' in
Aklanon; ''tamu'', ''ta’mu'', or ''temu'' in
Tausug and
Yakan; ''sinambong'', ''patupat'' or ''pusú'' in
Kapampangan
Kapampangan, Capampañgan or Pampangan may refer to:
*Kapampangan people, of the Philippines
*Kapampangan language
Kapampangan, Capampáñgan, or Pampangan, is an Austronesian language, and one of the eight major languages of the Philippines. ...
,
Pangasinan
Pangasinan, officially the Province of Pangasinan (, ; ; ), is a coastal Provinces of the Philippines, province in the Philippines located in the Ilocos Region of Luzon. Its capital is Lingayen, Pangasinan, Lingayen while San Carlos, Pangasi ...
and
Ilocano; and ''katumpat'' in
Sama-Bajau
The Sama-Bajau include several Austronesian ethnic groups of Maritime Southeast Asia. The name collectively refers to related people who usually call themselves the Sama or Samah (formally A'a Sama, "Sama people"); or are known by the exonym ...
.
Description
''Pusô'' does not refer to a specific recipe, rather it is a way of packaging and serving rice. Therefore, it can actually refer to many different ways of preparing rice, ranging from plain, to savory or sweet. Regardless, all of them are woven pouches where rice is poured inside and cooked by boiling. As the rice cooks, it is prevented from spreading by the pouch, resulting in a compacted cake-like texture. It can be made with either regular
white rice
White rice is milled rice that has had the husk, bran, and germ removed. This alters the flavor, texture and appearance of the seed; helps prevent spoilage (extends its storage life); and makes it easier to digest. After brown rice is milled ...
or
glutinous rice
Domestication syndrome refers to two sets of phenotypic traits that are common to either domesticated plants or domesticated animals.
Domesticated animals tend to be smaller and less aggressive than their wild counterparts; they may also hav ...
poured into a pre-woven container and then immersed in a boiling liquid. It is commonly plain, but it can be cooked with meat or flavored with ''gatâ'' (
coconut milk
Coconut milk is a plant milk extracted from the grated pulp of mature coconuts. The opacity and rich taste of the milky-white liquid are due to its high oil content, most of which is saturated fat. Coconut milk is a traditional food ingred ...
) and spices like salt or ginger. Other variants of the dish can also be sweet and can be cooked with ''
muscovado
Muscovado is a type of partially refined to unrefined sugar with a strong molasses content and flavour, and dark brown in colour. It is technically considered either a non-centrifugal cane sugar or a centrifuged, partially refined sugar accord ...
'' sugar.
''Pusô'' are differentiated from other leaf-wrapped Filipino dishes like the
Tagalog ''
binalot
Binalot is a method of wrapping and serving food in the Philippines using banana leaves and alike. The term is derived from the root word ''balot'' (wrap) + -''in''- meaning "wrapped".
See also
*Pastil - A similar but Halal meal whose preparat ...
'' and the
Maguindanao
Maguindanao (; Maguindanaon: ''Dairat nu Magindanaw''; Iranun: ''Perobinsia a Magindanao''; ) was a province of the Philippines located in the Bangsamoro Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (BARMM). From 2014 to 2022, its provincial capital ...
''
pastil
''Pastil'' is a Philippine cuisine, Filipino dish made with steamed rice wrapped in banana leaves with dry shredded beef, chicken, or fish. It originates from the Maguindanao people and is a popular, cheap breakfast meal in Mindanao, especial ...
'', as well as various ''
kakanín'' snacks wrapped in leaves found throughout the Philippines, like ''
suman'' and ''
morón''. These dishes all use leaves that are simply wrapped around the food and folded or tied. They are not woven into complex patterns unlike ''pusô''.
Leaf-weaving is an ancient art in the Philippines and is used to make various traditional handicrafts like baskets, hats, mats, toys, sidings, and even religious decorations (both in ancient
anitism
Indigenous Philippine folk religions are the distinct native religions of various ethnic groups in the Philippines, where most follow belief systems in line with animism. These Indigenous folk religionsAlmocera, Ruel A., (2005) Popular Filipi ...
and in modern Christian
Palm Sunday
Palm Sunday is the Christian moveable feast that falls on the Sunday before Easter. The feast commemorates Christ's triumphal entry into Jerusalem, an event mentioned in each of the four canonical Gospels. Its name originates from the palm bran ...
celebrations). Food, as well, is commonly wrapped in woven leaves, the most commonly used being
banana
A banana is an elongated, edible fruit – botanically a berry – produced by several kinds of large treelike herbaceous flowering plants in the genus '' Musa''. In some countries, cooking bananas are called plantains, distinguishing the ...
or
coconut
The coconut tree (''Cocos nucifera'') is a member of the palm tree family (biology), family (Arecaceae) and the only living species of the genus ''Cocos''. The term "coconut" (or the archaic "cocoanut") can refer to the whole coconut palm, ...
leaves. It makes them aesthetically pleasing, practical to eat, and infuses the food with the aroma of the leaves.
''Pusô'' pouches are almost always woven from coconut leaves, though they can also be made from other palm species or from
pandan leaves. The coconut leaves used are freshly sprouted, usually pale yellow to light green in color and far more pliable than older leaves. These young leaves are known as ''lukáy'' in most
Visayan regions; ''palaspas'', ''usbong'', ''talbos'', or ''ibus'' in
Southern Luzon; ''dugokan'' in
Leyte
Leyte ( ) is an island in the Visayas group of islands in the Philippines. It is eighth-largest and sixth-most populous island in the Philippines, with a total population of 2,626,970 as of 2020 census.
Since the accessibility of land has been ...
; ''ugbos'' in
Bohol
Bohol (), officially the Province of Bohol (; ), is an island province of the Philippines located in the Central Visayas Regions of the Philippines, region, consisting of the island itself and 75 minor surrounding islands. It is home to Bohola ...
; ''uyok'' in
Masbate
Masbate, officially the Province of Masbate (Masbateño language, Masbateño: ''Probinsya san Masbate''; ), is an island Provinces of the Philippines, province in the Philippines located near the midsection of the nation's archipelago. Its provi ...
; and ''langkóy'' in
Bicol. There are numerous techniques by which they can be woven, which has translated into many different kinds of ''pusô''.
Weavers of ''pusô'' are traditionally known as ''mamumusô'' or ''manlalah'' in
Cebuano.
Cultural significance

''Pusô'' originated from a method of cooking and packing rice. It was also prominent in religious rituals in the
anitism
Indigenous Philippine folk religions are the distinct native religions of various ethnic groups in the Philippines, where most follow belief systems in line with animism. These Indigenous folk religionsAlmocera, Ruel A., (2005) Popular Filipi ...
of pre-colonial Filipinos. The smaller or more elaborate versions were a traditional part of the food offerings to the ''
diwatà'' spirits, a tradition the Spanish referred to as ''
ofrenda
An ''ofrenda'' (Spanish: "Sacrifice, offering") is the offering placed in a home altar during the annual and traditionally Mexican ''Día de los Muertos'' celebration. An ''ofrenda'', which may be quite large and elaborate, is usually created ...
s''. These traditions have been increasingly forgotten or
syncretized as Filipinos converted to Christianity and Islam in the last few centuries.
Rituals involving ''pusô'' in the past in Cebuano religion include ''harang sa mga kalag'' (ritual preventing the deceased from affecting the living); ''sagangsang'' (ritual for ''
tubâ
Tubâ () is a traditional Filipino cuisine, Filipino palm wine made from the naturally fermented sap of various species of palm trees. During the Spanish Empire, Spanish colonial period, tubâ was introduced to Guam, the Marianas, and Mexico vi ...
'' palm wine gatherers); ''damit'' (pre-harvest ritual); ''buhat silang'' (a thanksgiving post-harvest ritual); ''tigpo'' (ritual asking for forgiveness from spirits of the dead); and ''balangkisaw'' (ritual asking for forgiveness from water spirits).
Nevertheless, it still survives in some (Christianized) rituals today, like in the ''pamisa'' (Catholic prayer for the dead). It is also still a regular part of the ''ofrenda''. Though in modern times the offering is usually to the household Catholic altar or to deceased loved ones, and not to ''diwatà'' spirits.
Among
Muslim Filipinos, it also survives as a festive food, and is very popular during a lot of Islamic holidays. It is particularly associated with the
Hari Raya
Eid al-Fitr () is the first of the two main festivals in Islam, the other being Eid al-Adha. It falls on the first day of Shawwal, the tenth month of the Islamic calendar. Eid al-Fitr is celebrated by Muslims worldwide because it marks the ...
celebrations at the end of
Ramadan
Ramadan is the ninth month of the Islamic calendar. It is observed by Muslims worldwide as a month of fasting (''Fasting in Islam, sawm''), communal prayer (salah), reflection, and community. It is also the month in which the Quran is believed ...
.
Variations
''Pusô'' can be made in many different shapes using a wide variety of techniques. Some ethnic groups have numerous traditional variants, while in other ethnic groups, it is restricted to one or two. A lot of the techniques are also shared across ethnic groups and may be known under different names, indicating shared origins or cultural exchange between the groups in pre-colonial Philippines.
*Binakî – also ''bakì-bakì'', meaning "frog-like". This widespread version resembles a sitting frog with five angular points. It is made from a single strand with the loose end emerging opposite the frond base. It is also known as ''kongkang'' among the
Palawan people
The Palawan, also known as Palaw'an or Palawano, are an ethnic group native to the Palawan island group in the Philippines. They are the main indigenous population of Palawan. The name of the island they inhabit is named after this ethnic group. ...
, also a reference to its frog-like shape. It is known as ''uwan-uwan'' ("little pillow") among the
Sama Bajau people and as ''piyusopusú'' (a type of bird) among the
Mangyan people. Other names for it in Cebuano-speaking areas include ''bina-bà'' ("mouthful"), and ''sinayóp'' (evolving from Old Visayan ''sinaop'', meaning "clasped hands"). It is also referred to as ''bayi tam-o'' ("female ''tam-o''") among the
Aklanon people
The Aklanon people are the ethnolinguistic group who lived in the province of Aklan. They are part of the wider Bisaya ethnolinguistic group, who constitute the largest Filipino ethnolinguistic group.
Area
Aklanon form the majority in the provi ...
, probably because it resembles breasts. It is also the version historically referred to as ''lambay'', ''langbay'', ''linambay'', or ''linangbay'', literally "crab-like".
*Ibos – is a dessert version from Capiz. The preparation is similar to some of the common varieties, except that it always comes with a sauce called ''lasaw (a thick sweet sauce made by boiling a coconut milk with
muscovado sugar
Muscovado is a type of partially refined to unrefined sugar with a strong molasses content and flavour, and dark brown in colour. It is technically considered either a non-centrifugal cane sugar or a centrifuged, partially refined sugar accord ...
).'' It is usually served during festivities, especially during the lent and halloween season. It is also prepared as an afternoon snack for kids attending the
catechesis
Catechesis (; from Greek: , "instruction by word of mouth", generally "instruction") is basic Christian religious education of children and adults, often from a catechism book. It started as education of converts to Christianity, but as the ...
.
*Binangkito – also ''binangkaso'', a complex version from
Anda, Bohol
Anda, officially the Municipality of Anda (; ), is a Municipality of the Philippines, municipality in the Philippine Province, province of Bohol, Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a population of 17,778 people.
In 2006, the Lis ...
that resembles an upside-down ''bangkò'' (a stool with four legs), usually used as a ritual offering on ''lantayan'' altars.
*Binosa – the smallest type of ''pusô''. It is woven from a single strand and is shaped like a wineglass. It is unique in that it is almost always used as an offering to ''diwatà'' spirits. They are from the town of Taptap in Cebu. A similar variant is called ''inumol'' in
Anda, Bohol
Anda, officially the Municipality of Anda (; ), is a Municipality of the Philippines, municipality in the Philippine Province, province of Bohol, Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a population of 17,778 people.
In 2006, the Lis ...
and like ''binosa'' is also used as spirit offerings.
*Binungî – literally "extracted tooth". Another small version from Talamban, Cebu, although this one is made for fun, rather than as a ritual offering. It resembles a
molar, with a wide top and a base with short protrusions.
*Bulasa – very small ''pusô'' from
Negros Oriental
Negros Oriental (; ), officially the Province of Negros Oriental (; ), is a province in the Philippines located in the Negros Island. Its capital is the city of Dumaguete, one of the two regional centers of Negros Island Region, with the other b ...
that contain more or less only a handful of rice. They often contain ''
kakanin
A rice cake may be any kind of food item made from rice that has been shaped, condensed, or otherwise combined into a single object. A wide variety of rice cakes exist in many different cultures in which rice is eaten. Common variations include ...
'' (rice-based desserts) and are served during feasts and weddings. It is also known as ''tamu lugus'' ("
areca nut
The areca nut ( or ) or betel nut () is the fruit of the areca palm (''Areca catechu''). The palm is originally native to the Philippines, but was carried widely through the tropics by the Austronesian migrations and trade since at least 15 ...
''tamu''") among the
Yakan people
The Yakan people are among the major Filipino ethnolinguistic groups in the Sulu Archipelago. Having a significant number of followers of Islam, it is considered one of the 13 Muslim groups in the Philippines. The Yakans mainly reside in Basila ...
and ''kimes a datu'' ("
ice clenchedin the hand of the "
datu
''Datu'' is a title which denotes the rulers (variously described in historical accounts as chiefs, sovereign princes, and monarchs) of numerous Indigenous peoples throughout the Philippine archipelago. The title is still used today, though no ...
") among the
Maranao people
The Maranao people (Maranao language, Maranao: ''Bangsa'' ''Mëranaw''; Filipino language, Filipino: ''mga'' ''Maranaw''), also spelled Meranaw, Maranaw, and Mëranaw, is a predominantly Muslim Filipino people, Filipino ethnic groups of the ...
.
*Hellu – a somewhat diagonal elongated version from the
Tausug people
Tausug or Tausūg may refer to:
* Tausug language, Malayo-Polynesian language spoken mainly in the Philippines
** Tausug alphabet
** Tausūg people
The Tausug (also spelled Tausog; natively , Jawi: ) are an Austronesian ethnic group native ...
. It is very rare and isn't anymore used to cook rice. It may be the same pattern named as ''bayubayo'' by Spanish sources.
*Kambing – literally "goat-like". A
Yakan version similar to the Cebuano ''minanok'', but it has additional details that make it resemble a goat instead of a chicken.

*Kinasíng – literally meaning "heart-like". This version is shaped like an elongated
octahedron
In geometry, an octahedron (: octahedra or octahedrons) is any polyhedron with eight faces. One special case is the regular octahedron, a Platonic solid composed of eight equilateral triangles, four of which meet at each vertex. Many types of i ...
. It is woven from two strands with the loose ends emerging from the top where the base of the fronds also emege. It is the most common version found in
Cebuano-speaking regions, including
Cebu
Cebu ( ; ), officially the Province of Cebu (; ), is a province of the Philippines located in the Central Visayas region, and consists of a main island and 167 surrounding islands and islets. The coastal zone of Cebu is identified as a ...
,
Camiguin
Camiguin, officially the Province of Camiguin (; ; Kamigin: ''Probinsya ta Kamigin''), is an island province in the Philippines located in the Bohol Sea, about off the northern coast of mainland Mindanao. It is geographically part of Region ...
,
Northern Mindanao
Northern Mindanao (; Maranao language, Maranao: ''Pangotaraan Mindanao''; ) is an Regions of the Philippines, administrative region in the Philippines, designated as Region X. It comprises five Provinces of the Philippines, provinces: Bukidnon, ...
, and
Sarangani
Sarangani, officially the Province of Sarangani (; ; Maguindanao language, Maguindanaon: ''Dairat nu Sarangani'', Jawi Alphabet, Jawi: دايرت نو سرڠان; ), is a Provinces of the Philippines, province in the Philippines located in the ...
.
*Kumò – a two-strand version from
Samar
Samar ( ) is the third-largest and seventh-most populous island in the Philippines, with a total population of 1,909,537 as of the 2020 census. It is located in the eastern Visayas, which are in the central Philippines. The island is divided in ...
woven to resemble a clenched fist. Like the ''binosa'', they are often used solely as offerings.
*Manan-aw – a rare version found in Cebu. "Manan-aw" is the local Cebuano
common name
In biology, a common name of a taxon or organism (also known as a vernacular name, English name, colloquial name, country name, popular name, or farmer's name) is a name that is based on the normal language of everyday life; and is often con ...
of the moon orchid (''
Phalaenopsis amabilis
''Phalaenopsis amabilis'', commonly known as the moon orchid, moth orchid, or mariposa orchid, is a species of flowering plant in the orchid family Orchidaceae. It is widely cultivated as a decorative houseplant. It is an epiphytic or lithophyt ...
''). This variant is named after its resemblance to its flowers. It is very large, even larger than ''pinawikan'', and is made with eight strips.
*Minanók – literally "chicken-like". A version from Taptap, Cebu that is shaped like a chicken. It is used as a ritual offering. Also known as ''lánggam'' ("bird"), not to be confused with ''langgám'' in Tagalog.
*Pat bettes – literally "cow hooves". A
triangular pyramid
In geometry, a tetrahedron (: tetrahedra or tetrahedrons), also known as a triangular pyramid, is a polyhedron composed of four triangular faces, six straight edges, and four vertices. The tetrahedron is the simplest of all the ordinary convex ...
-shaped version, very common among the Tausug people. It has four corners at the base, and three corners on each side meeting to a point.

*Patupat – a version from
Northern Luzon
Luzon ( , ) is the largest and most populous List of islands in the Philippines, island in the Philippines. Located in the northern portion of the List of islands of the Philippines, Philippine archipelago, it is the economic and political ce ...
shaped like a flat rectangle. It is unique in that it is always cooked as a dessert, never plain or savory. It is boiled in coconut milk and ''muscovado'' sugar or even
molasses
Molasses () is a viscous byproduct, principally obtained from the refining of sugarcane or sugar beet juice into sugar. Molasses varies in the amount of sugar, the method of extraction, and the age of the plant. Sugarcane molasses is usuall ...
. It is also known as ''tikob'' among Tagalogs. Both names refer to its rectangular shape.
*Pinagbutasan – probably the same version used in the ''pagbutas'' funerary ritual described by Spanish sources. Although modern
folk etymology
Folk etymology – also known as (generative) popular etymology, analogical reformation, (morphological) reanalysis and etymological reinterpretation – is a change in a word or phrase resulting from the replacement of an unfamiliar form by a mo ...
attribute the origin of its name to a story about a datu who married a second wife and was abandoned by his first wife after he offered her the smaller portion of the ''pusô'' he had cut in half. It is triangular in shape with the leaf base and the loose ends emerging out at one point.
*Pinawikan – literally meaning "
sea turtle
Sea turtles (superfamily Chelonioidea), sometimes called marine turtles, are reptiles of the order Testudines and of the suborder Cryptodira. The seven existing species of sea turtles are the flatback, green, hawksbill, leatherback, loggerh ...
-like". Also known as ''binadbaranay'' ("unraveling"), ''pinagi'' (
ray-like), and ''binalek'' ("returned"). It is a large version made with four strands whose loose ends are woven back into the other strands. It is commonly found in Cebu and Negros Oriental.
*Pudol – also ''tinigib'' or ''dumpol'', meaning "cut off". Resembles ''kinasing'' and is woven similarly, but the pointed tip at the bottom is flattened. It is also known as ''buwah pagung'' ("
nipa palm
''Nypa fruticans'', commonly known as the nipa palm (or simply nipa, from ) or mangrove palm, is a species of palm native to the coastlines and estuarine habitats of the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the only palm considered adapted to the ...
fruit") among Sama-Bajau, and ''tamu sibulyas'' ("onion ''tamu''") in Tausug.
*Tamu Bawang – literally "garlic ''tamu''". A Tausug version that resembles the Cebuano ''kinasing'', except that the loose ends emerge from one of the corners in the center, and not at the ends.
*Tamu Buyung Kambing – literally "goat's scrotum ''tamu''". A Yakan version shaped like two small pouches merging in the middle.
*Tamu Duwa Susu – literally "two nipples ''tamu''". A Yakan version named for the two corners on its upper side.
*Tamu Pinad – the most common version used by Tausug people for
Hari Raya
Eid al-Fitr () is the first of the two main festivals in Islam, the other being Eid al-Adha. It falls on the first day of Shawwal, the tenth month of the Islamic calendar. Eid al-Fitr is celebrated by Muslims worldwide because it marks the ...
festivities. The name means "diamond-shaped ''tamu''" because it has a flattened diamond shape. It is the most similar to Indonesian ''
ketupat
''Ketupat'' (in Indonesian and Malay), or ''kupat'' (in Javanese and Sundanese), or ''tipat'' (in Balinese) is a Javanese rice cake packed inside a diamond-shaped container of woven palm leaf pouch. Originating in Indonesia, it is also ...
''.
*Tamu Sumbay – a Yakan version that resembles a basket called ''sumbay''. It has a wide base and a narrow top, somewhat resembling a woman's handbag.
*Tamu Tempipih – a Yakan version named after a similarly shaped basket. It resembles the Tausug ''pinad'' with one corner cut off.
*Tinumpei – a complex version from the Yakan people similar to the ''binangkito'', except that the points are flattened, making it look like a four-pointed star. The name refers to the ''tumpei'', a traditional bag used by Yakan farmers. It may possibly be the same pattern named as ''binitoon'' by Spanish sources among Visayans.
*Ulona a babak – a version from the
Maranao people
The Maranao people (Maranao language, Maranao: ''Bangsa'' ''Mëranaw''; Filipino language, Filipino: ''mga'' ''Maranaw''), also spelled Meranaw, Maranaw, and Mëranaw, is a predominantly Muslim Filipino people, Filipino ethnic groups of the ...
identical in construction to the ''patupat'' but isn't used to hold sweetened rice. The name literally means "pillow of the monkey". It may also be the ''tambong'' and ''binairan'' versions mentioned by Spanish sources.
History
Leaf-wrapped dishes are one of the earliest native Filipino food described by the Spaniards when they arrived in the Philippines. The first recorded mention of rice cooked in leaves is by
Antonio Pigafetta
Antonio Pigafetta (; – c. 1531) was a Venetian scholar and explorer. In 1519, he joined the Spanish expedition to the Spice Islands led by Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan, the world's first Magellan's circumnavigation, circumnavigation, ...
who wrote in 1525 of a
Visayan
Visayans ( Cebuano: ''mga Bisayà'' ) are a Philippine ethnolinguistic family group or metaethnicity native to the Visayas, to the southernmost islands south of Luzon, and to a significant portion of Mindanao. They are composed of numerous di ...
meal of rice and
millet
Millets () are a highly varied group of small-seeded grasses, widely grown around the world as cereal crops or grains for fodder and human food. Most millets belong to the tribe Paniceae.
Millets are important crops in the Semi-arid climate, ...
wrapped in leaves served with roast fish.
There are six main accounts of ''pusô'' among Visayans published in ''Vocabularios'' (dictionaries) of Spanish priests during the
Spanish colonial period of the Philippines
Spanish might refer to:
* Items from or related to Spain:
**Spaniards are a nation and ethnic group indigenous to Spain
**Spanish language, spoken in Spain and many countries in the Americas
**Spanish cuisine
** Spanish history
**Spanish culture ...
. Their authors often describe numerous variants varying by shape and weaving patterns, ranging from simple geometric shapes to complex shapes imitating objects or animals. But without illustrations, it is hard to imagine what they looked like, much less how they were made. Nevertheless, they give a glimpse of how complex the traditional ''pusô'' were during the pre-Hispanic period, although some of these forms have now been lost.
Fray Mateo Sánchez, a
Jesuit
The Society of Jesus (; abbreviation: S.J. or SJ), also known as the Jesuit Order or the Jesuits ( ; ), is a religious order (Catholic), religious order of clerics regular of pontifical right for men in the Catholic Church headquartered in Rom ...
priest stationed in
Dagami, Leyte
Dagami (IPA: ɐ'gami, officially the Municipality of Dagami (; ), is a municipality in the province of Leyte, Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a population of 36,178 people.
Waray-Waray is the language spoken by the residents ...
, is the first to describe ''pusô'' by name (as "''poso''") in his ''Vocabulario de la lengua Bisaya'' (1615–1617). He describes it as being made by women. He also lists fourteen types of ''pusô''. They include ''tambong'', which was flat and rectangular; ''binairan'', brick-shaped like a
whetstone; and ''bayobayo'', which was cylindrical-shaped like a small
pestle
A mortar and pestle is a set of two simple tools used to prepare ingredients or substances by compression (physics), crushing and shear force, grinding them into a fine Paste (rheology), paste or powder in the kitchen, laboratory, and pharmacy. ...
. He also describes others that are even more intricately shaped, like ''cumol sin datu'', shaped like a clenched fist; ''linalaqui'', shaped like male genitalia; ''binabaye'', shaped like breasts; ''sinaop'', shaped like two hands clasped together; ''tinicod'', shaped like the heel of the foot; ''linangbay'' or ''linambay'', shaped like a crab; ''binitoon'', shaped like a star; ''bung̃an gapas'', shaped like a
kapok fruit; ''binabao'' or ''pinavican'', shaped like a turtle shell; and ''ynamo'' or ''inamo'', shaped like a monkey's head.
Alonso de Méntrida in his ''Diccionario de la lengua Bisaya, Hiligueina y Haraya de la Isla de Panay'' (1618) describes six kinds of ''pusô'' among the
Cebuano,
Ilonggo and
Karay-a people
The Karay-a are a Visayan ethnic group native to the islands of Panay and Palawan in the Philippines. They speak the Karay-a language ().
Etymology
The ethnonym ''Karay-a'' was derived from the word ''iraya'', which means "upstream". The term , l ...
of
Panay
Panay is the sixth-largest and fourth-most populous island in the Philippines, with a total land area of and a total population of 4,542,926, as of 2020 census. Panay comprises 4.4 percent of the entire population of the country. The City of Il ...
. His list repeats some of those mentioned by Sánchez. He includes ''poso nga linalaque'', which he describes as "''esquinado''" ("angular"); ''poso nga pinaouican'', shaped like a turtle; ''poso nga binouaya'', shaped like a crocodile; ''poso nga ibaiba'', shaped like an ''iba'' (rice basket or jar); ''poso nga galangan'', shaped like ''galangan'' (
star fruit
Carambola, also known as star fruit, is the fruit of '' Averrhoa carambola'', a species of tree native to tropical Southeast Asia. The edible fruit has distinctive ridges running down its sides (usually 5–6). When cut in cross-section, it re ...
); and ''poso nga paholan'', shaped like the small piece of wood worn around the waist by fishermen to attach fishing lines on.
Francisco Ignacio Alcina
Francisco Ignacio (de) Alcina SJ (also Alzina, Alçina) (February 2, 1610 – July 30, 1674) was a Spanish historian and a Jesuit missionary in the Philippines. He served as parish priest in the Visayan islands for 37 years. Most of those years ...
also described the Visayan "''posos''" in his ''Historia de las islas e indios de Bisayas'' (1668). He described them as a ritual offering during the ''pagabo'' or ''saragunting'' ritual, a ''
paganito''
animist
Animism (from meaning 'breath, spirit, life') is the belief that objects, places, and creatures all possess a distinct spiritual essence. Animism perceives all things—animals, plants, rocks, rivers, weather systems, human handiwork, and in ...
ic ritual to the ''
diwata
''Anito'', also spelled ''anitu'', refers to ancestor spirits, nature spirits, and deities in the Indigenous Philippine folk religions from the precolonial age to the present, although the term itself may have other meanings and associ ...
'' (spirit) of the fireplace. He notes that once consecrated to the ''
diwata
''Anito'', also spelled ''anitu'', refers to ancestor spirits, nature spirits, and deities in the Indigenous Philippine folk religions from the precolonial age to the present, although the term itself may have other meanings and associ ...
'' spirits, the "''posos''" are left alone and never opened. Like Sánchez, he describes different types of ''pusô'', namely the ''linangang'', woven with almost white coconut leaves in the shape of a small bird; and ''ginawig'', woven into the shape of a large hen.

Another ceremony that uses ''pusô'' described by Alcina is the ''pagbutas'', which was done after a burial ceremony of the dead. The relatives and friends of the deceased would weave a ''pusô'' and tie them all together in a large plate of water. The ''
daitan'' shaman would then cut each ''pusô'' away while praying, signifying the separation of the living from the recently departed.
Juan Jose Delgado, another Jesuit priest stationed in Guiguan (modern
Guiuan
Guiuan ( �giˌwan; , ), officially the Municipality of Guiuan, is a municipality in the province of Eastern Samar, Philippines. It constitutes the southeastern extremity of Samar Island and some adjacent islands, surrounded by Leyte Gulf and ...
), Samar, writes about taking ''pusô'' with him on trips to the forest to cut wood in his ''Historia general, sacro-profana, politica y natural de las Islas del poniente llamadas Filipinas'' (1751). He praised the way it kept the rice fresh longer. He also mentions how the ''pusô'' is cooked with meat inside in large cauldrons called ''baon''. Though he does not name them, he also describes numerous variations of the weaving patterns, ranging from round, square, or rectangular-shaped. He also remarks upon the skill in weaving even among children who make the pouches, likening their creations to the
Gordian knot
The cutting of the Gordian Knot is an Ancient Greek legend associated with Alexander the Great in Gordium in Phrygia, regarding a complex knot that tied an oxcart. Reputedly, whoever could untie it would be destined to rule all of Asia. In 33 ...
.
In the late 19th and early 20th century ''Vocabularias'', there are only brief mentions of ''pusô''. Juan Félix de la Encarnacion in 1885 describes ''pusô'' as a kind of pouch filled with rice. Although he does also mention ''pinaoican'' and ''pinapagan'' as separate dishes. Antonio Sanchez de la Rosa in his ''Diccionario español-bisaya para las provincias de Sámar y Leyte'' (1914) lists ''pusô'' under ''lambay'' and ''langbay'', the modern
Waray name for ''pusô'' derived from the "crab" version that Sánchez described three centuries earlier. He describes it as being a "''bolsa de figura de corazon''" ("heart-shaped pouch") used to cook rice or rice in coconut milk.
Similar dishes
''Pusô'' is related to similar dishes in other
rice-farming Austronesian
Austronesian may refer to:
*The Austronesian languages
*The historical Austronesian peoples
The Austronesian people, sometimes referred to as Austronesian-speaking peoples, are a large group of peoples who have settled in Taiwan, maritime Sout ...
cultures, like the
Indonesia
Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania, between the Indian Ocean, Indian and Pacific Ocean, Pacific oceans. Comprising over List of islands of Indonesia, 17,000 islands, including Sumatra, ...
n ''
ketupat
''Ketupat'' (in Indonesian and Malay), or ''kupat'' (in Javanese and Sundanese), or ''tipat'' (in Balinese) is a Javanese rice cake packed inside a diamond-shaped container of woven palm leaf pouch. Originating in Indonesia, it is also ...
'', although the latter refers strictly to the diamond or triangular-shaped variants. ''Ketupat'' are also woven differently, the leaf base and the loose leaf strands do not exit at the same point, as in most Filipino ''puso''. They are also popularly associated with
Eid al-Fitr
Eid al-Fitr () is the first of the two main Islamic holidays, festivals in Islam, the other being Eid al-Adha. It falls on the first day of Shawwal, the tenth month of the Islamic calendar. Eid al-Fitr is celebrated by Muslims worldwide becaus ...
like the ''tamu'' of Muslim Filipinos. ''Ketupat'' somewhat resemble the ''tamu pinad'' version among
Muslim Filipinos the most, which are shaped like a flattened diamond, although they are also woven differently.
In
Hindu
Hindus (; ; also known as Sanātanīs) are people who religiously adhere to Hinduism, also known by its endonym Sanātana Dharma. Jeffery D. Long (2007), A Vision for Hinduism, IB Tauris, , pp. 35–37 Historically, the term has also be ...
Bali
Bali (English:; Balinese language, Balinese: ) is a Provinces of Indonesia, province of Indonesia and the westernmost of the Lesser Sunda Islands. East of Java and west of Lombok, the province includes the island of Bali and a few smaller o ...
, a similar diamond-shaped variant called the ''ketipat'' or ''tipat'' is used as an offering to the rice goddess
Dewi Sri
Dewi Sri or Shridevi ( Javanese: ꦢꦺꦮꦶꦱꦿꦶ, Balinese: , Dewi Sri, Sundanese: , Nyai Pohaci Sanghyang Asri) is the Javanese, Sundanese, and Balinese Hindu Goddess of rice and fertility, still widely worshiped on the islands of Ja ...
.
An
octahedron
In geometry, an octahedron (: octahedra or octahedrons) is any polyhedron with eight faces. One special case is the regular octahedron, a Platonic solid composed of eight equilateral triangles, four of which meet at each vertex. Many types of i ...
-shaped version called ''atupat'' was also found in pre-colonial
Guam
Guam ( ; ) is an island that is an Territories of the United States, organized, unincorporated territory of the United States in the Micronesia subregion of the western Pacific Ocean. Guam's capital is Hagåtña, Guam, Hagåtña, and the most ...
, before the ancient rice cultivation in the island was replaced by
corn
Maize (; ''Zea mays''), also known as corn in North American English, is a tall stout Poaceae, grass that produces cereal grain. It was domesticated by indigenous peoples of Mexico, indigenous peoples in southern Mexico about 9,000 years ago ...
brought by the Spanish.
See also
*
Balisungsong
*
Binalot
Binalot is a method of wrapping and serving food in the Philippines using banana leaves and alike. The term is derived from the root word ''balot'' (wrap) + -''in''- meaning "wrapped".
See also
*Pastil - A similar but Halal meal whose preparat ...
*
Suman
*
Lamban
*
Lontong
''Lontong'' () is an Indonesian cuisine, Indonesian dish made of compressed rice cake in the form of a Cylinder (geometry), cylinder wrapped inside a banana leaf, commonly found in Indonesia, Malaysia, and Singapore. Rice is rolled inside a bana ...
*
Oko-oko
*
Pastil
''Pastil'' is a Philippine cuisine, Filipino dish made with steamed rice wrapped in banana leaves with dry shredded beef, chicken, or fish. It originates from the Maguindanao people and is a popular, cheap breakfast meal in Mindanao, especial ...
*
Zongzi
''Zongzi'' () or simply ''zong'' () is a traditional Chinese rice dish made of glutinous rice stuffed with a range of fillings and wrapped in bamboo leaves. Fillings can be either sweet, such as red bean paste, or savory, such as pork belly or ...
References
Further reading
{{DEFAULTSORT:Puso
Glutinous rice dishes
Vegetarian dishes of the Philippines
Rice cakes