, , , , , , , , and are all related dishes found throughout Polynesia based on the use of

taro Taro (; ''Colocasia esculenta'') is a root vegetable. It is the most widely cultivated species of several plants in the family Araceae that are used as vegetables for their corms, leaves, stems and Petiole (botany), petioles. Taro corms are a ...

leaves as a primary ingredient. While

generally is known as a

root vegetable Root vegetables are underground plant parts eaten by humans or animals as food. In agricultural and culinary terminology, the term applies to true roots, such as taproots and root tubers, as well as non-roots such as bulbs, corms, rhizomes, and ...

for its starchy

corms Corm, bulbo-tuber, or bulbotuber is a short, vertical, swollen, underground plant stem that serves as a storage organ that some plants use to survive winter or other adverse conditions such as summer drought and heat ( perennation). The word '' ...

, the leaves (and stems) are consumed as well. The base recipe is vegetarian. Most often, coconut milk was added, and later meat or seafood. The texture of the dish ranges from a thick soup to a dense cake.

Etymology

*"Laulau" (

Proto-Austronesian Proto-Austronesian (commonly abbreviated as PAN or PAn) is a proto-language. It is the reconstructed ancestor of the Austronesian languages, one of the world's major language families. Proto-Austronesian is assumed to have begun to diversify in ...

) describes "basket or leaves for serving or carrying food; to serve food" with

cognates In historical linguistics, cognates or lexical cognates are sets of words that have been inherited in direct descent from an etymological ancestor in a common parent language. Because language change can have radical effects on both the soun ...

: , . *"Luu" (

Proto-Polynesian Proto-Polynesian (abbreviated PPn) is the reconstructed proto-language from which all modern Polynesian languages descend. It is a descendant of the Proto-Oceanic language (the language associated with the Lapita civilization), itself a descend ...

) describes "taro leaves as food" with cognates: . *"Luukau" ( Nuclear Polynesian) describes "edible greens" with cognates: , , . *"Faa" (Proto-Austronesian) describes "(plant) stalks" with cognates: , .

History

Taro Taro (; ''Colocasia esculenta'') is a root vegetable. It is the most widely cultivated species of several plants in the family Araceae that are used as vegetables for their corms, leaves, stems and Petiole (botany), petioles. Taro corms are a ...

is one of the most ancient, cultivated crops. Believed to be native to India and Southeast Asia, taro were carried into the

Pacific Islands The Pacific islands are a group of islands in the Pacific Ocean. They are further categorized into three major island groups: Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. Depending on the context, the term ''Pacific Islands'' may refer to one of several ...

Austronesian peoples The Austronesian people, sometimes referred to as Austronesian-speaking peoples, are a large group of peoples who have settled in Taiwan, maritime Southeast Asia, parts of mainland Southeast Asia, Micronesia, coastal New Guinea, Island Melan ...

from around 1300 BC, where they became a staple crop of

Polynesians Polynesians are an ethnolinguistic group comprising closely related ethnic groups native to Polynesia, which encompasses the islands within the Polynesian Triangle in the Pacific Ocean. They trace their early prehistoric origins to Island Sout ...

. Although associated as root vegetable, all parts of the taro was utilized. In addition, they brought along with them pigs, chickens, and Polynesian dogs for protein. When the Western navigators arrived, they introduced foods like onions, tomatoes, corned meats and various spices. Colonialism brought with them something that would change Polynesian diets—canned goods, including the highly prized corned beef. Natural disasters brought in food aid from New Zealand, Australia, and the US, then world wars in the mid-20th century, foreign foods became a bigger part of daily diets while retaining ancestral foods like taro and coconuts. Building an

earth oven An earth oven, ground oven or cooking pit is one of the simplest and most ancient cooking structures. The earliest known earth oven was discovered in Central Europe and dated to 29,000 BC. At its most basic, an earth oven is a pit in the ground ...

is very labor-intensive, often made for larger festivities or religious ceremonies. Since

earthenware Earthenware is glazed or unglazed Vitrification#Ceramics, nonvitreous pottery that has normally been fired below . Basic earthenware, often called terracotta, absorbs liquids such as water. However, earthenware can be made impervious to liquids ...

was not known throughout ancient Polynesia, stews were often steamed in calabash bowls or coconut shells but were not efficient conductors of heat. For daily consumption, it was easier to cook taro leaves into parcels for smaller ovens. Taro leaves contain

calcium oxalate Calcium oxalate (in archaic terminology, oxalate of lime) is a calcium salt of oxalic acid with the chemical formula or . It forms hydrates , where ''n'' varies from 1 to 3. Anhydrous and all hydrated forms are colorless or white. The monohydr ...

, which in its raw form can cause serious irritation to the mouth and throat if not cooked thoroughly.

Variations

Cook Islands

In the

Cook Islands The Cook Islands is an island country in Polynesia, part of Oceania in the South Pacific Ocean. It consists of 15 islands whose total land area is approximately . The Cook Islands' Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) covers of ocean. Avarua is its ...

, refers to both

leafy greens Leaf vegetables, also called leafy greens, vegetable greens, or simply greens, are plant leaves eaten as a vegetable, sometimes accompanied by their petioles and shoots, if tender. Leaf vegetables eaten raw in a salad can be called salad gre ...

(most often , the leaves of the taro plant) and the dishes they can be made into, both in stews, as a parcel, or baked in the oven like a casserole. Coconut milk is widely used along with fish, lamb, and corned beef in dishes. (''

Abelmoschus manihot ''Abelmoschus manihot'', commonly known as aibika, is a flowering plant in the family Malvaceae. It is a tropical subshrub or shrub native to the Indian subcontinent, Indochina, central and southern China, Malesia, New Guinea, and Queensland. It ...

'') is a popular alternative to ''rukau dalo''. In a modern twist, ' are used as a filling for

ravioli Ravioli (; : ''raviolo'', ) are a type of stuffed pasta comprising a filling enveloped in thin pasta dough. Usually served in broth or with a sauce, they originated as a traditional food in Italian cuisine. Ravioli are commonly square, though ...

and also into pastries known as "rukau pies" in Auckland.

Fiji

Fijian cuisine Fiji, Fijian cuisine has long consisted of primarily foraged and farm-grown food. Although rice, wheat, and tea all became staples during Fiji's colonial era, Fijians, native Fijians still eat primarily Tuber, tubers and Coconut, coconuts. The ...

, (or ) is stew of (taro) leaves. Taro leaves (whole or shredded) are typically added to the stewing liquid of coconut milk without

parboiling Parboiling (or leaching) is the partial or semi boiling of food as the first step in cooking. The word is from the Old French ''parbouillir'', 'to boil thoroughly' but by mistaken association with "part", it has acquired this definition. The w ...

. Aromatics such as onions and garlic are commonly used as well as spices. Proteins include canned corned beef or tuna, fresh lamb. The stew is often served with

cassava ''Manihot esculenta'', common name, commonly called cassava, manioc, or yuca (among numerous regional names), is a woody shrub of the spurge family, Euphorbiaceae, native to South America, from Brazil, Paraguay and parts of the Andes. Although ...

(boiled or fried into

chips ''CHiPs'' is an American crime drama television series created by Rick Rosner and originally aired on NBC from September 15, 1977, to May 1, 1983. After the final first-run telecast on NBC in May 1983, the series went into reruns on Sundays fr ...

), or with

roti Roti is a round flatbread originating from the Indian subcontinent. It is commonly consumed in many South Asian, Southeast Asian, Caribbean, East African, and Southeast African countries. It is made from stoneground whole-wheat flour, kno ...

in a manner similar to

saag Saag also spelled sag, saagh or saga, is a leafy vegetable dish from the Indian subcontinent. It is eaten with bread, such as roti or naan, or in some regions with rice. Saag can be made from mustard greens, collard greens, basella or finel ...

by way of

Indo-Fijians Indo-Fijians () are Fijians of South Asian descent whose ancestors were Girmitiyas, indentured labourers. Indo-Fijians trace their ancestry to various regions of the Indian subcontinent. Although Indo-Fijians constituted a majority of Fiji's ...

. Another method involves stuffing fresh taro leaves with a meat filling that are tightly rolled (or made into balls) then stewed in pot in a manner similar to

dolma Dolma ( Turkish for "stuffed") is a family of stuffed dishes associated with Ottoman cuisine, typically made with a filling of rice, minced meat, offal, seafood, fruit, or any combination of these inside either a leaf wrapping or a hollow or h ...

stuffed cabbage A cabbage roll is a dish consisting of cooked cabbage leaves wrapped around a variety of fillings. It is common to the cuisines of Central, Eastern and Southeastern Europe and much of Western Asia, Northern China, as well as parts of North Af ...

. These balls are sometimes referred to as balls or . When these balls are made into parcels, they are often called ''palusami'', influenced by nearby Samoa. Another technique is forming them into patties with a mixture of chopped parboiled taro leaves, onions, and seasonings that are pan-fried, and simmered in a coconut milk sauce. Because of the rising prices of taro (and food in general),

instant noodles Instant noodles, or instant ramen, is a type of food consisting of noodles sold in a precooked and dried block with flavoring powder and/or seasoning oil. The dried noodle block was originally created by flash-frying cooked noodles, which is s ...

is sometimes mixed into the as a filler.

French Polynesia

''Poulet fāfā'' is a thick stew of (French lit. "chicken") and (Tahitian transl. "taro greens or shoots"). Influenced by

French cuisine French cuisine is the cooking traditions and practices of France. In the 14th century, Guillaume Tirel, a Court (royal), court chef known as "Taillevent", wrote ''Le Viandier'', one of the earliest recipe collections of medieval France. In ...

, contemporary recipes often feature the chicken as the primary ingredient, while the taro leaves stewed in coconut milk acts as a sauce. Spinach is often substituted for taro leaves. Cubed chicken breasts are typical, but sometimes whole leg quarters are served. Onions are typically added, along with garlic or ginger.

Bouillon Bouillon can refer to: Food * Bouillon (broth), a simple broth ** Court-bouillon, a quick broth * Bouillon (soup), a Haitian soup * Bouillon (restaurant), a traditional type of French restaurant ** Bouillon Chartier, a bouillon restaurant fou ...

curry powder Curry powder is a spice mix for curry originating from the Indian subcontinent, adapted from but not to be confused with the native spice mix of garam masala. History As commercially available in Western markets, curry powder is comparable t ...

is sometimes added as a seasoning. It is enjoyed with roasted taro, breadfruit, sweet potatoes, or rice.

Hawaii

In stew, refers to the young leaves of the (taro) plant, though it generally means taro leaves as an ingredient. The leaves are parboiled, strained, chopped, and combined with the cooked (fresh) meat—octopus ("squid"), chicken, beef, or pork—that are sautéed with onions. For thicker stews containing "squid" or chicken, coconut milk and sugar are added. However, stews containing beef or pork usually omit the coconut milk and can be braised along the cooking of the taro leaves, seasoned with

salt In common usage, salt is a mineral composed primarily of sodium chloride (NaCl). When used in food, especially in granulated form, it is more formally called table salt. In the form of a natural crystalline mineral, salt is also known as r ...

salt cod Dried and salted cod, sometimes referred to as salt cod or saltfish or salt dolly, is cod which has been preserved by drying after salting. Cod which has been dried without the addition of salt is stockfish. Salt cod was long a major export o ...

("butterfish"), or salted salmon. It is generally enjoyed with rice. Laufoiti

(lit. "leaf leaf") refers to the ti leaves that are traditionally used to wrap the food within it. Whole mature larger (and younger) taro leaves wrap around large cubes of pork shoulder or belly, beef, or chicken thighs. A piece of "butterfish" is traditionally added with the other meats as seasoning. A piece of

sweet potato The sweet potato or sweetpotato (''Ipomoea batatas'') is a dicotyledonous plant in the morning glory family, Convolvulaceae. Its sizeable, starchy, sweet-tasting tuberous roots are used as a root vegetable, which is a staple food in parts of ...

is sometimes added. It is enjoyed with poi or rice. Unlike its Polynesian variations, this dish does not contain any coconut milk or aromatics like onions or garlic, or other spices. However, similar dishes like Samoan that are made in Hawaii sometimes use the vernacular when speaking with a non-Samoan person. , the stems or stalk of the taro, is commonly added to and as a filler. As a dish on its own, stems are peeled and sliced for a stew called . It is seasoned with salt,

dried shrimp Dried shrimp are shrimp that have been sun-dried and shrunk to a thumbnail size. They are used in many African, East Asian, Southeast Asian and South Asian cuisines, imparting a unique umami taste. A handful of shrimp is generally used for dish ...

, or "butterfish" or salt-cured salmon. can be combined with pork or beef that is usually cooked separately from the stew. Generally, cooking the stems of the taro, by itself, takes the least amount of time because it contains the least amount of calcium oxalate. This dish does not contain coconut milk either.

Samoa

is believed to be a contraction of the phrase, "''paapaa (luau) sami''" ("to cook (taro leaves) with sea water on fire")" or ''palu (luau) sami''" ("mixed (taro leaves) with sea water"). The dish is sometimes referred to as . , and like much of

Samoan cuisine The traditional culture of Samoa is a communal way of life based on Fa'a Samoa, the unique socio-political culture. In Samoan culture, most activities are done together. The traditional living quarters, or '' fale'' (houses), contain no walls and ...

, is noted for its richness, or (lit. "fatty")—rich foods that often contain a good amount of thicker

coconut cream Coconut milk is a plant milk extracted from the grated pulp of mature coconuts. The opacity and rich taste of the milky-white liquid are due to its high oil content, most of which is saturated fat. Coconut milk is a traditional food ingredient ...

(not to be confused with sweetened "cream of coconut"). Beef, or ( lit. "bovine"), is the protein of choice in the form of

brined Brining is treating food with brine or coarse salt which preserves and seasons the food while enhancing tenderness. Flavor can be further developed with additions such as herbs, spices, sugar, caramel or vinegar. Meat and fish are typically brine ...

(lit. "salted beef") or canned (lit. "pea soup," general term for canned foods). is prepared by laying out a few taro leaves and spooning an amount of beef and onions into the center with a healthy amount of coconut cream and bundled with

foil Foil may refer to: Materials * Foil (metal), a quite thin sheet of metal, usually manufactured with a rolling mill machine * Metal leaf, a very thin sheet of decorative metal * Aluminium foil, a type of wrapping for food * Tin foil, metal foil ma ...

then steamed.

Tonga

are typically prepared in parcels, in

Tonga Tonga, officially the Kingdom of Tonga, is an island country in Polynesia, part of Oceania. The country has 171 islands, of which 45 are inhabited. Its total surface area is about , scattered over in the southern Pacific Ocean. accordin ...

. Two popular versions are (lit. "bull") refers to beef, and (lit. "sheep") refers to mutton or lamb. Fresh meat can be used, corned (wet brine) or canned meats are typical. Horse meat, , is also a delicacy. Coconut cream is often mixed into the meat, especially with canned meats, to form a paste that easily dollops. Chopped onions are common additions, sometimes tomatoes. (chicken) and (fish) are made as well. The parcels are traditionally wrapped with banana leaves but it is more common to use

. is a similar variant using (lit. "cabbage").

Today

Newer technology has made it easier to reduce the cooking time of taro. Dishes can be cooked stovetop in a steamer or baked in an oven, or in pressure cookers and crock pots in temperature-controlled setting. Today, foods like , , or , foods which are typically made into bundles, sometimes bypass the tedious chore of wrapping by making a casserole-like dish in large quantities making it more akin to its stew counterpart. In areas outside where taro leaves not sold or found, expatriates living abroad use in its place

spinach Spinach (''Spinacia oleracea'') is a leafy green flowering plant native to Central Asia, Central and Western Asia. It is of the order Caryophyllales, family Amaranthaceae, subfamily Chenopodioideae. Its leaves are a common vegetable consumed eit ...

Swiss chard Chard (; ''Beta vulgaris'' subsp. ''vulgaris'', Cicla Group and Flavescens Group) is a green leafy vegetable. In the cultivars of the Flavescens Group, or Swiss chard, the leaf stalks are large and often prepared separately from the leaf bl ...

collard greens Collard is a group of loose-leafed cultivars of ''Brassica oleracea'' (the same species as many common vegetables like cabbage and broccoli). Part of the acephala cultivar group (or kale group), collard is also classified as the variety ''B.& ...

kale Kale (), also called leaf cabbage, belongs to a group of cabbage (''Brassica oleracea'') cultivars primarily grown for their Leaf vegetable, edible leaves; it has also been used as an ornamental plant. Its multiple different cultivars vary quite ...

or other leafy green vegetable. And where ti or

banana leaves The banana leaf is the leaf of the banana plant, which may produce up to 40 leaves in a growing cycle. The leaves have a wide range of applications because they are large, flexible, waterproof and decorative. They are used for cooking, wrappin ...

cannot be found,

aluminium foil Aluminium foil (or aluminum foil in American English; occasionally called tin foil) is aluminium prepared in thin metal leaves. The foil is pliable and can be readily bent or wrapped around objects. Thin foils are fragile and are sometimes ...

parchment paper Parchment paper, also known as baking paper, is a cellulose-based paper whose material has been processed so as to obtain additional properties such as non-stickiness, grease resistance, resistance to humidity and heat resistance. It is commonl ...

, and corn husk are used. It is a favourite food of human rights activist

Maluseu Doris Tulifau Maluseu Doris Tulifau is a Samoan Americans, Samoan American human rights activist, who campaigns against domestic violence in Samoa. She is the founder of Brown Girl Woke (B.G.W.), a non-profit organization that supports women and girls in Samo ...

References

{{reflist Gilbertese cuisine Fijian cuisine Samoan cuisine Tuvaluan cuisine Native Hawaiian cuisine French Polynesian cuisine Cook Islands cuisine Polynesian cuisine Oceanian cuisine Octopus dishes Chicken dishes Squid dishes Foods containing coconut National dishes