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The Lê–Mạc War (;
chữ Hán ( , ) are the Chinese characters that were used to write Literary Chinese in Vietnam, Literary Chinese (; ) and Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary in Vietnamese language, Vietnamese. They were officially used in Vietnam after the Red River Delta region ...
: 戰爭黎莫) was a civil war waged between two
Vietnamese dynasties Prior to the abdication of Bảo Đại on 25 August 1945 during the August Revolution, Vietnam was ruled by a series of dynasties of either local or Chinese origin. The following is a list of major dynasties in the history of Vietnam. Backgro ...
, the Mạc and Revival Lê, during the Southern and Northern Dynasties period of Vietnamese history. The Vietnamese throne was usurped by
Mạc Đăng Dung Mạc Đăng Dung (chữ Hán : 莫 登 庸; 23 November 1483 – 22 August 1541), also known by his temple name Mạc Thái Tổ (), was an emperor of Vietnam and the founder of the Mạc dynasty. Previously a captain of the imperial guard (Pra ...
in 1527. Lê Ninh, a prince of the Later Lê dynasty, escaped to
Lan Xang Lan Xang () or Lancang was a Lao people, Lao kingdom that held the area of present-day Laos from 1353 to 1707. For three and a half centuries, Lan Xang was one of the largest kingdoms in Southeast Asia. The kingdom is the basis for Laos's nat ...
. In 1533, Lê Ninh proclaimed himself emperor with the support of
Nguyễn Kim Nguyen Kim (; 1468–1545) was a Vietnamese statesman who was the ancestor of the famous Nguyễn Lords who later ruled south Vietnam (and much later, all of Vietnam). During his rule, the war with the Mạc dynasty started. Nguyễn Kim cla ...
and Trịnh Kiểm. The civil war between the two dynasties thus ensued. In 1592, Đông Kinh, the capital of the Mạc dynasty, was reconquered by the Later Lê forces, marking the end of the Southern and Northern Dynasties period. Mạc rulers fled to
Cao Bằng Province Cao Bằng is a province of the Northeast region of Vietnam. The province has borders with Hà Giang, Tuyên Quang, Bắc Kạn, and Lạng Sơn provinces within Vietnam. It also has a common international border with Guangxi province in Chi ...
, with the direct support of the Chinese Ming and
Qing The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing, was a Manchu-led Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China and an early modern empire in East Asia. The last imperial dynasty in Chinese history, the Qing dynasty was preceded by the ...
dynasties until they were completedly defeated by Trịnh clan in 1677.


Background

Since 1428, state of
Đại Việt Đại Việt (, ; literally Great Việt), was a Vietnamese monarchy in eastern Mainland Southeast Asia from the 10th century AD to the early 19th century, centered around the region of present-day Hanoi. Its early name, Đại Cồ Việt,(ch ...
was restored by the Lê dynasty (during the Later Lê dynasty) after the founder
Lê Lợi Lê Lợi (, chữ Hán: 黎利; 10 September 1385 – 5 October 1433), also known by his temple name as Lê Thái Tổ (黎太祖) and by his pre-imperial title Bình Định vương (平定王; "Prince of Pacification"), was a Vietnamese peopl ...
, the leader of
Lam Sơn uprising Lam or LAM may refer to: Organizations * Laguna Art Museum, California, US * Leather Archives & Museum (LA&M), Chicago, US * Lam Eng Rubber, a Malaysian manufacturer * Lam Research, American semiconductor equipment company * LAM Mozambique Airline ...
who drove out the Ming Chinese invaders. Soon after, the monarch adopted
Neo-Confucianism Neo-Confucianism (, often shortened to ''lǐxué'' 理學, literally "School of Principle") is a moral, ethical, and metaphysical Chinese philosophy influenced by Confucianism, which originated with Han Yu (768–824) and Li Ao (772–841) i ...
and state-centralization as a national
ideology An ideology is a set of beliefs or values attributed to a person or group of persons, especially those held for reasons that are not purely about belief in certain knowledge, in which "practical elements are as prominent as theoretical ones". Form ...
. The fifth monarch, Emperor
Lê Thánh Tông Lê Thánh Tông (黎聖宗; 25 August 1442 – 3 March 1497), personal name Lê Hạo, temple name Thánh Tông, courtesy name Tư Thành, was an emperor of Đại Việt, reigning from 1460 to 1497, the fifth and the longest-reigning empero ...
(Lê Hạo) had created the solid National Code based on Neo- Confucian beliefs, helping businesses and trading markets flourish, later successfully expanding
Đại Việt Đại Việt (, ; literally Great Việt), was a Vietnamese monarchy in eastern Mainland Southeast Asia from the 10th century AD to the early 19th century, centered around the region of present-day Hanoi. Its early name, Đại Cồ Việt,(ch ...
's territories into the northern territory of
Champa Champa (Cham language, Cham: ꨌꩌꨛꨩ, چمڤا; ; 占城 or 占婆) was a collection of independent Chams, Cham Polity, polities that extended across the coast of what is present-day Central Vietnam, central and southern Vietnam from ...
and Xiangkhoang Plateau (formerly known as Trấn Ninh ). After Thánh Tông's death in 1497,
Đại Việt Đại Việt (, ; literally Great Việt), was a Vietnamese monarchy in eastern Mainland Southeast Asia from the 10th century AD to the early 19th century, centered around the region of present-day Hanoi. Its early name, Đại Cồ Việt,(ch ...
started to decline gradually and fell into social unrest due to corruption and peasant rebellions. In 1515, Trần Cảo launched a rebellion against the court. In 1517, a massive
typhoon A typhoon is a tropical cyclone that develops between 180° and 100°E in the Northern Hemisphere and which produces sustained hurricane-force winds of at least . This region is referred to as the Northwestern Pacific Basin, accounting for a ...
struck
Thái Bình Thái Bình City () is a city in the Red River Delta of Northern Vietnam. It is the capital of Thái Bình Province. The city is located 110 km from Hanoi. The city area is 67.7 square km, with a population of 210,000 people (2006). Histor ...
and
Hải Dương Hải Dương () is a city in Vietnam. It is the capital of Hải Dương Province, Hải Dương, an industrialized province in the Hanoi Capital Region and the Red River Delta in Northern Vietnam. The city is at the midpoint between the capita ...
provinces, killing 21,000 civilians. Many agriculture fields and businesses began going down and the economy was stagnated. There were six successive monarchs after Lê Thánh Tông had lost control of the government and the army, causing the rise of military rulers and corruption. In 1522, a military general named
Mạc Đăng Dung Mạc Đăng Dung (chữ Hán : 莫 登 庸; 23 November 1483 – 22 August 1541), also known by his temple name Mạc Thái Tổ (), was an emperor of Vietnam and the founder of the Mạc dynasty. Previously a captain of the imperial guard (Pra ...
during his struggle against the
Trịnh Trịnh is a Vietnamese language, Vietnamese Vietnamese family name, family name. It exists in Calque, equivalent forms in other languages of the Sinosphere such as (Zheng (surname), 鄭, Zheng, Cheng) in Chinese language, Chinese and Korean languag ...
and Nguyễn clans, had gained the regent of the government by installing Prince Xuan as the new Emperor. On 18 June 1527, Mạc Đăng Dung executed Lê Cung Hoàng and established the new
Mạc dynasty The Mạc dynasty (; Hán-Nôm: 茹 莫/ 朝 莫) (1527–1677), officially Đại Việt (Chữ Hán: 大越), was a Vietnamese dynasty which ruled over a unified Vietnam between 1527 and 1540, and northern Vietnam from 1540 until 1593. The M ...
. The deposed Lê royal family were exiled in
Lan Xang Lan Xang () or Lancang was a Lao people, Lao kingdom that held the area of present-day Laos from 1353 to 1707. For three and a half centuries, Lan Xang was one of the largest kingdoms in Southeast Asia. The kingdom is the basis for Laos's nat ...
. In 1533, Lê loyalist general
Nguyễn Kim Nguyen Kim (; 1468–1545) was a Vietnamese statesman who was the ancestor of the famous Nguyễn Lords who later ruled south Vietnam (and much later, all of Vietnam). During his rule, the war with the Mạc dynasty started. Nguyễn Kim cla ...
brought prince Lê Duy Ninh back to throne with title emperor Lê Trang Tông and began to reconquer the southern part of the country. Lê army regained the provinces of
Thanh Hóa Thanh Hóa () is the capital of Thanh Hóa Province. The city is situated in the east of the province on the Ma River (Sông Mã), about 150 kilometers (93 miles) south of capital Hanoi and 1560 kilometers (969 miles) north of Ho Chi Minh Cit ...
and Nghệ An, set Tây Kinh in
Thanh Hóa Thanh Hóa () is the capital of Thanh Hóa Province. The city is situated in the east of the province on the Ma River (Sông Mã), about 150 kilometers (93 miles) south of capital Hanoi and 1560 kilometers (969 miles) north of Ho Chi Minh Cit ...
as the temporary capital and base for imperial court, and started the period Southern and Northern dynasties ''(Nam Bắc Triều)'' in Vietnam, which lasted until 1592. In 1537, Lê Trang Tông sent delegations to
Ming China The Ming dynasty, officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming was the last imperial dynasty of ...
, and sought Chinese military support and diplomatic recognition as legitimate government to reclaim the thrown of Đại Việt.
Jiajing Emperor The Jiajing Emperor (16September 150723January 1567), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Shizong of Ming, personal name Zhu Houcong, art name, art names Yaozhai, Leixuan, and Tianchi Diaosou, was the 12th List of emperors of the Ming ...
of the Ming dynasty responded by sending 125,000 soldiers to the border, threatening the Mạc regime in Đông Kinh. At the final moment, Mạc Đăng Dung surrendered to the Ming dynasty at Nam Quan Pass in 1541, as he accepted his regime and monarch would be under Chinese protection and ceded half of Quảng Ninh province to China (now Fangcheng,
Guangxi Guangxi,; officially the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, is an Autonomous regions of China, autonomous region of the China, People's Republic of China, located in South China and bordering Vietnam (Hà Giang Province, Hà Giang, Cao Bằn ...
). While being under the political protection of Ming China, the Mạc dynasty rebuilt the agricultural economy, opened businesses and factories, and recovered an army of 120,000 soldiers. The Mạc dynasty tolerated other religions and foreign trades, allowing
Buddhism Buddhism, also known as Buddhadharma and Dharmavinaya, is an Indian religion and List of philosophies, philosophical tradition based on Pre-sectarian Buddhism, teachings attributed to the Buddha, a wandering teacher who lived in the 6th or ...
and
Taoism Taoism or Daoism (, ) is a diverse philosophical and religious tradition indigenous to China, emphasizing harmony with the Tao ( zh, p=dào, w=tao4). With a range of meaning in Chinese philosophy, translations of Tao include 'way', 'road', ' ...
to coexist, and
Christians A Christian () is a person who follows or adheres to Christianity, a monotheistic Abrahamic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ. Christians form the largest religious community in the world. The words '' Christ'' and ''C ...
were free to spread and worship. Portuguese
merchants A merchant is a person who trades in goods produced by other people, especially one who trades with foreign countries. Merchants have been known for as long as humans have engaged in trade and commerce. Merchants and merchant networks operated i ...
and
missionaries A missionary is a member of a religious group who is sent into an area in order to promote its faith or provide services to people, such as education, literacy, social justice, health care, and economic development.Thomas Hale 'On Being a Miss ...
, who had been in Vietnam since 1524, brought
Christianity Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion, which states that Jesus in Christianity, Jesus is the Son of God (Christianity), Son of God and Resurrection of Jesus, rose from the dead after his Crucifixion of Jesus, crucifixion, whose ...
and
arquebus An arquebus ( ) is a form of long gun that appeared in Europe and the Ottoman Empire during the 15th century. An infantryman armed with an arquebus is called an arquebusier. The term ''arquebus'' was applied to many different forms of firearms ...
technology for Vietnam. The Southern Lê regime opened for the Western world, with trade ports appearing in the cities of
Đà Nẵng Da Nang or DanangSee also Danang Dragons (, ) is the list of cities in Vietnam, fifth-largest city in Vietnam by municipal population. It lies on the coast of the Western Pacific Ocean of Vietnam at the mouth of the Hàn River (Vietnam), Hàn R ...
and Hội An. The regime quickly adopted the
matchlock A matchlock or firelock is a historical type of firearm wherein the gunpowder is ignited by a burning piece of flammable cord or twine that is in contact with the gunpowder through a mechanism that the musketeer activates by pulling a lever or Tri ...
technique in the army, but had less toleration for the new faith brought by missionaries. The Lê monarchs were under the control of military regents from powerful Trịnh and Nguyễn families. The two monarchs claimed their rule over Dai Viet, thus starting a series of conflicts.


Conflicts


Conflicts in 1554–1555

In 1554, Trịnh Kiểm, the military regent of Lê dynasty, dispatched 25,000 men to the south and easily regained two provinces Thuận Hóa and Quảng Nam from the Mạc. Trịnh Kiểm also restored Cham principalities in Ninh Thuận and Bình Thuận. In August 1555, Prince Mạc Kính Điển of the Northern dynasty, led 100 warships in an attack on
Thanh Hóa Thanh Hóa () is the capital of Thanh Hóa Province. The city is situated in the east of the province on the Ma River (Sông Mã), about 150 kilometers (93 miles) south of capital Hanoi and 1560 kilometers (969 miles) north of Ho Chi Minh Cit ...
shores. When the Mạc fleet was advancing on Mã River, Lê forces under Trịnh Kiểm ambushed them with matchlock firearms and canoes led by general Nguyễn Khải Khang, a Mạc defector. Mạc Kính Điển survived and fled back to Hanoi.


Conflicts in 1557

In July 1557, Mạc Kính Điển launched another naval offensive to the south. Lê warships once again ambushed Mạc fleet on Mã river. Mạc Kính Điểm jumped down the river and fled to the nearby forest. He and Mạc remnants escaped back to the north after three days of hiding in a cave. With the winning triumph, Lê army pursued Mạc army to Sơn Nam ( Nam Định province). Mạc Kính Điển returned to his position and defeated the Southern army.


Conflicts in 1559–1562

September 1559, Trịnh Kiểm ordered a new northward offensive, and dispatched 60,000 soldiers and elephants, armed with Portuguese-style matchlocks. By January 1560, the Lê-Trịnh army had occupied all cities and territories beyond south of the Red River, leaving Mạc capital Đông Kinh under siege. Mạc emperor Quang Bảo evacuated his government to Quảng Ninh province, near China, while reinforcing 50,000 men to defend Hanoi and
Hải Dương Hải Dương () is a city in Vietnam. It is the capital of Hải Dương Province, Hải Dương, an industrialized province in the Hanoi Capital Region and the Red River Delta in Northern Vietnam. The city is at the midpoint between the capita ...
. After fighting for a year, the Lê-Trịnh army was still unable to capture Hanoi and Hải Dương. In March 1561, Mạc Kính Điển launched a surprise naval attack in
Thanh Hóa Thanh Hóa () is the capital of Thanh Hóa Province. The city is situated in the east of the province on the Ma River (Sông Mã), about 150 kilometers (93 miles) south of capital Hanoi and 1560 kilometers (969 miles) north of Ho Chi Minh Cit ...
and Nghệ An, forcing the Lê-Trịnh army to retreat back to Thanh Hóa to avoid Mạc's encirclement. Finally, the two sides grew very tired and withdrew their forces back to their original territories.


Conflicts in 1570–1579

In 1570, Trịnh Kiểm died and his son Trịnh Cối succeeded the military ruler of the Southern army. In August 1570, Mạc Kính Điển launched a large southward offensive, dispatched 100,000 men and 700 ships, and attacked the Southern court through Laos and sea. Trịnh Cối surrendered to the Mạc. Southern Emperor Lê Chính Trị transferred the Military Commander to Trịnh Tùng while evacuating his government to the south. While occupying and looting Tây Kinh, the Mac army committed atrocities against civilians and destroyed architecture. In 1571, Mạc forces advanced further south to Cả River. In October 1572, Mạc forces retreated back to the north. From 1573 to 1576, the Northern dynasty launched 4 southward offensives and raids, causing devastation for the Southern dynasty. The Lê-Trịnh army then recruited
Cham people The Chams (Cham language, Cham: , چام, ''cam''), or Champa people (Cham language, Cham: , اوراڠ چمڤا, ''Urang Campa''; or ; , ), are an Austronesian peoples, Austronesian ethnic group in Southeast Asia and are the original inhabi ...
to fight against the Mạc. In September 1577, Mạc Kính Điển saw the opportunity to annihilate the Southern dynasty, and reunify the country. Mạc Kính Điển and his general Lại Thế Mỹ led 40,000 men to attack the Southern court in Thanh Hóa, but were defeated by Lê-Trịnh forces in Khoái Lạc. Thế Mỹ was shot and killed while mounted on horseback. From August 1578 to November 1579, Northern Mạc forces made three more raids into Southern dynasty territories, but all were repelled with outgunned Lê-Trịnh matchlocks.


Conflicts in 1580–1583

From 1580 to 1583, Lê-Trịnh and Mạc forces engaged in small to moderate-size conflicts along the Mã River. In November 1580, Mạc Kính Điển died and his brother, prince Mạc Đôn Nhượng succeed the military ruler of the Northern dynasty. The Mạc regime began declining and these were the last of the Northern dynasty's southward offensives.


Conflicts in 1584–1589

In 1584, the new Northern emperor
Mạc Mậu Hợp Mạc Mậu Hợp (莫茂洽, 1560–1593) was the fifth and effectively last reigning emperor of the Mạc dynasty from 1562 to 1593. Biography Mạc Mậu Hợp was born in 1560 at Đông Đô. He became the emperor in 1562. In 1592, the Sout ...
succeed the throne when he was a child. The monarchy and the government had become more unstable. Military lord Trịnh Tùng commanded the Southern army, which launched five raids into Northern dynasty territories, causing severe damage to the economy and weakening the Mạc regime. Trịnh Tùng also hired the
Wokou ''Wokou'' ( zh, c=, p=Wōkòu; ; Hepburn romanization, Hepburn: ; ; literal Chinese translation: "dwarf bandits"), which translates to "Japanese pirates", were pirates who raided the coastlines of China and Korea from the 13th century to the 17 ...
pirates as mercenaries, raiding the coastal area and port cities in Northern territories.


The last stand of Northern dynasty (1592–1593)

In February 1592, the Southern dynasty launched a large northward offensive against the Northern Mạc. Trịnh Tùng and his general Nguyễn Hữu Liêu, Trịnh Ninh, Hoàng Đình Ái, Trịnh Đồng, Trịnh Đỗ, Hà Thọ Lộc and Ngô Cảnh Hựu commanded 60,000 troops, captured towns and cities beyond south of the Red river. Mạc Mậu Hợp sent all of his troops to resist the Southern army, but was defeated. On 14 November 1592, Lê-Trịnh army captured three western province
Lào Cai Lào Cai () is a city in the Northwest region of Vietnam. It is the capital of Lào Cai Province. The city borders Bảo Thắng District, Bát Xát District, Sa Pa and the city of Hekou Yao Autonomous County, in Yunnan province of southwe ...
,
Yên Bái Yên Bái () is a city in Vietnam. It is the capital of Yên Bái Province, in the north-east region of Vietnam. The city borders Yên Bình District and Trấn Yên District. The city is a settlement along the banks of the Red River, approxi ...
and
Phú Thọ Phú Thọ () is a district-level town in Phú Thọ Province, Vietnam Vietnam, officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam (SRV), is a country at the eastern edge of mainland Southeast Asia, with an area of about and a population o ...
. On 25 November, Trịnh Tùng's forces arrived
Hải Dương Hải Dương () is a city in Vietnam. It is the capital of Hải Dương Province, Hải Dương, an industrialized province in the Hanoi Capital Region and the Red River Delta in Northern Vietnam. The city is at the midpoint between the capita ...
, where they arrested and executed Mạc Mậu Hợp and his son Mạc Toàn. The Mạc remnants fled to the mountainous Bắc Cạn,
Cao Bằng Cao Bằng () is a city in northern Vietnam. It is the capital and largest settlement of Cao Bằng Province. It is located on the bank of the Bằng Giang river, and is around away from the border with China's Guangxi region. According to the 2 ...
provinces, where they remained active. In April 1593, the southern emperor Lê Thế Tông was welcomed back to Đông Kinh (Hanoi).


Aftermath

The Lê monarch, after 59 years of war with rival Mạc, returned to the throne of Đại Việt. However, the
Ming dynasty The Ming dynasty, officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming was the last imperial dynasty of ...
of China still only recognized the Mạc regime in Cao Bằng as the rightful ruler of Dai Viet. In 1597 Lê Thế Tông sent emissary Phùng Khắc Khoan to Beijing for renewing relations with China, who supports the Mạc dynasty. At the result, the Chinese Ming dynasty recognized both Lê and Mạc as the legitimate rulers of Vietnam, and in 1644 they officially re-recognized the Lê monarch as "king of sovereign Vietnam". The remnant Mạc monarch in Cao Bằng province recruited Tai-speaking mountain tribes into their army. They also brought the Vietnamese Nôm script adoption to
Tày people The Tày people, also known as the Thổ, T'o, Tai Tho, Ngan, Phen, Thu Lao, or Pa Di, is a Central Tai-speaking ethnic group who live in northern Vietnam. According to a 2019 census, there are 1.8 million Tày people living in Vietnam. This mak ...
, called the Nôm Tày script.Bảo tồn chữ Nôm của dân tộc Tày tỉnh Bắc Kạn
/ref> Mạc regime and the Vũ Văn clan's ''"chúa Bầu"'' in
Hà Giang province Hà Giang (, ) was formerly a Provinces of Vietnam, province in the Northeast (Vietnam), Northeast region of Vietnam. It was located in the far north of the country, and contains Vietnam's northernmost point. It shared a 270 km long China-Vi ...
remained in a state of rivalry with the Lê-Trịnh regime until they were annexed and exiled to China in 1677. The Trịnh military lords of the Lê Dynasty, which was centered in Đông Kinh (Tonkin or Hanoi), soon doubted the loyalty of the Nguyễn governor in central and southern Vietnam. Over the next 30 years of unification and temporary peace, Vietnam once again would be divided by two military lords for another 150 years–fought against each other in the indecisive
Trịnh–Nguyễn War The Trịnh–Nguyễn Civil War (; chữ Hán: 鄭阮紛爭, lit. Trịnh–Nguyễn contention) was a 17th and 18th-century lengthy civil war waged between the two ruling families in Vietnam, the Trịnh lords of Đàng Ngoài and the Nguy� ...
. These long civil wars had devastated the Vietnamese nation, both its structure and economy, causing great dissatisfaction among the ordinary class and working class with the monarchs and the aristocrats, which ultimately culminated in the Tây Sơn rebellion in the late 18th century. The Chu Đậu ceramic factory in Chu Đậu village, Hải Dương province, which famously exported Vietnamese blue-white ceramics to Japan and West Asia from 13th to 17th century, was destroyed.


See also

* Southern and Northern Dynasties (Vietnam) *
Trịnh–Nguyễn War The Trịnh–Nguyễn Civil War (; chữ Hán: 鄭阮紛爭, lit. Trịnh–Nguyễn contention) was a 17th and 18th-century lengthy civil war waged between the two ruling families in Vietnam, the Trịnh lords of Đàng Ngoài and the Nguy� ...


References


Citations

* * * * * {{DEFAULTSORT:Le-Mac War 16th-century conflicts 17th-century conflicts 16th century in Vietnam 17th century in Vietnam Civil wars in Vietnam Mạc dynasty Revival Lê dynasty Wars involving Vietnam