The Kraken (Diego Hargreeves)

The kraken (, from , "the crookie") is a legendary sea monster of enormous size, per its etymology something akin to a cephalopod, said to appear in the Norwegian Sea off the coast of Norway. It is believed that the legend of the Kraken may have originated from sightings of giant squid, which may grow to in length.

The kraken, as a subject of sailors' superstitions and mythos, was first described in the modern era in a travelogue by Francesco Negri in 1700. This description was followed in 1734 by an account from Dano-Norwegian missionary and explorer Hans Egede, who described the kraken in detail and equated it with the ''hafgufa'' of medieval lore. However, the first description of the creature is usually credited to the Danish bishop Pontoppidan (1753). Pontoppidan was the first to describe the kraken as an octopus (polypus) of tremendous size, and wrote that it had a reputation for pulling down ships. The French malacologist Denys-Montfort, of the 19th century, is also known for his pioneering inquiries into the existence of gigantic octopuses.

The great man-hunting octopus entered French fiction when novelist Victor Hugo (1866) introduced the ' octopus of Guernsey lore, which he identified with the kraken of legend. This led to Jules Verne's depiction of the kraken, although Verne did not distinguish between squid and octopus.

Linnaeus may have indirectly written about the kraken. Linnaeus wrote about the ''Microcosmus'' genus (an animal with various other organisms or growths attached to it, comprising a colony). Subsequent authors have referred to Linnaeus's writing, and the writings of Bartholin's ''cetus'' called ''hafgufa'', and Christian Franz Paullini's ''monstrum marinum'' as "krakens". That said, the claim that Linnaeus used the word "kraken" in the margin of a later edition of ''Systema Naturae'' has not been confirmed.

Etymology

The word "kraken" in English (in the sense of the sea monster) derives from or of the same sense, which are the definite forms of ''krake'' ("the krake").

According to a Norwegian dictionary, the root meaning of ''krake'' is "malformed or overgrown, crooked tree". It originates from Old Norse , which is etymologically related to Old Norse , , cognate with "crook". This is backed up by the Swedish dictionary SAOB, published by the Swedish Academy, which gives essentially the exact same description for the word in Swedish and confirming the lead ''krak'' as a diminutive form of ''krok'', Norwegian and Swedish for 'hook/crook'; ''krake'' thus roughly translate to "crookie". With time, "krake" have come to mean any severed tree stem or trunk with crooked outgrowths, in turn giving name to objects and tools based on such, notably for the subject matter, primitive anchors and ''drags'' ( grapnel anchors) made from severed spruce tops or branchy bush trunks outfitted with a stone sinker, known as ''krake'', but also ''krabbe'' in Norwegian or ''krabba'' in Swedish (). Old Norse mostly corresponds to these uses in modern Icelandic, meaning, among other things, "twig" and "drag", but also "pile barrage-pole" and "boat hook". Swedish SAOB gives the translations of Icelandic as "thin rod with hook on it", "wooden drag with stone sinker" and "dry spruce trunk with the crooked, stripped branches still attached".

Kraken is assumed to have been named figuratively after the meaning “crooked tree” or its derivate meaning “drag”, as trunks with crooked branches or outgrowths, and especially drags, wooden or not, readily conjure up the image of a cephalopod or similar. This idea seems to first have been notably remarked by Icelandic philologist Finnur Jónsson in 1920. A synonym for kraken has also been ''krabbe'' (see below), which further indicates a name-theme referencing drags.

Synonyms

Besides ''kraken'', the monster went under a variety of names early on, the most common after ''kraken'' being ''horven'' ("the horv"). Icelandic philologist Finnur Jónsson explained this name in 1920 as an alternative form of ' () and conjectured that this name was suggested by the inkfish's action of seeming to plough the sea.

Some of the synonyms of ''krake'' given by Erik Pontoppidan were, in Danish:
* (''horven'') – harrow
* (''søe-horven'') – sea-harrow
* (''søe-kraken'') – sea-krake
* (''kraxen'') – alternate spelling of "krakse"
* (''krabben'') – named after the ''drag'' ( grapnel anchor) "crab" (see above)
* – anchor-troll

Related words

Since the 19th century, the word ''krake'' have, beyond the monster, given name to the cephalopod order '' Octopoda'' in Swedish (''krakar'') and German (''Kraken''), resulting in many species of octopuses partly named such, such as the common octopus (''Octopus vulgaris''), which is named '' jättekrake'' ("giant kraken") in Swedish and '' Gewöhnlicher Krake'' ("common kraken") in German. The family ''Octopodidae'' is also known as ''Echte Kraken'' ("true krakens") in German. In Icelandic, octopoda is instead named ''kolkrabbar'' ("coal crabs") after the crab nickname, the common octopus simply named '' kolkrabbi''.

The Swedish diminutive form ''kräkel'', a word for a branchy/spiny piece of wood, have given name to a variety of sea dwelling plants in Swedish, most notably furcellaria lumbricalis, a species of red algae. There is also the morphological derivation ''kräkla'' (dialectal ), meaning crooked piece of wood, which has given name to primitive forms of whisks and beaters (cooking), made from the tops of trees by keeping a row of twigs as the beating element, resembling the appearance of a cephalopod, but also crosiers and shepherd's crooks.

Shetlandic ''krekin'' for "whale", a taboo word, is listed as etymologically related.

General description

The kraken was described as a many-headed and clawed creature by hans Egede (1741)729 who stated it was equivalent to the Icelanders' ''hafgufa'', but the latter is commonly treated as a fabulous whale (the name meaning "sea reeker", compare a whale blowing water). Erik Pontoppidan (1753), who popularized the kraken to the world, noted that it was multiple-armed according to lore, and conjectured it to be a giant sea-crab, starfish or a ''polypus'' (octopus). Still, Pontoppidan is considered to have been instrumental in sparking interest for the kraken in the English-speaking world, as well as becoming regarded as the authority on sea-serpents and krakens.

Denys-Montfort (1801) published on two giants, the "colossal octopus" with the enduring image of it attacking a ship, and the "kraken octopod", deemed to be the largest organism in zoology. Denys-Montfort matched his "colossal" with Pliny's tale of the giant ''polypus'' that attacked ships-wrecked people, while making correspondence between his kraken and Pliny's monster called the ''arbor marina''. Finnur Jónsson (1920) also favored identifying the kraken as an inkfish (squid/octopus) on etymological grounds.

Nordisk familjebok (1884)

The Swedish encyclopedia, Nordisk familjebok, gave the following summation of the Kraken myth in 1884:

Historical descriptions

Olaus Magnus (1539–1555)

One of the earliest possible descriptions of the kraken, based on its iconography, is found on Swedish writer Olaus Magnus' famous map of Scandinavia from 1539, the , featuring various illustrated sea-monsters. Magnus did not use the term kraken, but do feature a sea monster in the Norwegian Sea between Norway and Iceland, in the shape of a fish with tentacles growing out of its head, next to another sea monster in the shape of a fish with tusks.

The describes the two monsters as follows:

What measurement Magnus referenced is unknown. It could be period Swedish feet: , Norwegian (Danish) feet: , or something else. At the time of the map's creation, Magnus had been living in exile in Danzig, Poland, since 1527, moving to Venice in 1539 before the map's publication. Applying an average foot-value of , the eye-diameter given would be something akin to .

Swiss naturalist Conrad Gesner (1516–1565) named the tusked creature "swine whale" (), and the horned creature "bearded whale" ().

Later on, in 1555, Magnus released a work expanding on the map, titled (English title: ''A Description of the Northern Peoples''), a massive work describing Scandinavian customs, folklore and nature. In book 21, chapter 5, titled (The Horrible Monsters off the Coasts of Norway), he describes the creature in detail, saying its part of a group of nameless monster fishes outside the Norwegian coast, which by extension are grouped with whales. The following description appears to intermix traits from both whales and squids; for one, he says it is black in color, with a square head the length of 10–12 cubits (roughly , if assumed to be Swedish ells: ), with a body length of 14–15 cubits (roughly ), giving a total length of , which is consistent with sperm whales; but also, spiny and sharp, which could stem from whale barnacles; however, around the head, it is equipped with long rootlike horns akin to the base of an upprooted tree, and its eyes are big, with a circumference of 8–10 cubits (roughly in diameter, the same as on ), the pupils being one cubit (≈ ) in width and flaming red, which is more consistent with squids than any whale. In the dark, fishermen can see the flaming eyes from far away, indicating that these descriptions stem from the evening hours. The "flaming eyes" could stem from bioluminescent photophores, which are found on various squids, such as the ''Taningia danae'', which has two very large photophoress on the end of two of its arms, the largest known in the natural world, but also the colossal squid, which actually has light organs in the eyes. Lastly, it has a beard, the hairs thick as goose feathers.

Considering that sperm whales regularly hunt giant squids, and that these testimonies appear to be derived from evening hours, it seems reasonable to think they derive from sperm whales hunting giant squids to the surface. In turn, if these eye dimensions are compared to a modern day giant squid, were a roughly long squid has an eye up to in diameter, giving a rough "length to eye-diameter"-ratio of 1:48, then the theoretical squid Magnus described, given the same ratio, would be roughly long.

Francesco Negri (1700)

The first description of the ''kraken'' by name, then as ''"sciu-crak"'' (compare , , "sea-krake"), was given by Italian writer Francesco Negri in ''Viaggio settentrionale'' (Padua, 1700), a travelogue about Scandinavia. The book describes the ''sciu-crak'' as a massive "fish" which was many-horned or many-armed. The author also distinguished this from a sea serpent.

Although it has been stated that the kraken () was "described for the first time by that name" in the writings of Erik Pontoppidan, bishop of Bergen, in his ''Det første Forsøg paa Norges naturlige Historie'' "The First Attempt at Natural History of Norway" (1752–53), a German source qualified Pontoppidan to be the first source on ''kraken'' available to be read in the German language. A description of the kraken had been anticipated by Hans Egede.

Hans Egede (1729)

Hans Egede was possibly the first to have described the kraken using direct period folklore informants, in his ''Det gamle Grønlands nye perlustration'' (1729; Ger. t. 1730; tr. ''Description of Greenland'', 1745), drawing from the fables of his native region, the of Norway, then under Danish rule.; (English); (German)

According to his Norwegian informants, the kraken's body measured many miles in length, and when it surfaced it seemed to cover the whole sea, further described as "having many heads and a number of claws". With its claws it captured its prey, which included ships, men, fish, and animals, carrying its victims back into the depths. Egede conjectured that the ''krake'' was equatable to the monster that the Icelanders call ''hafgufa'', but as he had not obtained anything related to him through an informant, he had difficulty describing the latter (see ).. p. 48: "Det 3die Monstrum, kaldet Havgufa som det allerforunderligte, veed Autor ikke ret at beskrive" p. 49: " af dennem kaldes Kraken, og er uden Tvil den self jamm; som Islænderne kalde Havgufa"; . p. 86: "The third monster, named ''Hafgufa''.. the Author does not well know ow to describe.. he never had any relation of it." p. 87: "''Kracken''.. no doubt the same that the Islanders call ''Hafgufa''"

According to the lore of Norwegian fishermen, they could mount upon the fish-attracting kraken as if it were a sand-bank ( 'fishing shoal'), but if they ever had the misfortune to capture the kraken, getting it entangled on their hooks, the only way to avoid destruction was to pronounce its name to make it go back to its depths. Egede also wrote that the krake fell under the general category of "sea spectre" ( 'søe''), adding that "the Draw" (, definite form) was another being within that sea spectre classification (compare , see sea-draugr).

Erik Pontoppidan (1753)

Erik Pontoppidan's ''Det første Forsøg paa Norges naturlige Historie'' (1752, actually volume 2, 1753) made several claims regarding kraken, including the notion that the creature was sometimes mistaken for a group of small islands with fish swimming in-between, Norwegian fishermen often took the risk of trying to fish over kraken, since the catch was so plentiful (hence the saying "You must have fished on Kraken").

However, there was also the danger to seamen of being engulfed by the whirlpool when it submerged, and this whirlpool was compared to Norway's famed Moskstraumen often known as "the Maelstrom".

Pontoppidan also described the destructive potential of the giant beast: "it is said that if he creature's armswere to lay hold of the largest man-of-war, they would pull it down to the bottom".Sjögren, Bengt (1980). ''Berömda vidunder''. Settern.

Kraken purportedly exclusively fed for several months, then spent the following few months emptying its excrement, and the thickened clouded water attracted fish. Later Henry Lee commented that the supposed excreta may have been the discharge of ink by a cephalopod.

Mythical identifications

Hafgufa

Hans Egede made the aforementioned identification of ''krake'' as being the same as the ''hafgufa'' of the Icelanders, though he seemed to have obtained the information indirectly from the medieval Norwegian treatise, the ''Speculum Regale'' (or ''King's Mirror'', ). Later, in ''Historie von Grönland'' (''History of Greenland'', 1765) also reported ''kraken'' and the ''hafgufa'' to be synonymous. An English translator of the ''King's Mirror'' in 1917 opted to translate ''hafgufa'' as ''kraken''.

The hafgufa (described as the largest of the sea monsters, inhabiting the Greenland Sea) from the ''King's Mirror'' continues to be identified with the ''kraken'' in some scholarly writings, and if this equivalence were allowed, the kraken-hafgufa's range would extend, at least legendarily, to waters approaching Helluland (Baffin Island, Canada), as described in '' Örvar-Odds saga''.

The anonymously written ''Historia Norwegiæ'' also states that the ''hafgufa'' inhabited a deep fjord, accompanied by other sea beasts such as the ‘''hafstramb’ ,'' a gigantic creature with no head nor tail, the ‘''hrosshvalr’,'' depicted as a hippocampus (half horse, half fish) in imagery, as well as recognizable monstrosities like the Charybdis and Scylla.

Contrary opinion

The description of the ''hafgufa'' in the ''King's Mirror'' suggests a garbled eyewitness account of what was actually a whale, at least according to the . also reads the work as describing the ''hafgufa'' as a type of whale. The whale motif suits the etymology, meaning "sea reeker", which could stem from a whale blowing water.

The ''King's Mirror'' does somewhat extensively reference maritime animal life, including: twenty-one whale species; six seal varieties; description of the walrus; ‘sea-hedges’; as well as the legendary likes of the merman, mermaid, and kraken. While the whales, specifically within the Icelandic oceans, are explained in fair amounts of detail — such: as those called ‘ blubber-cutters’, the most numerous whales, growing to twenty ells in length, and noted as harmless to ships and men; the porpoise, which grows to a maximum of five ells; and the ‘ caaing whale’, growing to lengths of seven ells — the tales of other, more dangerous and mythical ‘fish’ leave more room for ambiguity, and thus, interrogation.

Finnur Jónsson (1920) having arrived at the opinion that the kraken probably represented an inkfish (squid/octopus), as discussed earlier, expressed his skepticism towards the persistently accepted notion that the kraken originated from the ''hafgufa''.

Taxonomic identifications

Erik Pontoppidan (kraken's young)

Erik Pontoppidan wrote of a possible specimen of the krake, "perhaps a young and careless one", which washed ashore and died in 1680 near Alstahaug Church on the island of Alsta, Norway. He observed that it had long "arms", and guessed that it must have been crawling like a snail/slug with the use of these "arms", but got lodged in the landscape during the process. 20th-century malacologist Paul Bartsch conjectured this to have been a giant squid, as did literary scholar Finnur Jónsson.

However, what Pontoppidan actually stated regarding what creatures he regarded as candidates for the kraken is quite complicated.

Pontoppidan did tentatively identify the kraken to be a sort of giant crab, stating that the alias ''krabben'' best describes its characteristics.

However, further down in his writing, compares the creature to some creature(s) from Pliny, Book IX, Ch. 4: the sea-monster called ''arbor'', with tree-branch like multiple arms, complicated by the fact that Pontoppidan adds another of Pliny's creature called ''rota'' with eight arms, and conflates them into one organism. Pontoppidan is suggesting this is an ancient example of ''kraken'', as a modern commentator analyzes.

Pontoppidan then declared the kraken to be a type of ''polypus'' (octopus) or "starfish", particularly the kind Gessner called ''Stella Arborescens'', later identifiable as one of the northerly ophiurids or possibly more specifically as one of the Gorgonocephalids or even the genus '' Gorgonocephalus'' (though no longer regarded as family/genus under order ''Ophiurida'', but under ''Phrynophiurida'' in current taxonomy).

This ancient ''arbor'' (admixed ''rota'' and thus made eight-armed) seems like an octopus at first blush but with additional data, the ophiurid starfish now appears Pontoppidan's preferential choice.

The ophiurid starfish seems further fortified when he notes that "starfish" called "Medusa's heads" (''caput medusæ''; pl. ''capita medusæ'') are considered to be "the young of the great sea-krake" by local lore. Pontoppidan ventured the 'young krakens' may rather be the eggs (''ova'') of the starfish. Pontopiddan was satisfied that "Medusa's heads" was the same as the foregoing starfish (''Stella arborensis'' of old), but "Medusa's heads" were something found ashore aplenty across Norway according to von Bergen, who thought it absurd these could be young "Kraken" since that would mean the seas would be full of (the adults). The "Medusa's heads" appear to be a Gorgonocephalid, with '' Gorgonocephalus'' spp. being tentatively suggested.

File:Gorgonocephalus caputmedusae from Trondheimsfjorden at Göteborgs Naturhistoriska Museum 2768.jpg, alt=Gorgonocephalus caputmedusae, '' G. caputmedusae'' (old name ''Astrophyton linckii''), possibly Pontoppidan's "Medusa's head"? according to Lyman; native to the North Sea.
File:Gorgonocephalus eucnemis, Murmansk Regional Museum.JPG, alt=Gorgonocephalus eucnemis, perhaps Shetland Argus, '' G. eucnemis''. "Shetland Argus", according to Bell; possibly Pontoppidan's ''caput medusa ' also; this a more far-ranging species.

In the end though, Pontoppidan again appears ambivalent, stating "Polype, or Star-fish elongs tothe whole genus of Kors-Trold cross troll' ... some that are much larger, .. even the very largest ... of the ocean", and concluding that "this Krake must be of the Polypus kind". By "this Krake" here, he apparently meant in particular the giant ''polypus'' octopus of Carteia from Pliny, Book IX, Ch. 30 (though he only used the general nickname " ozaena" 'stinkard' for the octopus kind).

Denys de Montfort

In 1802, the French malacologist Pierre Denys de Montfort recognized the existence of two "species" of giant octopuses in ''Histoire Naturelle Générale et Particulière des Mollusques'', an encyclopedic description of mollusks.

The "colossal giant" was supposedly the same as Pliny's "monstrous polypus",{{sfnp, Denys-Montfort, 1801, pp=256, 258–259 which was a man-killer which ripped apart ({{langx, la, {{linktext, distrahit ) shipwrecked people and divers.{{Refn, ''Natural History'', Book IX, Loeb edition. According to Pliny's source, Trebius Niger: "..for it struggles with him by coiling round him and it swallows him with sucker-cups and drags him asunder by its multiple
suction, when it attacks men that have been shipwrecked or are diving".{{sfnp, Nigg, 2014, p=148{{sfnp, Gerhardt, 1966, p=152 Montfort accompanied his publication with an engraving representing the giant octopus poised to destroy a three-masted ship.

Whereas the "kraken octopus", was the most gigantic animal on the planet in the writer's estimation, dwarfing Pliny's "colossal octopus"/"monstrous polypus",{{sfnp, Denys-Montfort, 1801, p=386{{sfnp, Lee, 1875, p=100 and identified here as the aforementioned Pliny's monster, called the ''arbor marinus''.

Montfort also listed additional wondrous fauna as identifiable with the kraken.
{{sfnp, Mitchill, 1813, p=405 There was Christian Franz Paullini's ''monstrum marinum'' glossed as a sea crab ({{langx, de, Seekrabbe), which a later biologist has suggested to be one of the '' Hyas spp.'' It was also described as resembling Gessner's ''Cancer heracleoticus'' crab alleged to appear off the Finnish coast.{{sfnp, Lee, 1875, p=100 von Bergen's "''{{linktext, bellua , marina , omnium , vastissima''" (meaning 'vastest-of-all sea-beast'), namely the ''trolwal'' ('ogre whale', 'troll whale') of Northern Europe, and the ''Teufelwal'' ('devil whale') of the Germans follow in the list.{{sfnp, Heuvelmans, 2015, p=91{{sfnp, Mitchill, 1813, p=405

Angola octopus, pictured in St. Malo

It is in his chapter on the "colossal octopus" that Montfort provides the contemporary eyewitness example of a group of sailors who encounter the giant off the coast of Angola, who afterwards deposited a pictorial commemoration of the event as a votive offering at St. Thomas's chapel in Saint-Malo, France. Based on that picture, Montfort drew a "colossal octopus" attacking a ship, and included the engraving in his book.{{sfnp, Lee, 1875, pp=100–103{{harvp, Nigg, 2014, p=147: "The hand-colored woodcut is a reproduction of art in the Church of St. Malo in France". However, an English author recapitulating Montfort's account of it attaches an illustration of it, which was captioned: "The Kraken supposed a sepia or cuttlefish", while attributing Montfort.

Hamilton's book was not alone in recontextualizing Montfort's ship-assaulting colossal octopus as a kraken; for instance, the piece on the "kraken" by American zoologist Packard.{{Refn, Packard: "Denys Montfort took the cue, and.. represented a "kraken octopod" in the act of scuttling a three-master.."

The Frenchman Montfort used the obsolete scientific name ''Sepia octopodia'' but called it a ''poulpe'',{{sfnp, Denys-Montfort, 1801, p=331 which means "octopus" to this day; meanwhile the English-speaking naturalists had developed the convention of calling the octopus "eight-armed cuttle-fish", as did Packard and Hamilton, even though modern-day speakers are probably unfamiliar with that name.

Warship ''Ville de Paris''

Having accepted as fact that a colossal octopus was capable of dragging a ship down, Montfort made a more daring hypothesis. He attempted to blame colossal octopuses for the loss of ten warships under British control in 1782, including six captured French men-of-war. The disaster began with the distress signal fired by the captured ship of the line '' Ville de Paris'' which was then swallowed up by parting waves, and the other ships coming to aid shared the same fate. He proposed, by process of elimination, that such an event could only be accounted for as the work of many octopuses.{{sfnp, Metropolitana, 1845, p=258{{harvp, Lee, 1875, pp=103–105 and note

But it has been pointed out the sinkings have simply been explained by the presence of a storm, and there appeared a surviving witness that stated they ran into a hurricane. Montfort's involving octopuses as complicit has been characterized as "reckless falsity".

It has also been noted that Montfort once quipped to a friend, DeFrance: "If my entangled ship is accepted, I will make my 'colossal poulpe' overthrow a whole fleet".{{sfnp, Lee, 1875, p=103

''Niagara''

The ship ''Niagara'' on course from Lisbon to New York in 1813 logged a sighting of a marine animal spotted afloat at sea. It was claimed to be {{convert, 200, ft, m, -1, abbr=in, order=flip in length, covered in shells, and had many birds alighted upon it.{{Citation needed, date=February 2024

Samuel Latham Mitchill reported this, and referencing Montfort's kraken, reproduced an illustration of it as an octopus.

Giant squid (''Architeuthis'')

{{main, Giant squid

A common conception of the kraken has been that it originates from sightings of giant squid.

The piece of squid recovered by the French ship '' Alecton'' in 1861, discussed by Henry Lee in his chapter on the "Kraken",{{sfnp, Lee, 1884, pp=364–366 would later be identified as a giant squid, ''Architeuthis'' by A. E. Verrill.{{sfnp, Verrill, 1882, pp=262–267

After a specimen of the giant squid, ''Architeuthis'', was discovered by Rev. Moses Harvey and published in science by Professor A. E. Verrill, commentators have remarked on this cephalopod as possibly explaining the legendary kraken.{{sfnp, Verrill, 1882, pp=213, 410

A similar discovery was made in 1873 by Theophilus Piccot and his assistant while fishing for herring in Newfoundland's Conception Bay. As they fished, they saw some large mass floating before them, and upon further investigation, they discovered that the creature had a beak the size of a “six gallon keg”, tentacles greater in height than the two men, and the ability to spew ink when threatened. Although this beast was able to escape the two men, Piccot did manage to hack two of the creature's tentacles off with a hatchet he had on board. After bringing the biological evidence to light, it was later concluded that squids of the giant variety do exist in our seas. Moreover, it was uncovered that these squid were not only larger than whales, but preyed upon them.

Iconography

As to the iconography, Denys-Montfort's engraving of the "colossal octopus" is often shown, though this differs from the kraken according to the French malacologist,{{sfnp, Lee, 1875, pp=100–103 and commentators are found characterizing the ship attack representing the "kraken octopod".

And after Denys-Monfort's illustration, various publishers produced similar illustrations depicting the kraken attacking a ship.

Whereas the kraken was described by Egede as having "many Heads and a Number of Claws", the creature is also depicted to have spikes or horns, at least in illustrations of creatures which commentators have conjectured to be krakens. The "bearded whale" shown on an early map (pictured above) is conjectured to be a kraken perhaps (cf. §Olaus Magnus below). Also, there was an alleged two-headed and horned monster that beached ashore in Dingle, County Kerry, Ireland, thought to be a giant cephalopod, of which there was a picture/painting made by the discoverer. He made a travelling show of his work on canvas, as introduced in a book on the kraken.{{sfnp, Heuvelmans, 2015, pp=141–142

Olaus Magnus' ''Carta marina''

While Swedish writer Olaus Magnus did not use the term ''kraken'', various sea-monsters were illustrated on his famous map, the '' Carta marina'' (1539). Modern writers have since tried to interpret various sea creatures illustrated as a portrayal of the kraken.{{citation needed, date=December 2024

Ashton's ''Curious Creatures'' (1890) drew significantly from Olaus' work and even quoted the Swede's description of the horned whale.{{sfnp, Ashton, 1890, pp=221-222 But he identified the kraken as a cephalopod and devoted much space on Pliny's and Olaus' descriptions of the giant "polypus",{{sfnp, Ashton, 1890, pp=261-265 noting that Olaus had represented the kraken-polypus as a crayfish or lobster in his illustrations,{{sfnp, Ashton, 1890, p=244 and even reproducing the images from both Olaus' book{{sfnp, Ashton, 1890, p=262{{efn, See the black and white woodcut reprodcution, Fig., right (Actually from Lee (1883), a different book; the same picture, without caption appears in the 1890 book. and his map.{{sfnp, Ashton, 1890, p=263 In Olaus book, the giant lobster illustration is uncaptioned, but appears right above the words "De Polypis (on the octopus)", which is the chapter heading. Hery Lee was also of the opinion that the multi-legged lobster was a misrepresentation of a reported cephalopod attack on a ship.

The legend in Olaus' map fails to clarify on the lobster-like monster "M",{{Refn, group="lower-alpha", However, elsewhere on the map, the giant lobster is called a lobster ({{langx, la-x-medieval, gambarus{{sp>{{sp{{langx, la, cammarus{{sp>{{sp{{langx, grc, {{linktext, κάμμαρος ) in the legend; this is the one shown struggling with a one-horned beast. depicted off the island of Iona.{{efn, Iona is of course associated with the Irish saints, Columcille and St. Brendan. However, the associated writing called the ''Auslegung'' adds that this section of the map extends from Ireland to the "Insula Fortunata". This "Fortunate Island" was a destination on '' St. Brendan's Voyage'', one of whose adventures was the landing of the crew on an island-sized monstrous fish,{{efn, This fish has a name: Jasconius. as depicted in a 17th-century engraving (cf. figure right);{{Refn, The "Insula Fortunate" is situated next to St. Brendan's in the engraving in Caspar Plautius's book (1621), engraved by Wolfgang Kilian and this monstrous fish, according to Bartholin was the aforementioned ''hafgufa'', which has already been discussed above as one of the creatures of lore equated with kraken.{{citation needed, date=December 2024

File:Carta Marina -polypus as lobster snatches man.jpg, alt=Giant crustacean-looking sea-monster with a man in its pincers, Monster "M" on the '' Carta marina'' (1539){{Refn, {{harvp, Ashton, 1890. ''Curious Creatures'' p. 244. Ashton continues the discussion on pp. 262–263 using the reproduction of Olaus' woodcut, the same―except for bearing no caption― as fig. right, from Lee's ''Sea Monsters Unmasked'' (1883).
File:Lee Henry1884-Unmasked-p058-Olaus-lobster.png, alt=Giant lobster snatches man aboard ship, after Olaus Magnus., Ship-attacking crustacean, from Lee's ''Sea Monsters Unmasked'' (1883), after Olaus' (1555) '' A Description''
File:Houghton Typ 620.22.697 - Nova typis transacta navigatio.jpg, alt=St. Brendan's giant fish next to island, and the "fortunate isle" next to it, Giant fish encountered by St. Brendan. "Insula Fortunata" marked near it.

Taxonomical influences

Linnaeus's microcosmus

The famous Swedish 18th-century naturalist Carl Linnaeus in his ''Systema Naturae'' (1735) described a fabulous genus ''Microcosmus'' a "body covered with various heterogeneous ther bits ({{langx, la, {{linktext, Corpus , variis , heterogeneis , tectum ).{{Refn, group="lower-alpha", Lovén gave the text as {{linktext, tegmen , ex , heterogeneis , compilatis, but this reading occurs in the Latin-Swedish 6th edition of 1748. Whereas the 2nd edition has "testa" instead of "tegmen".

Linnaeus cited four sources under ''Microcosmus'', namely:{{Refn, group="lower-alpha", Lóven indicates that these sources appeared in print in the second edition of ''SN'', but as a piece of marginalia, he notes these sources were also given in Linnaeus's 1733 lectures. The lecture was preserved in the Notes taken by Mennander, held by the Royal Library, Stockholm.{{sfnp, Lovén, 1887, p=14, note 2 Thomas Bartholin's ''cetus'' (≈whale) type ''hafgufa''; Christian Franz Paullini's ''monstrum marinum'' aforementioned; and Francesco Redi's giant tunicate (''Ascidia'') in Italian and Latin.

According to the Swedish zoologist Lovén, the common name ''kraken'' was added to the 6th edition of ''Systema Naturae'' (1748), which was a Latin version augmented with Swedish names (in blackletter), but such Swedish text is wanting on this particular entry, e.g. in the copy held by NCSU. It is true that the 7th edition of 1748, which adds German vernacular names, identifies the ''Microcosmus'' as "sea-grape" ({{langx, de, Meertrauben), referring to a cluster of cephalopod eggs.{{Refn, group="lower-alpha", "Meer{{=Trauben" already appeared in the 1740 Latin-German edition. The 9th edition of 1956, which is said to be the same as the 6th edition, also leaves a blanc instead of adding the French vernacular name.{{Refn, group= "lower-alpha", An illustration of sea-grapes ({{langx, fr, raisins de mer) appears on {{harvp, Moquin-Tandon, 1865, p=309.

Also, the Frenchman Louis Figuier in 1860 misstated that Linnaeus included in his classification a cephalopod called "'' Sepia microcosmus''"{{efn, As noted previously, '' Sepia'' genus represents cuttlefish in modern taxonomy, Linnaeus's genus ''Sepia'' was essentially "cephalopods", and his ''Sepia octopodia'' was the common octopus.{{sfnp, Heuvelmans, 2015, p=147? in his first edition of ''Systema Naturae'' (1735). Figuier's mistake has been pointed out, and Linnaeus never represented the kraken as such a cephalopod. Nevertheless, the error has been perpetuated by even modern-day writers.{{Refn, The notion that Linnaeus mentioned the kraken in 1735 has been taken to be fact by {{harvp, Bushnell, 2019, p=56, and Richard Ellis in 2006 also assumed the ''Sepia microcosmus'' was present in the first edition, concluding therefore it was removed by the time a later edition appeared.

Linnaeus' ''System of Nature'' in English

Thomas Pennant, an Englishman, had written of ''Sepia octopodia'' as "eight-armed cuttlefish" (we call it octopus today), and documented reported cases in the Indian isles where specimen grow to {{convert, 2, fathom, m ft, disp=sqbr wide, "and each arms {{convert, 9, fathom, m ft, disp=sqbr long". This was added as a species ''Sepia octopusa'' ic.by William Turton in his English version of Linnaeus' ''System of Nature'', together with the account of the {{convert, 9, fathom, m ft, adj=mid, -long armed octopuses.

The trail stemming from Linnaeus, eventually leading to such pieces on the kraken written in English by the naturalist James Wilson for the ''Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine'' in 1818 sparked an awareness of the kraken among 19th-century English, hence Tennyson's poem, "The Kraken".{{sfnp, Bushnell, 2019, p=56

Paleo-cephalopod (''Triassic kraken'')

{{Main, Mark McMenamin#Triassic kraken
Paleontologist Mark McMenamin and his spouse Dianna Schulte McMenamin claimed that an ancient, giant cephalopod resembling the legendary kraken caused the deaths of ichthyosaurs during the Triassic Period. However, this theory has been met with criticisms by multiple researchers.

Literary influences

The French novelist Victor Hugo's ''Les Travailleurs de la mer'' (1866, "Toilers of the Sea") discusses the man-eating octopus, the kraken of legend, called ''pieuvre'' by the locals of the Channel Islands (in the Guernsey dialect, etc.).{{Refn, group="lower-alpha", Hugo also produced an ink and wash sketch of the octopus. Hugo's octopus later influenced Jules Verne's depiction of the kraken in ''Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Seas'', though Verne also drew on the real-life encounter the French ship '' Alecton'' had with what was probably a giant squid.{{sfnp, Nigg, 2014, p=147 It has been noted that Verne indiscriminately interchanged ''kraken'' with ''calmar'' (squid) and ''poulpe'' (octopus).

In the English-speaking world, examples in fine literature are Alfred Tennyson's 1830 irregular sonnet '' The Kraken'', references in Herman Melville's 1851 novel ''Moby-Dick'' (Chapter 59 "Squid"),

Modern use

{{main, Kraken in popular culture
Although fictional and the subject of myth, the legend of the Kraken continues to the present day, with numerous references in film, literature, television, and other popular culture topics.

Examples include: John Wyndham's novel '' The Kraken Wakes'' (1953), the Kraken of Marvel Comics, the 1981 film '' Clash of the Titans'' and its 2010 remake of the same name, and the Seattle Kraken professional ice hockey team. Krakens also appear in video games such as ''Sea of Thieves'', ''God of War II'', '' Return of the Obra Dinn'' and ''Dredge''.{{citation needed, date=December 2024 The kraken was also featured in two of the Pirates of the Caribbean movies, as the pet of the fearsome Davy Jones in the 2006 film, '' Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest'' and appears in the film's sequel, '' At World's End''.{{citation needed, date=December 2024 In George R.R. Martin's fantasy novel series, A Song of Ice and Fire and its HBO series adaptations, Game of Thrones and House of the Dragon, the mythical kraken is the sigil of House Greyjoy of the Iron Islands. {{citation needed, date=December 2024

The character of Cthulhu, created by H.P. Lovecraft in 1928, also serves as a modern depiction of the kraken, as this giant, squid-like humanoid creature embodies the horror originating with the idea of the mythological serpent, often denoting apocalypse, death, or sin, as well as the more contemporary concept of bodily horror.

Two features on the surfaces of other celestial objects have been named after the Kraken. '' Kraken Mare'', a major sea of liquid ethane and methane, is the largest known body of liquid on Saturn's moon Titan.{{Cite web , date=2017-04-25 , title=Kraken Mare: The Largest Methane Sea Known To Humankind , url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/which-is-the-largest-methane-sea-known-to-us.html , access-date=2023-10-13 , website=WorldAtlas , language=en-US ''Kraken Catena'' is a crater chain and possible tectonic fault on Neptune's moon Triton.{{cite conference , url=https://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/LPSC99/pdf/1766.pdf , title=Triton's Surface Age and Impactor Population Revisited (Evidence for an Internal Ocean) , last1=Stern , first1=A. S. , last2=McKinnon , first2=W. B. , date=March 1999 , bibcode=1999LPI....30.1766S , location=Houston, TX , conference=30th Annual Lunar and Planetary Science Conference , id=1766

See also

* Akkorokamui
* Cetus
* Cthulhu
* Leviathan
* Globster

Explanatory notes

{{notelist

References

Citations

{{Reflist, refs=
{{cite book, last=Anderson , first=Rasmus B. , author-link=Rasmus B. Anderson , chapter=Kra'ken , title=Johnson's Universal Cyclopædia , edition=new , volume=5 , location= , publisher=D. Appletons , year=1896 , chapter-url={{GBurl, id=MNk7AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA26 , page=26

" id=0zg8AAAAIAAJ, q=Olaus+Magnus American-Scandinavian Biography for 1969''Scandinavian Studies'' 42 (3), . Brief notice of Ashton (1968) 890 Detroit: Singing Tree Press.

{{cite book, last=Bartholin , first=Thomas , author-link=Thomas Bartholin , chapter=Historia XXIV. Cetorum genera , title=Thomae Bartholini historiarum anatomicarum rariorum centuria II et V , location= , publisher=typis Petri Hakii, acad. typogr. , year=1657 , chapter-url={{GBurl, id=p0JvSeIefa0C, p=283 , page=283 , quote= , language=la

{{cite book, last=Bartsch , first=Paul , author-link=Paul Bartsch , chapter=Pirates of the Deep―Stories of the Squid and Octopu , title=Smithsonian Report for 1916 , location=Washington, DC , publisher=Government Printing Office , year=1917 , url={{GBurl, id=EE4XAQAAIAAJ, pg=RA1-PA391 , pages=364–368

{{citation, last=Beck , first=Thor Jensen , author-link= , title=Northern Antiquities in French Learning and Literature (1755-1855): A Study in Preromantic Ideas , volume=2 , location= , publisher=Columbia university , date=1934, url={{GBurl, id=xywvAAAAIAAJ, q=Negri , page=199 , isbn=5-02-002481-3 , quote=Before Pontoppidan, the same " Krake ” had been taken very seriously by the Italian traveler, Francesco Negri

{{citation, last=Bell , first=F. Jeffrey , author-link=Francis Jeffrey Bell , title=XLIV. Some Notes on British Ophiurids , journal=Annals and Magazine of Natural History , series=Sixth Series , number=47 , date=November 1891 , url={{GBurl, id=g-BEAAAAYAAJ, q=Stella+Arborescens , pages=342–344

{{cite book, last=Bhattacharjee , first=Shuhita , author-link= , chapter=The Colonial Idol, the Animalistic, and the New Woman in the Imperial Gothic of Richard Marsh , editor1-last=Heholt , editor1-first=Ruth , editor1-link= , editor2-last=Edmundson, editor2-first=Melissa , editor2-link= , title=Gothic Animals: Uncanny Otherness and the Animal With-Out , location= , publisher=Springer Nature , year=1657 , chapter-url={{GBurl, id=XWvDDwAAQBAJ, p=259 , page=259 , isbn=978-3-030-34540-2

{{harvp, Metropolitana, 1845, p=258: German physician Blumenbach summarized on what the "Northern Naturalist consider.. the young of the Kraken", and added ''Asterias euryale'' and "''Euryale Verrucosum'' of Lamarack" to the list.

{{cite book, last=Buckland , first=Francis Trevelyan , author-link=Francis Trevelyan Buckland , chapter= , title=Log-book of a Fisherman and Zoologist , location= , publisher=Chapman & Hall , year=1876 , url={{GBurl, id=lwMQAAAAYAAJ, p=209 , page=209 , quote=

{{harvp, Bushnell, 2019, p=56: "Nineteenth-century English interest in the Kraken stems from Linnaeus's discussion of the creature in the first edition of ''Systema Naturae'' (1735) and most famously from ''Natural History of Norway'' (1752-3) by the Bishop.. Pontoppidan (translated into English soon after)".

{{cite book, last=Cahill , first=James Leo , author-link= , title=Zoological Surrealism: The Nonhuman Cinema of Jean Painlevé , location= , publisher=U of Minnesota Press , date=2019 , url={{GBurl, id=iNmGDwAAQBAJ, pg=PT65 , page= , isbn=978-1-4529-5922-1

Cleasby & Vigfusson (1874), ''An Icelandic-English Dictionary'', s.v. "{{GBurl, id=ne9fAAAAcAAJ, p=354" ' an. ''krage'' a pole, stake'

{{cite book, last=Crantz , first=David , author-link=:de:David Cranz , title=The History of Greenland: Including an Account of the Mission Carried on by the United Brethren in that Country. From the German of David Crantz , volume=1 , location=, publisher= , year=1820 , url={{GBurl, id=MoK4Qx7p21wC, p=122 , page=122 , quote=; Cf. id=MoK4Qx7p21wC, p=122 Note X pp. 323–338

nonymous(1849). id=ZYMEAAAAQAAJ, p=272 (Review) New Books: ''An Essay on the credibility of the Kraken'' '' The Nautical Magazine'' 18(5): 272–276.

{{cite book, last=Ellis , first=Richard , author-link=Richard Ellis (biologist) , title=Singing Whales and Flying Squid: The Discovery Of Marine Life , location=, publisher=Rowman & Littlefield , year=2006 , url={{GBurl, id=jz7fCwAAQBAJ, p=143 , page=143 , isbn=1-4617-4896-8, quote=

{{cite book, last=d' Orbigny , first=Alcide , author-link=Alcide d'Orbigny , chapter=Poulpe colossal / Sepia gigas , title=Histoire naturelle générale et particulière des Céphalopodes acétabulifères vivants et fossiles: Texte , volume=1 , publisher=J. B. Baillière , year=1848 , chapter-url={{GBurl, id=AuZAAAAAcAAJ, pg=RA1-PA71 , page=143 , isbn= , quote=: "Si nous Poulpe Colossal est admis, à la seconde édition je lui ferai renverser une {{linktext, escadre".

{{cite book , last=Eberhart , first=George M. , chapter=Kraken , title=Mysterious Creatures: A Guide to Cryptozoology , publisher=ABC-CLIO , year=2002 , chapter-url={{GBurl, id=z9gMsCUtCZUC, p=282 , page=282ff , isbn=1-57607-283-5

{{citation, last=Feest , first=Christian F. , author-link=Christian F. Feest , title=Zemes Idolum Diabolicum: Surprise and success in Ethnographic Kunstkammer Research , journal=Archiv für Völkerkunde , volume=40 , date=1986 , url=https://www.academia.edu/34401272 , page=181; id=MwEcAAAAIAAJ, q=Wolfgang+Kilian snippetvia Google.

{{cite book, last=Figuier, first=Louis , author-link=:fr:Louis Figuier , title=La vie et les moeurs des animaux zoophytes et mollusques par Louis Figuier , location=Paris , publisher=L. Hachette et C.ie , year=1866 , url={{GBurl, id=L2YLajhNjAcC, p=463 , page=463 , quote=

{{cite journal, last=Gerhardt , first=Mia I. , author-link= , title=Knowledge in decline: Ancient and medieval information on "ink-fishes" and their habits, journal=Vivarium , volume=4 , date=1966 , url={{GBurl, id=ZP4SAAAAIAAJ, q=polypus , pages= id=ZP4SAAAAIAAJ, q=stinkard 151 id=ZP4SAAAAIAAJ, q=Carteia 152 , doi=10.1163/156853466X00079 , jstor=41963484

{{cite book, last=Gesner , first=Conrad , author-link=Conrad Gessner , title=Fisch-Buch , location=Frankfurt-am-Main , publisher=Wilhelm Serlin , year=1670, url={{GBurl, id=X81YAAAAcAAJ, pg=RA1-PA124 , pages=124–125 , quote= , series=Gesnerus redivivus auctus & emendatus, oder: Allgemeines Thier-Buch 4
{{cite book, last=Gesner , first=Conrad , author-link=Conrad Gessner , title=Fischbuch, das ist ein kurtze ... Beschreybung aller Fischen , location=Zürich , publisher=Christoffel Froschower , year=1575 , url={{GBurl, id=b2dUAAAAcAAJ, pg=PR110 , page=cx and illustr. opposite , quote= , series=

{{cite book , last=Gibson , first=John , author-link= , chapter=Chapter VI: The Legendary Kraken , title=Monsters of the Sea, Legendary and Authentic , location=London , publisher=T. Nelson , year=1887 , url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/54285093 , chapter-url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/54285093#page/84/mode/1up , via=Biodiversity , pages=79–86 (plate, p. 83) , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220119013342/https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/54285093 , archive-date=19 January 2022 , quote= , access-date=19 January 2022 , url-status=dead

{{harvp, Halldór Hermannsson, 1938, p=11: ''Speculum regiae'' of the 13th century describes a monstrous whale which it calls ''hafgufa''... The whale as an island was, of course, known from the Saga of St. Brandan, but there it was called Jaskonius".
{{harvp, Halldór Hermannsson, 1938, p=; {{citation, author=Halldór Hermannsson , author-link=:is:Halldór Hermannsson , title=Jón Guðmundsson and his natural history of Iceland , journal=Islandica , volume=15 , date=1924 , url=https://archive.org/details/IslandicaAnnual15/page/n77/mode/2up , page=36, endnote to p. 8

{{cite book, last=Heuvelmans , first=Bernard , author-link=Bernard Heuvelmans , title=Kraken & The Colossal Octopus , location= , publisher=Routledge , date=2015 , orig-date=2006 , url={{GBurl, id=83xACwAAQBAJ, p=76 , pages=117–118 , isbn=978-1-317-84701-4

{{cite book, last=Hugo , first=Victor , author-link=Victor Hugo , title=Les travailleurs de la mer , location= , publisher=Lacroix , date=1866 , url={{GBurl, id=REAZPJNesOUC, pg=RA1-PA88 , page=88

{{cite book, last=Hurley, first=Desmond Eugene , author-link= , title=Some Amphipoda, Isopoda and Tanaidacea from Cook Strait , location= , publisher=Victoria University of Wellington, date=1957 , url={{GBurl, id=g-BEAAAAYAAJ, q=Stella+Arborescens , pages=2, 40, series=Zoology Publications from Victoria University of Wellington, 21

{{citation, last=Jakobsen , first=Jakob , author-link=Jakob Jakobsen , chapter=krekin, krechin , title=Etymologisk ordbog over det norrøne sprog på Shetland , publisher=Prior , year=1921 , chapter-url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=wu.89099475378&view=1up&seq=483&q1=krekin , page=431; Cited in Collingwood, W. G. (1910)
Review
''Antiquary'' 46: 157

{{citation, last=Kvam, first=Lorentz Normann , author-link=:no:Lorentz N. Kvam , chapter=krekin, krechin , title=Trollene grynter i haugen , publisher=Nasjonalforlaget , year=1936 , chapter-url={{GBurl, id=uAnrAAAAMAAJ, q=troll+sp%C3%B8kelser , page=131 , quote=Den sier at med ekte troll forståes : a ) jutuler og riser, b ) gjengangere og spøkelser, - c ) nisser og dverger, d ) bergtroll , language=no

{{citation, last=Plautius , first=Caspar (''aka'' Honorius Philoponus) , author-link= , title=Nova Typis Transacta Navigatio: Novi Orbis Indiae Occidentalis , location= , publisher= , year=1621, url={{GBurl, id=wOV4V9JnoykC, pg=PP32 , pages=10a–11

{{cite book, editor=Kongelige nordiske oldskrift-selskab , editor-link=Kongelige Nordiske Oldskriftselskab , title=Grönlands historiske Mindesmaerker , volume=3 , location= , publisher=Brünnich , date=1845 , url={{GBurl, id=brtQAAAAcAAJ, p=371 , page=371, note 52)

{{cite book, last=Knudsen , first=Knud , author-link=Knud Knudsen (linguist) , title=Er Norsk det samme som Dansk? , location=Christiania , publisher=Steenske Bogtrykkeri , date=1862 , url={{GBurl, id=tv1lAAAAcAAJ, p=41 , page=41)

{{cite book, last=Laist , first=David W. , author-link= , title=North Atlantic Right Whales: From Hunted Leviathan to Conservation Icon , location= , publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press , date=2017, url={{GBurl, id=PmBgDgAAQBAJ, p=24 , page=24 , isbn=978-1-4214-2098-1

{{cite book, last=Lee , first=Henry , author-link=Henry Lee (naturalist) , chapter=The Great Sea Serpent , title=Sea Monsters Unmasked , series=The Fisheries Exhibition Literature 3 , publisher=Chapman and Hall , date=1883 , chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-5kwAQAAMAAJ&pg=RA3-PA58 , page=58

{{cite book, last=Linnaeus , first=Carolus , author-link=Carl Linnaeus , title=Caroli Linnæi Systema naturæ , edition=1 , location=Leyden , publisher= Theodorus Haak , date=1735 , url={{GBurl, id=vHNGAQAAMAAJ, q=microcosmus, pg=PP17 , page=

{{cite book, last=Linnaeus , first=Carolus , author-link=Carl Linnaeus , editor-last=Langen , editor-first=Johann Joachim (tr.), editor-link= , title=Caroli Linnæi Systema naturæ , trans-title=Natur{{=Systema, oder, Drey Reiche der Natur , edition=1 , location= Halle , publisher=Gebauer , date=1740 , url={{GBurl, id=zjxfAAAAcAAJ, p=68 , page=68 , quote=Corpus variis heterogeneis tectum. Microcosmus marinus. Der Leib ist mit verschiedenen fremden Theilchen bedeckt. Die meer{{=Traube

{{cite book, last=Linnaeus , first=Carolus , author-link=Carl Linnaeus , title= Caroli Linnæi Systema naturæ , edition=2 , location=Stockholm , publisher= Gottfr. Kiesewetter , date=1740 , url={{GBurl, id=Fpg5AAAAcAAJ, p=64 , page=64

{{cite book, last=Linnaeus , first=Carolus , author-link=Carl Linnaeus , title= Caroli Linnæi Systema naturæ , edition=6 , location=Stockholm , publisher= Gottfr. Kiesewetter , date=1748 , url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/83105#page/95/mode/1up , page=78 {{in lang, la {{in lang, sv

{{cite book, last=Linnaeus , first=Carolus , author-link=Carl Linnaeus , title= Caroli Linnæi Systema naturæ , edition=7 , location=Leipzig , publisher= Gottfr. Kiesewetter , date=1748 , url={{GBurl, id=Qh7G1wcn3t0C, q=meertraube, p=75 , page=75 {{in lang, la {{in lang, de

{{cite book, last=Linnaeus , first=Carolus , author-link=Carl Linnaeus , title=Caroli Linnæi Systema naturæ , edition=9 , location=Leyden , publisher= Theodorus Haak , date=1756 , url={{GBurl, id=WfQTAAAAQAAJ, p=82 , page=82 {{in lang, la {{in lang, fr

{{cite book, last=Lovén , first=Sven , author-link=Sven Ludvig Lovén , title=On the Species of Echinoidea Described by Linnaeus in His Museum Ludovicae Ulricae , location=Stockholm , publisher=Kungliga Boktryckeriet P. A. Norstedt & Söner , date=1887 , url={{GBurl, id=XuoQAAAAIAAJ, p=20 , pages=20–21, note 2

{{cite book, last=Machan , first=Tim William , author-link= , others=David Matthews, Anke Bernau, James Paz , chapter=Ch. 5. Narrative, Memory, Meaning /§Kraken , title=Northern memories and the English Middle Ages , location= , publisher=Manchester University Press , year=2020 , chapter-url={{GBurl, id=lnTnDwAAQBAJ, q=kraken, pg=PT202 , pages= , isbn=978-1-5261-4537-6

{{cite book, last=Verne , first=Jules , author-link=Jules Verne , editor1-last=Miller , editor1-first=Walter James , editor1-link=Walter James Miller , editor2-last=Walter , editor2-first=Frederick Paul (tr.) , editor2-link= , title=Jules Verne's Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea: The Definitive Unabridged Edition Based on the Original French Texts , location= , publisher=Naval Institute Press , year=1993 , url={{GBurl, id=OGgBfwhIyOoC, q=calmar , page=note 13 , isbn=1-55750-877-1

{{cite book, last=Montgomery , first=Sy , author-link=Sy Montgomery , title=JThe Soul of an Octopus: A Surprising Exploration into the Wonder of Consciousness , location= , publisher=Simon and Schuster , year=2016 , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BQWMDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA6 , page=note 13 , isbn=9781501161148

{{citation, last=More , first=A. G. , author-link=Alexander Goodman More , title=Notice of a gigantic Cephalopod (Dinoteuthis proboscideus) which was stranded at Dingle, in Kerry, two hundred years ago , journal=Zoologist, volume=10 , date=July 1875, url={{GBurl, id=bAEXAAAAYAAJ, p=4526 , pages=4526–4532 , series=Second series

{{cite book, last1=Mouritsen , first1=Ole G. , author1-link=:da:Ole G. Mouritsen , last2=Styrbæk , first2=Klavs , author2-link= , title=Blæksprutterne kommer. Spis dem! , location= , publisher=Gyldendal A/S , year=2018 , url={{GBurl, id=0dxcDwAAQBAJ, pg=PT10 , pages= , isbn=978-87-02-25953-7

{{cite book, last=Münster , first=Sebastian , chapter=Monstra Marina & terrestria, quam in partibus aquilonis inueniuntur , author-link=Sebastian Münster , title=Cosmographiae vniuersalis lib. 6. in quibus iuxta certioris fidei scriptores, sine omni cuiuscumque molestia, uel laesione, describuntur. Omnium habitabilis orbis partium situs propriaeque dotes. Regionum topographicae picturae. ..., location= , publisher= , year=1572 , chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f_YwjrQGXxwC&pg=RA11-PA1005 , pages=1004–1005

{{cite book, last=Munford , first=George , author-link= , chapter=Monstra Marina & terrestria, quam in partibus aquilonis inueniuntur , title=An Attempt to Ascertain the True Derivation of the Names of Towns and Villages and of Rivers, and Other Great Natural Features of the County of Norfolk. , location=London , publisher=Simpkin, Marshall & Company , year=1870, chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=24dHAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA35 , page=35

{{citation, last=Negri , first=Francesco , author-link=Francesco Negri (travel writer) , title=Viaggio settentrionale , location=Forli , publisher= , date=1701 , orig-date=1700 , url={{GBurl, id=4J4rt2nDFhkC, p=184 , pages=184–185 , quote=Sciu-crak è chiamato un pesce di smisurata grandezza, di figura piana, rotonda, con molte corna o braccia alle sue estremità , language=it

{{cite book, last=Nigg , first=Joseph , author-link= , others=David Matthews, Anke Bernau, James Paz , chapter=The Kraken , title=Sea Monsters: A Voyage around the World's Most Beguiling Map , location= , publisher=University of Chicago Press , year=2014 , chapter-url={{GBurl, id=BT2NAgAAQBAJ, p=145 , pages=145–146 , isbn=978-0-226-92518-9

{{citation, last=Nyrop, first=Kristoffer , author-link=:da:Kristoffer Nyrop , title=Navnets mag: en folkepsykologisk studie , journal=Opuscula Philologica: Mindre Afhandlinger , location=Copenhagen , publisher=Filologisk-historiske Samfund , date=1887 , url={{GBurl, id=zYZOAQAAMAAJ, p=182 , page=182

{{cite book, last=, first=, author-link= , chapter=kraken , title=Oxford English Dictionary , edition=1 , volume=V, location= , publisher=Oxford University Press , date=1933 , url= , page=754 , quote=Norw. ''kraken'', ''krakjen'', the ''-n'', being the suffixed definite article {{= ''A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles'' (1901), id=sRBPAAAAYAAJ, pg=RA2-PA754 V: 754/ref>

{{cite book, author=Olaus Magnus , author-link=Olaus Magnus , chapter=Liber XXI. De Polypis: Cap. XXXIIII , title=Historia de gentibus septentrionalibus , location=Rome , publisher=Giovanni M. Viotto , year=1555 , chapter-url={{GBurl, id=O9lEAAAAcAAJ, p=763 , pages=763

{{cite book, author=Olaus Magnus , author-link=Olaus Magnus , editor-last=Foote , editor-first=Peter , editor-link=Peter Foote , title=Historia de Gentibus Septentrionalibus: Romæ 1555 , others=Fisher, Peter;, Higgens, Humphrey (trr.) , trans-title=Description of the Northern Peoples : Rome 1555, location= , publisher=Hakluyt Society , date=1998 , url={{GBurl, id=8uEkAQAAMAAJ, q=sprouts+horns , page=1092 , isbn=0-904180-43-3 , quote=

{{cite book, author=Olaus Magnus , author-link=Olaus Magnus , editor-last=Brenner , editor-first=Oscar , editor-link=:de:Oskar Brenner , chapter=Die ächte Karte des Olaus Magnus vom Jahre 1539 nach dem Exemplar de Münchener Staatsbibliothek , title=Forhandlinger i Videnskabs-selskabet i Christiania , location= , publisher=Trykt hos Brøgger & Christie , date=1887 , orig-date=1539 , chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=elFLAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA13-PA7 , page=7 , quote=monstra duo marina maxima vnum dentibus truculentum, alterum cornibus et visu flammeo horrendum / Cuius oculi circumferentia XVI vel XX pedum mensuram continet

{{cite journal, last=Packard , first=A. S. , author-link=Alpheus Spring Packard , title=Kraken , journal=The Connecticut School Journal , volume=2 , number=3 , date=March 1872 , url={{GBurl, id=azw6AQAAMAAJ, p=78 , pages=78–79 , jstor=44648937

{{cite book, last=Paullinus , first=Christianus Franciscus , author-link=Christian Franz Paullini , chapter=Obs . LI: De Singulari monstro marino , title=Miscellanea curiosa sive Ephemeridum medico -physicarum germanicarum Academiæ naturae curiosorum , volume=Ann. VIII , location=, publisher=Vratislaviae et Bregae , date=1678 , chapter-url={{GBurl, id=epoy4waZfFoC, p=79 , page=79

{{cite book, last=Pennant, first=Thomas , author-link=Thomas Pennant , chapter=Sepia , title=British ZoologyIV: Crustacea. Mollusca. Testacea , location= , publisher=Benjamin White , date=1777, chapter-url={{GBurl, id=2jufx-kXitoC, p=44 , pages=44–45

" id=f1gKAQAAMAAJ, p=541 Kraken. ''Encyclopædia Perthensis; or Universal Dictionary of the Arts, Sciences, Literature, &c.''. 12 (2nd ed.). John Brown, Edinburgh. 1816. pp. 541–542.

{{cite book, last=Pilling , first=James Constantine , author-link= , title=Proof-sheets of a Bibliography of the Languages of the North American Indians , location= , publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office , date=1885 , url={{GBurl, id=Jw4VAAAAIAAJ, p=226 , pages=226–227, series=Smithsonian Institution Bureau of Ethnology: Miscellaneous publications 2

{{harvp, Pontoppidan, 1753a, p= id=ZVuF_HQlnYcC, pg=PP21 xvi(?)}

{{cite book, last=Redi , first=Francesco , author-link=Francesco Redi , chapter=, title=Osservazioni intorno agli animali viventi che si trovano negli animali viventi , location=, publisher=Christoph Günther , date=1684 , url={{GBurl, id=QujdfeMwtukC, q=microcosmo+marino, p=61 , pages=61, 217–218 and id=QujdfeMwtukC, p=209 Tab. 21/ref>

{{cite book, last=Redi , first=Francesco , author-link=Francesco Redi , chapter=Observationes Franisci Redi circa animalia viventia, quae reperiuntur in animalibus viventibus. Florentiae apud P. Batini 1684 in 4to , title=Acta eruditorum , location=, publisher=Christoph Günther , date=1686 , chapter-url={{GBurl, id=ZrJRAAAAcAAJ, p=48 , page=84

{{cite book, last=Rogers , first=Julia Ellen , author-link=Julia Ellen Rogers , chapter=The Giant Squids: Genus Architeuthis, Steenstrup , title=The Shell Book: a popular guide to a knowledge of the families of living mollusks , location=Garden City , publisher=Doubleday, Page & Company , date=1920 , chapter-url={{GBurl, id=po9PAQAAMAAJ, p=456 , pages=456–458 , series=The Nature Library 15

{{cite book, last=Ruickbie , first=Leo , author-link=Leo Ruickbie , chapter=Hafgufa , title=The Impossible Zoo: An encyclopedia of fabulous beasts and mythical monsters , location= , publisher=Little, Brown Book Group , date=2016 , chapter-url={{GBurl, id=noI_CwAAQBAJ, pg=PT145 , page= , isbn=978-1-4721-3645-9

{{SeaLifeBase species, genus=Gorgonocephalus , species=caputmedusae , id=50251, month=January , year=2022
{{SeaLifeBase species, genus=Gorgonocephalus , species=eucnemis , id=49582, month=January , year=2022
{{SeaLifeBase species, genus=Astrocladu, species=exiguus , id=138913 , month=January , year=2022

{{cite book, last=, first=, author-link= , chapter=Linné (Carl von) , title=Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections , location=, publisher=Smithsonian Institution , date=1874 , chapter-url={{GBurl, id=MXtHAQAAMAAJ, pg=RA1-PA32 , pages=31–32

{{citation, translator-last=Larson , translator-first=Laurence Marcellus , translator-link=Laurence M. Larson , chapter=XXII. The Marvels of the Icelandic Seas: whales; the kraken , title=The King's Mirror: (Speculum Regalae - Konungs Skuggsjá) , location= , publisher=Twayne Publishers , date=1917 , chapter-url={{GBurl, id=kvA9AQAAMAAJ, q=kraken, p=125 , page=125 , series=Library of Scandinavian literature 15, isbn=978-0-89067-008-8

{{citation, translator-last=Somerville , translator-first=Angus A. , translator-link= , chapter=Wonders of the Iceland sea , editor1-last=Somerville , editor1-first=Angus A. , editor1-link= , editor2-last=McDonald , editor2-first=R. Andrew , editor2-link= , title=The Viking Age: A Reader , edition=3 , location= , publisher=University of Toronto Press , date=2020 , orig-date=2019 , chapter-url={{GBurl, id=oBK_DwAAQBAJ, p=308 , page=308, isbn=978-1-4875-7047-7

{{citation, editor1-last=Keyser , editor1-first=Rudolf , editor1-link=Rudolf Keyser , editor2-last=Munch , editor2-first=Peter Andreas , editor2-link=Peter Andreas Munch , editor3-last=Unger , editor3-first=Carl Richard , editor3-link=Carl Richard Unger , chapter=Chapter 12 , title=Speculum Regale. Konungs-Skuggsjá , location=Oslo , publisher=Carl C. Werner & Co. , date=1848 , chapter-url={{GBurl, id=LgtIfLwQgX4C, q=hafgufu, p=32 , page=32

{{cite web , title=krake sbst.1 , url=https://www.saob.se/artikel/?unik=K_2421-0232.glhY&pz=3 , website=saob.se , access-date=2023-08-31 , language=sv
{{cite web , title=krake sbst.2 , url=https://www.saob.se/artikel/?unik=K_2421-0233.74pX&pz=3 , website=saob.se , access-date=2023-08-31 , language=sv
{{cite web , title=krake sbst.2 , url=https://www.saob.se/artikel/?unik=K_2421-0267.5e1i&pz=3 , website=saob.se , access-date=2023-07-12 , language=sv
{{cite web , title=krake sbst.3 , url=https://www.saob.se/artikel/?unik=K_2421-0268.2lIY&pz=3 , website=saob.se , access-date=2023-07-12 , language=sv
{{cite web , title=krake sbst.4 , url=https://www.saob.se/artikel/?unik=K_2421-0269.zr8V&pz=3 , website=saob.se , access-date=2023-07-12 , language=sv
{{cite web , title=kräkel sbst.1 , url=https://www.saob.se/artikel/?unik=K_2877-0260.GP3V&pz=3 , website=saob.se , access-date=2023-07-12 , language=sv
{{cite web , title=kräkel sbst.3 , url=https://www.saob.se/artikel/?unik=K_2877-0262.iLos&pz=3 , website=saob.se , access-date=2023-06-20 , language=sv
{{cite web , title=kräkel sbst.4 , url=https://www.saob.se/artikel/?unik=K_2877-0263.O1Jp&pz=3 , website=saob.se , access-date=2023-06-20 , language=sv
{{cite web , title=kräkla sbst.2 , url=https://www.saob.se/artikel/?unik=K_2877-0266.22u9&pz=3 , website=saob.se , access-date=2023-06-20 , language=sv

{{citation, last=Linnaeus , first=Carolus , author-link=Carl Linnaeus , translator-last=Turton , translator-first=William , translator-link=William Turton , chapter=47. Sepia , title=A general system of nature , location=London , publisher=Printed for Lackington, Allen, and Co , date=1806 , chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/generalsystemna4linn/page/118/mode/2up , page=118

{{cite web, url=https://ordbok.uib.no/perl/ordbok.cgi?OPP=kraken&ant_bokmaal=5&ant_nynorsk=5&begge=+&ordbok=begge, title=kraken, website=Bokmålsordboka {{! Nynorskordboka
{{cite web, url=https://ordbok.uib.no/perl/ordbok.cgi?OPP=draug&ant_bokmaal=5&ant_nynorsk=5&begge=+&ordbok=begge, title=draug, website=Bokmålsordboka {{! Nynorskordboka

{{cite book, editor=Guðbrandur Vigfússon , editor-link=Guðbrandur Vigfússon , title=Sturlunga Saga: Including the Islendinga Saga , volume=1 , location= , publisher=Clarenden Press , year=1878 , url={{GBurl, id=dRYYAAAAYAAJ, pg=PR139 , page=139

{{cite book, last=Weiss , first=Allen S. , author-link= , chapter=4 The Epic of the Cephalopod , title=Feast and Folly: Cuisine, Intoxication, and the Poetics of the Sublime , location= , publisher=SUNY Press , date=2002, chapter-url={{GBurl, id=QWx-oAlHlEUC, p=73 , pages=73–75 , isbn=0-7914-5518-1: repr. from Weiss (Winter 2002) in: ''Discourse'' 24 (1: Mortals to Death ), Wayne State University Press, pp. 150–159, {{JSTOR, 41389633

{{cite journal, ref={{SfnRef, Wilson, A., 1887a, last=Wilson , first=((Andrew, FRSE)) , author-link=Andrew Wilson (zoologist) , title=Science and Crime, and other essay , journal=The Humboldt Library of Science , number=88 , date=February 1887a , url={{GBurl, id=x9-AHABY5ysC, pg=RA5-PA23 , page=23

{{citation, last=Wallenberg , first=Jacob , author-link=:sv:Jacob Wallenberg (författare) , chapter=kapitele (ch. 17): Om en rar fisk , title=Min son på galejan, eller en ostindisk resa innehållande allehanda bläckhornskram, samlade på skeppet Finland, som afseglade ifrån Götheborg i Dec. 1769, och återkom dersammastädes i Junii 1771 , location=Stockholm , publisher=A. G. Hellsten , date=1836 , chapter-url={{GBurl, id=eY4nsNaEZOwC, q=kraken, p=163 , page=163 , quote=Det ar ''kraken'', eller den så kallade ''krabbfisken'',.. lär han ej vara längre än vårt Öland utanför Calmar.., language=sv. The last paragraph that the remnants of the Swedish Pomeranian army may be able to haul a specimen if one could be obtained is curtailed in the Stockholm: A. G. Hellsten, 1836 edition id=gpbBOGZivqAC, p=44, q=krabbfisken Kap. XVII pp. 44–45

Cf. {{citation, last=Wallenberg , first=Jacob , author-link=:sv:Jacob Wallenberg (författare) , others=Peter J. Graves (tr.) , title=My Son on the Galley , location=Chester Springs, PA , publisher=Dufour Editions , date=1994 , url={{GBurl, id=q07HAAAAIAAJ, q=Öland , pages=56–58 , isbn=1-870041-23-2 , quote=It is the kraken, the so - called crabfish, which is said to visit these waters occasionally . It is not large since, even including the head and the tail, it is not reckoned to be any longer than our island of Öland off Kalmar..

{{cite book, ref={{SfnRef, Wilson, A., 1887b, last=Wilson, first=((Andrew, FRSE)) , author-link=Andrew Wilson (zoologist) , chapter=V. The Past and Present of the Cuttlefishes , title=Studies in Life and Sense , location=, publisher=Chatto & Windus , date=1887b , chapter-url={{GBurl, id=aPcfAAAAIAAJ, p=108 , pages=108–109

{{cite WoRMS , editor-last1=Stöhr , editor-first1=S. , editor-last2=O'Hara , editor-first2=T. , editor-last3=Thuy , editor-first3=B. , year=2021 , title=''Asterias euryale'' Retzius, 1783 , id=216164 , access-date=28 January 2022
{{cite WoRMS , editor-last1=Stöhr , editor-first1=S. , editor-last2=O'Hara , editor-first2=T. , editor-last3=Thuy , editor-first3=B. , year=2021 , title=''Astrophyton linckii'' Müller & Troschel, 1842 , id=124960 , access-date=28 January 2022
{{cite WoRMS , editor-last1=Stöhr , editor-first1=S. , editor-last2=O'Hara , editor-first2=T. , editor-last3=Thuy , editor-first3=B. , year=2022 , title=''Euryale verrucosum'' Lamarck, 1816 , id=245916 , access-date=28 January 2022
{{cite WoRMS , editor-last1=Stöhr , editor-first1=S. , editor-last2=O'Hara , editor-first2=T. , editor-last3=Thuy , editor-first3=B. , year=2022 , title=''Gorgonocephalus eucnemis'' (Müller & Troschel, 1842) , id=124969 , access-date=28 January 2022

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digital copy
National Library Norway
* {{cite book, last=Pontoppidan , first=Erich , author-link=Erik Pontoppidan , author-mask=2 , chapter=Kap. 8. §11. Kraken oder Horven, das größte Thier in der Welt /12. Beschreibung dieses Thieres , title=Versuch einer natürlichen Geschichte Norwegens , volume=2 , location=Copenhagen , publisher=Franz Christian Mumme , date=1753b , chapter-url={{GBurl, id=QtoDeuND5fQC, q=kraken, p=394 , pages=394–400, language=de
* {{cite book, last=Pontoppidan , first=Erich , author-link=Erik Pontoppidan , author-mask=2 , chapter=Ch. 8. Sect. 11. Kraken, or Korven ic. the largest creature in the world /Sect. 12. Description , title=The Natural History of Norway...: Translated from the Danish Original , volume=2 , location=London , publisher=A. Linde , date=1755 , url={{GBurl, id=3OglUqRf_soC, pg=RA1-PA210 , pages=210–213
* {{citation, last=Verrill , first=A. E. , author-link=Addison Emery Verrill , chapter=Report on the Cephalopods of the Northeastern Coast of America , title=Report of the Commissioner , volume=7 , publisher=United States Fish Commission , date=1882 , chapter-url={{GBurl, id=UsEEAAAAQAAJ, p=211 , pages=211–436
* {{cite journal, last=W lson!--Author "W." is identified by Bushnell--> , first=amesauthor-link=James Wilson (zoologist) , title=Remarks on the histories of the kraken and great sea serpent , journal=Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine , volume=2 , number=12 , date=March 1818 , publisher=William Blackwood, url={{GBurl, id=6MUCAAAAIAAJ, p=649 , pages= id=6MUCAAAAIAAJ, p=645 645-654}
{{Refend

External links

{{Commons category
{{Wiktionary, Kraken
{{Wikisource

''The King's Mirror'' (See Chapter XII)

{{Scandinavian folklore
{{Authority control

Mythological aquatic creatures
Mythological cephalopods
Scandinavian legendary creatures
Sea monsters