Musa Kâzım Karabekir (also Kazim or Kiazim in English; 1882 – 26 January 1948) was a Turkish general and politician. He was the commander of the Eastern Army of the

Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire (), also called the Turkish Empire, was an empire, imperial realm that controlled much of Southeast Europe, West Asia, and North Africa from the 14th to early 20th centuries; it also controlled parts of southeastern Centr ...

during the

Turkish War of Independence , strength1 = May 1919: 35,000November 1920: 86,000Turkish General Staff, ''Türk İstiklal Harbinde Batı Cephesi'', Edition II, Part 2, Ankara 1999, p. 225August 1922: 271,000Celâl Erikan, Rıdvan Akın: ''Kurtuluş Savaşı tarih ...

, and fought a successful military campaign against the Armenian Democratic Republic. He was the a founder and leader of the Progressive Republican Party, the Turkish Republic's first opposition party to Atatürk, though he and his party would be purged following the Sheikh Said revolt. He was rehabilitated with

İsmet İnönü Mustafa İsmet İnönü (24 September 1884 – 25 December 1973) was a Turkish politician and military officer who served as the second List of Presidents of Turkey, president of Turkey from 1938 to 1950, and as its Prime Minister of Turkey, pr ...

's ascension to the presidency in 1938 and served as Speaker of the

Grand National Assembly of Turkey The Grand National Assembly of Turkey ( ), usually referred to simply as the GNAT or TBMM, also referred to as , in Turkish, is the Unicameralism, unicameral Turkey, Turkish legislature. It is the sole body given the legislative prerogatives by ...

before his death.

Early life

Karabekir was born in 1882 as the son of an Ottoman general, Mehmet Emin Pasha, in the Kocamustafapaşa quarter of the Kuleli neighborhood of İstanbul, in the

. The Karabekir family traced its heritage back to the medieval Karamanid principality, in central Anatolia, where his family belonged to the

Afshar tribe Afshar ( ; , ; ; ) is a tribe of Oghuz Turkic origin that split into several groups in Iran, Turkey and Afghanistan. Afshar means "obedient". According to Rashid-al-Din Hamadani, Afshar, the eponymous founder of the tribe, was a son of Yildiz ...

. Karabekir toured several places in the Ottoman Empire while his father served in the army. He returned to

Istanbul Istanbul is the List of largest cities and towns in Turkey, largest city in Turkey, constituting the country's economic, cultural, and historical heart. With Demographics of Istanbul, a population over , it is home to 18% of the Demographics ...

in 1893 with his mother after his father died in

Mecca Mecca, officially Makkah al-Mukarramah, is the capital of Mecca Province in the Hejaz region of western Saudi Arabia; it is the Holiest sites in Islam, holiest city in Islam. It is inland from Jeddah on the Red Sea, in a narrow valley above ...

. They settled in the Zeyrek Quarter. Karabekir was put into Fatih Military Secondary School the next year. After finishing his education there, he attended the Kuleli Military High School from which he graduated in 1899. He continued his education at the

Ottoman Military College The Ottoman Military College or Imperial Military Staff College or Ottoman Army War College ( or ), was a two-year military staff college of the Ottoman Empire. It was located in İstanbul. Its mission was to educate staff officers for the Ott ...

, which he finished on 6 December 1902 at the top of his class.

Military career

As a junior officer, he was commissioned in January 1906 after two months to the Third Army in the region around

Bitola Bitola (; ) is a city in the southwestern part of North Macedonia. It is located in the southern part of the Pelagonia valley, surrounded by the Baba, Nidže, and Kajmakčalan mountain ranges, north of the Medžitlija-Níki border crossing ...

North Macedonia North Macedonia, officially the Republic of North Macedonia, is a landlocked country in Southeast Europe. It shares land borders with Greece to the south, Albania to the west, Bulgaria to the east, Kosovo to the northwest and Serbia to the n ...

. There, he was involved in fights with

Greek Greek may refer to: Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe: *Greeks, an ethnic group *Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family **Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor of all kno ...

and Bulgarian komitadjis. In April 1906, he saw Bulgarian rebels being deported who even being deported shouted a Bulgarian nationalist slogan. He reasoned that the day his nation shows this spirit, his nation will be saved. Later that year, he became the 11th member of the Ottoman Freedom Committee (which in 1907 would become the CUP). For his successful service, he was promoted to the rank of senior captain in 1907. In the following years, he served in Constantinople and again in the Second Army in

Edirne Edirne (; ), historically known as Orestias, Adrianople, is a city in Turkey, in the northwestern part of the Edirne Province, province of Edirne in Eastern Thrace. Situated from the Greek and from the Bulgarian borders, Edirne was the second c ...

. On 15 April 1911, Kâzım applied to change his family name from Zeyrek to Karabekir. Until then, he had been called Kâzım Zeyrek, after the place in which he lived with his mother, a custom in the Ottoman Empire as family names were not used. From then on, he adopted the name Karabekir, the name of his ancestors.

Balkan Wars

During his service in Edirne, Karabekir was promoted to the rank of major on 27 April 1912. He took part in the

First Balkan War The First Balkan War lasted from October 1912 to May 1913 and involved actions of the Balkan League (the Kingdoms of Kingdom of Bulgaria, Bulgaria, Kingdom of Serbia, Serbia, Kingdom of Greece, Greece and Kingdom of Montenegro, Montenegro) agai ...

against Bulgarian forces but was captured during the Battle of Edirne-Kale on 22 April 1913. He remained a prisoner-of-war until the

armistice An armistice is a formal agreement of warring parties to stop fighting. It is not necessarily the end of a war, as it may constitute only a cessation of hostilities while an attempt is made to negotiate a lasting peace. It is derived from t ...

of 21 October 1913.

World War I

Before the outbreak of

World War I World War I or the First World War (28 July 1914 – 11 November 1918), also known as the Great War, was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War I, Allies (or Entente) and the Central Powers. Fighting to ...

, Karabekir served in

Constantinople Constantinople (#Names of Constantinople, see other names) was a historical city located on the Bosporus that served as the capital of the Roman Empire, Roman, Byzantine Empire, Byzantine, Latin Empire, Latin, and Ottoman Empire, Ottoman empire ...

and was then sent to some European countries like

Austria-Hungary Austria-Hungary, also referred to as the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Dual Monarchy or the Habsburg Monarchy, was a multi-national constitutional monarchy in Central Europe#Before World War I, Central Europe between 1867 and 1918. A military ...

, Germany, France and

Switzerland Switzerland, officially the Swiss Confederation, is a landlocked country located in west-central Europe. It is bordered by Italy to the south, France to the west, Germany to the north, and Austria and Liechtenstein to the east. Switzerland ...

. In July 1914, he returned home, as a world war was likely. Back in Constantinople, Karabekir was assigned the chief of

intelligence Intelligence has been defined in many ways: the capacity for abstraction, logic, understanding, self-awareness, learning, emotional knowledge, reasoning, planning, creativity, critical thinking, and problem-solving. It can be described as t ...

at the General Staff. Soon, he was promoted to lieutenant colonel. After a short time on the southeastern front, he was sent to the

Dardanelles The Dardanelles ( ; ; ), also known as the Strait of Gallipoli (after the Gallipoli peninsula) and in classical antiquity as the Hellespont ( ; ), is a narrow, natural strait and internationally significant waterway in northwestern Turkey th ...

. As commander of the 14th Division, Karabekir fought in the Battle of Gallipoli in the summer of 1915. In October 1915, he was appointed chief staff officer at the First Army in Istanbul. Kiazim Karabekir Bey at Kut in 1916

He was commissioned to the Mesopotamian front to join the Sixth Army. For his success at

Gallipoli The Gallipoli Peninsula (; ; ) is located in the southern part of East Thrace, the European part of Turkey, with the Aegean Sea to the west and the Dardanelles strait to the east. Gallipoli is the Italian form of the Greek name (), meaning ' ...

, he was decorated in December 1915 by both the Ottoman and the German Commands and was contemporaneously promoted to

colonel Colonel ( ; abbreviated as Col., Col, or COL) is a senior military Officer (armed forces), officer rank used in many countries. It is also used in some police forces and paramilitary organizations. In the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries, a colon ...

. In April 1916, he took over the command of the 18th Corps, which gained a great victory over the British forces led by General

Charles Townshend Charles Townshend (27 August 1725 – 4 September 1767) was a British politician who held various titles in the Parliament of Great Britain. His establishment of the controversial Townshend Acts is considered one of the key causes of the Amer ...

during the Siege of Kut-al Amara in Iraq. Karabekir was appointed commander of the 2nd Corps on the Caucasus front and fought bitterly against the

Russian Russian(s) may refer to: *Russians (), an ethnic group of the East Slavic peoples, primarily living in Russia and neighboring countries *A citizen of Russia *Russian language, the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages *''The Russians'', a b ...

and

Armenian Armenian may refer to: * Something of, from, or related to Armenia, a country in the South Caucasus region of Eurasia * Armenians, the national people of Armenia, or people of Armenian descent ** Armenian diaspora, Armenian communities around the ...

forces for almost ten months. In September 1917, he was promoted to brigadier general by a decree of the

Sultan Sultan (; ', ) is a position with several historical meanings. Originally, it was an Arabic abstract noun meaning "strength", "authority", "rulership", derived from the verbal noun ', meaning "authority" or "power". Later, it came to be use ...

. In May 1918 he became the commander of the 15th Army Corps in

Erzurum Erzurum (; ) is a List of cities in Turkey, city in eastern Anatolia, Turkey. It is the largest city and capital of Erzurum Province and is 1,900 meters (6,233 feet) above sea level. Erzurum had a population of 367,250 in 2010. It is the site of an ...

and as he began to grasp the defeat of the

, he began to prepare his forces for a war against the Armenians.

Turkish War of Independence

In compliance with the

Treaty of Sèvres The Treaty of Sèvres () was a 1920 treaty signed between some of the Allies of World War I and the Ottoman Empire, but not ratified. The treaty would have required the cession of large parts of Ottoman territory to France, the United Kingdom, ...

, Ottoman Sultan

Mehmed VI Mehmed VI Vahideddin ( ''Meḥmed-i sâdis'' or ''Vaḥîdü'd-Dîn''; or /; 14 January 1861 – 16 May 1926), also known as ''Şahbaba'' () among the Osmanoğlu family, was the last sultan of the Ottoman Empire and the penultimate Ottoman Cal ...

gave Karabekir the order to surrender to

Entente powers The Allies or the Entente (, ) was an international military coalition of countries led by the French Republic, the United Kingdom, the Russian Empire, the United States, the Kingdom of Italy, and the Empire of Japan against the Central Powers ...

, which he refused to obey. Contrary to the orders of the British to demobilize the Ottoman army in Eastern Anatolia, he provided the Turkish rural population with weapons. He stayed in the region and, on the eve of the Erzurum Congress, when Mustafa Kemal (Atatürk) had just arrived in

, he secured the city with a cavalry brigade under his command to protect him and the congressmen. He pledged with Mustafa Kemal to join the

Turkish national movement The Turkish National Movement (), also known as the Anatolian Movement (), the Nationalist Movement (), and the Kemalists (, ''Kemalciler'' or ''Kemalistler''), included political and military activities of the Turkish revolutionaries that resu ...

and then took command of the Eastern Front during the

by the

Kuva-yi Milliye The Kuva-yi Milliye (; 'National Forces' or 'Nationalist Forces') were irregular Turkish militia forces active in the early period of the Turkish War of Independence. These irregular forces emerged after the occupation of the parts of Turkey by t ...

. In early September 1920, Karabekir commenced the first military operations against the Republic of Armenia. There were brief small-scale skirmishes in the region of Oltu, but as the Turkish offensive elicited virtually no reaction from the Allied powers, Karabekir continued the offensive. On 28 September, he sent four divisions from the XV Army Corps across the Armenian border with the objective of capturing the strategic fortress of Sarikamish. Sarikamish was taken the following day, and the rest of the Turkish advance continued unchecked. Throughout October, Armenian resistance progressively collapsed, and the Turkish armies captured

Kars Kars ( or ; ; ) is a city in northeast Turkey. It is the seat of Kars Province and Kars District.� ...

on 30 October and occupied

Alexandropol Gyumri (, ) is an urban municipal community and the List of cities and towns in Armenia, second-largest city in Armenia, serving as the administrative center of Shirak Province in the northwestern part of the country. By the end of the 19th centur ...

, Armenia's largest city at the time, on 6 November. A ceasefire was concluded on 18 November, and negotiations were carried out between Karabekir and a peace delegation, led by

Alexander Khatisian Alexander Khatisian (; 17 February 1874 – 10 March 1945) was an Armenian politician, doctor and journalist. In a letter to his wife, the first prime minister of Armenia, Hovhannes Kajaznuni, described Khatisian as a person with "inexhaustible ...

, in Alexandropol. Although Karabekir's terms were extremely harsh, the Armenian delegation had little recourse but to agree to them. Karabekir affixed his signature under the peace agreement, the Treaty of Alexandropol, which was signed on 3 December 1920. Although the treaty was technically invalid, as the government that Khatisian's delegation represented had ceased to exist the previous day, Turkey's territorial gains as stipulated in the treaty were confirmed in the Treaty of Kars of 1921. Karabekir's army displaced and massacred tens of thousands of Armenian civilians during the campaign against Armenia, with conservative estimates placing the number killed at approximately 60,000. �
Profile at

Google Books Google Books (previously known as Google Book Search, Google Print, and by its code-name Project Ocean) is a service from Google that searches the full text of books and magazines that Google has scanned, converted to text using optical charac ...

Dadrian, Vahakn N. (2003). ''The History of the Armenian Genocide: Ethnic Conflict from the Balkans to Anatolia to the Caucasus''. New York: Berghahn Books
pp. 360–361
. Gurbuz Cocuklar Ordusu 2

In 1924, he was assigned to take Hakkari back. He was designated by the new Grand National Assembly in

Ankara Ankara is the capital city of Turkey and List of national capitals by area, the largest capital by area in the world. Located in the Central Anatolia Region, central part of Anatolia, the city has a population of 5,290,822 in its urban center ( ...

to sign also the friendship agreement Treaty of Kars with the

Soviet Union The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR), commonly known as the Soviet Union, was a List of former transcontinental countries#Since 1700, transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 until Dissolution of the Soviet ...

on 23 October 1921. He then conquered Hakkari from the Assyrian forces and in the process, massacred and displaced many

Assyrians Assyrians (, ) are an ethnic group indigenous to Mesopotamia, a geographical region in West Asia. Modern Assyrians share descent directly from the ancient Assyrians, one of the key civilizations of Mesopotamia. While they are distinct from ot ...

Political career

After the defeat of Greek forces in Western

Anatolia Anatolia (), also known as Asia Minor, is a peninsula in West Asia that makes up the majority of the land area of Turkey. It is the westernmost protrusion of Asia and is geographically bounded by the Mediterranean Sea to the south, the Aegean ...

, the

Republic of Turkey Turkey, officially the Republic of Türkiye, is a country mainly located in Anatolia in West Asia, with a relatively small part called East Thrace in Southeast Europe. It borders the Black Sea to the north; Georgia (country), Georgia, Armen ...

was proclaimed. Kâzım Karabekir Pasha moved to

in October 1922 and continued to serve in the parliament as Deputy of Edirne. He was still the acting commander of the Eastern Army when he was elected Deputy of Constantinople on 29 June 1923. Six months later, he was appointed Inspector of the First Army. He received the highest Turkish award by the parliament, the "Order of Independence" for his meritorious and distinguished service in the military and politics during the

War of Independence Wars of national liberation, also called wars of independence or wars of liberation, are conflicts fought by nations to gain independence. The term is used in conjunction with wars against foreign powers (or at least those perceived as foreign) ...

. He retired from military service in October 1924 and then entered politics. Karabekir had differences of opinion with Mustafa Kemal about the realization of the Republican reforms, one of the most important being the abolition of

caliphate A caliphate ( ) is an institution or public office under the leadership of an Islamic steward with Khalifa, the title of caliph (; , ), a person considered a political–religious successor to the Islamic prophet Muhammad and a leader of ...

. Even though he agreed with Mustafa Kemal on the subject, he did not agree with him on immediate action. For Karabekir, the timing was inappropriate because British forces stood at the border of southeastern

Turkey Turkey, officially the Republic of Türkiye, is a country mainly located in Anatolia in West Asia, with a relatively small part called East Thrace in Southeast Europe. It borders the Black Sea to the north; Georgia (country), Georgia, Armen ...

and claimed

Kirkuk Kirkuk (; ; ; ) is a major city in northern Iraq, serving as the capital of the Kirkuk Governorate. The city is home to a diverse population of Kurds, Iraqi Turkmen, Iraqi Turkmens and Arabs. Kirkuk sits on the ruins of the original Kirkuk Cit ...

, now in

Iraq Iraq, officially the Republic of Iraq, is a country in West Asia. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to Iraq–Saudi Arabia border, the south, Turkey to Iraq–Turkey border, the north, Iran to Iran–Iraq border, the east, the Persian Gulf and ...

. Karabekir did not believe that the caliphate should be abolished before this was solved.

Kurds Kurds (), or the Kurdish people, are an Iranian peoples, Iranic ethnic group from West Asia. They are indigenous to Kurdistan, which is a geographic region spanning southeastern Turkey, northwestern Iran, northern Iraq, and northeastern Syri ...

, more radical in their Shafi

Sunni Sunni Islam is the largest branch of Islam and the largest religious denomination in the world. It holds that Muhammad did not appoint any successor and that his closest companion Abu Bakr () rightfully succeeded him as the caliph of the Mu ...

beliefs, began to rise against the government because they thought that the government would abolish religion after it ended the caliphate. Struggling with the rebellion, Turkey agreed to leave Kirkuk to Iraq, which was under the British mandate. Such conflicts prompted tensions between Karabekir and Mustafa Kemal. On 17 November 1924, several politicians around Karabekir and Ali Fuat Cebesoy founded the Progressive Republican Party (''Terakkiperver Cumhuriyet Fırkası''), which had several prominent current and former military commanders as its members. Afterwards, the party's recent members were blamed for the Sheikh Said rebellion and the assassination attempt made against Mustafa Kemal in

İzmir İzmir is the List of largest cities and towns in Turkey, third most populous city in Turkey, after Istanbul and Ankara. It is on the Aegean Sea, Aegean coast of Anatolia, and is the capital of İzmir Province. In 2024, the city of İzmir had ...

. The party was closed on 5 June 1925 by the government, and Karabekir was imprisoned by the Independence Tribunals with many of his party members but later acquitted and released. Following those developments, all relations were broken between Karabekir and Mustafa Kemal. Retiring temporarily from politics, Karabekir devoted himself to writing his memoirs of the

and

Atatürk's reforms Atatürk's reforms ( or ''Atatürk Devrimleri''), also referred to as the Turkish Revolution (Turkish language, Turkish: ''Türk Devrimi''), were a series of political, legal, religious, cultural, social, and economic policy changes, designed ...

. After Kemal Atatürk died in 1938, Karabekir's close friend

rehabilitated him. In 1939, Kâzım Karabekir returned to politics and re-entered parliament as an MP from Istanbul. He was elected speaker of the parliament on 5 August 1946. He died in office at the age of 66 on 26 January 1948 in Ankara after a heart attack. His remains were later relocated to the Turkish State Cemetery in Ankara. Kâzım Karabekir was survived by his wife İclal and three daughters Hayat, Emel, and Timsal. The four-story mansion in the Erenköy quarter of

Kadıköy Kadıköy () is a municipality and Districts of Turkey, district on the Asian side of Istanbul Province, Istanbul Province, Turkey. Its area is 25 km2, and its population is 467,919 (2023). It is a large and populous area in the Asian si ...

district in Istanbul, where he lived for almost 15 years, was converted into a museum in 2005.

Personal views

Caliphate

Rauf Orbay stated that the proclamation of the Turkish Republic was rushed, and the most correct form of government would be the one in which the

caliph A caliphate ( ) is an institution or public office under the leadership of an Islamic steward with Khalifa, the title of caliph (; , ), a person considered a political–religious successor to the Islamic prophet Muhammad and a leader of ...

would preside. While Ali Fuat Cebesoy was agreeing to this view, Kâzım Karabekir told them that he was a supporter of the republic, and was against a personal

sultanate Sultan (; ', ) is a Royal and noble ranks, position with several historical meanings. Originally, it was an Arabic abstract noun meaning "strength", "authority", "rulership", derived from the verbal noun ', meaning "authority" or "power". La ...

Pan-Turkism

Bibliography

* ''Ankara'da Savaş Rüzgarları'' (''Winds of War in Ankara''), 448 pp. * ''Bir Düello ve Bir Suikast'' (''A Duel and An Assassination''), 272 pp. * ''Birinci Cihan Harbi'' 1–4 (''World War I'' 1–4), 4 books 1320 pp. ** ''Birinci Cihan Harbine Neden Girdik?'' (''Why Did We Enter the World War I?''), 199 pp. 1st book ** ''Birinci Cihan Harbine Nasıl Girdik?'' (''How Did We Enter the World War I?''), 464 pp. 2nd book ** ''Birinci Cihan Harbini Nasıl İdare Ettik?'' (''How Did We Manage the World War I?''), 272 pp. 3rd book ** ''Birinci Cihan Harbini Nasıl İdare Ettik?'' (''How Did We Manage the World War I?''), 384 pp. 4th book * ''Cumhuriyet Tarihi'' Set 1 (''History of the Republic'' Set 1), 13 books * ''Cumhuriyet Tarihi'' Set 2 (''History of the Republic'' Set 2), 12 books * ''İstiklal Harbimiz'' 1–5 (''Our War of Independence'' 1–5), 5 books * ''Paşaların Kavgası'' (''Struggle of the Pashas'') * ''Paşaların Hesaplaşması'' (''Reckoning of the Pashas'') * ''İzmir Suikastı'' (''Assassination in İzmir'') * ''Çocuklara Öğütler'' (''Advice to Children'') * ''Hayatım'' (''My Life'') * ''İttihat ve Terakki Cemiyeti 1896–1909'' (''Committee of Union and Progress 1896–1909'') * ''Ermeni Dosyası'' (''Armenian Dossier'') * ''İngiltere, İtalya ve Habeş Harbi'' (''British, Italian and Ethiopian War'') * ''Kürt Meselesi'' (''Kurdish Problem'') * ''Çocuk, Davamız'' 1–2 (''The Child, Our Problem'' 1–2), 2 books * ''İstiklal Harbimizin Esasları'' (''Principals of Our War of Independence'') * ''Yunan Süngüsü'' (''Greek Bayonet'') * ''Sanayi Projelerimiz'' (''Our Industrial Projects'') * ''İktisat Esaslarımız'' (''Our Principals of Economy'') * ''Tarihte Almanlar ve Alman Ordusu'' (''Germans in the History and German Army'') * ''Türkiye'de ve Türk Ordusunda Almanlar'' (''Germans in Turkey and in the Turkish Army'') * ''Tarih Boyunca Türk-Alman İlişkileri'' (''Turkish-German Relations Throughout the History'') * ''İstiklal Harbimizde İttihad Terakki ve Enver Paşa'' 1–2 (''Union Progress and Enver Pasha in Our War of Independence'') * ''İstiklal Harbimizin Esasları Neden Yazıldı?'' (''Why Was the Principals of Our War of Independence Written?'') * ''Millî Mücadele'de Bursa'' (''Bursa During the War of Independence'') * ''İtalya ve Habeş'' (''Italy and Ethiopia'') * ''Ermeni Mezalimi'' (''Armenian Outrage'') * ''Sırp-Bulgar Seferi'' (''Serbian-Bulgarian Campaign'') * ''Osmanlı Ordusunun Taarruz Fikri'' (''Attack Concept of the Ottoman Army'') * ''Erkan-i Harbiye Vezaifinden İstihbarat'' (''Intelligence from the Service at General Staff'') * ''Sarıkamış, Kars ve Ötesi'' (''Sarıkamış, Kars and Beyond'') * ''Erzincan ve Erzurum'un Kurtuluşu'' (''Liberation of Erzincan and Erzurum'') * ''Bulgaristan Esareti - Hatıralar, Notlar'' (''Captivity in Bulgaria - Memories, Notes'') * ''Nutuk ve Karabekir'den Cevaplar'' (''The Address and Replies From Karabekir'')

References

{{DEFAULTSORT:Karabekir, Kazim 1882 births 1948 deaths Military personnel from Istanbul People from Constantinople vilayet Kuleli Military High School alumni Ottoman Military Academy alumni Ottoman Military College alumni Ottoman military personnel of the Balkan Wars Ottoman prisoners of war Balkan Wars prisoners of war held by Bulgaria Ottoman military personnel of World War I Ottoman Army generals Pashas Turkish Army generals Commanders of the First Army of Turkey Turkish military personnel of the Turkish–Armenian War Recipients of the Medal of Independence with Red-Green Ribbon (Turkey) Progressive Republican Party (Turkey) politicians Speakers of the Parliament of Turkey Burials at Turkish State Cemetery Deputies of Istanbul Leaders of political parties in Turkey Leaders of the opposition (Turkey) Turkish Muslims Pan-Turkists Ethnic Afshar people Armenian genocide perpetrators Sayfo perpetrators