Japanese dictionary

have a history that began over 1300 years ago when Japanese Buddhist priests, who wanted to understand Chinese sutras, adapted Chinese character dictionaries. Present-day Japanese lexicographers are exploring computerized editing and electronic dictionaries. According to Nakao Keisuke ():

It has often been said that dictionary publishing in Japan is active and prosperous, that Japanese people are well provided for with reference tools, and that lexicography here, in practice as well as in research, has produced a number of valuable reference books together with voluminous academic studies. (1998:35)

After introducing some Japanese "dictionary" words, this article will discuss early and modern Japanese dictionaries, demarcated at the 1603 CE lexicographical sea-change from '' Nippo Jisho'', the first bilingual Japanese–Portuguese dictionary. "Early" here will refer to lexicography during the Heian, Kamakura, and Muromachi periods (794–1573); and "modern" to Japanese dictionaries from the Edo or Tokugawa shogunate era (1603–1867) through the present.

Lexicographical terminology

First, it will be useful to introduce some key Japanese terms for dictionaries and collation (ordering of entry words) that the following discussion will be using.

The Wiktionary uses the English word ''dictionary'' to define a few synonyms including lexicon, wordbook, vocabulary, thesaurus, and translating dictionary. It also uses ''dictionary'' to translate six Japanese words.
*''jiten'' (, lit. "word reference-work") "dictionary; lexicon; glossary"
*''jiten'' (, lit. "character reference-work") "character dictionary"
*''jiten'' (, lit. "thing reference-work") "encyclopedia, encyclopedic dictionary"
*''jisho'' (, lit. "word book") "dictionary; wordbook; lexicon; glossary"
*''jisho'' (, lit. "character book") "character dictionary; dictionary"
*''jibiki'' (, lit. "character pull/arrange) "character dictionary; dictionary"
The first three homophonous ''jiten'' compounds of ''ten'' ( "reference work; dictionary; classic; canon; model") are Chinese loanwords. However, Chinese distinguishes their pronunciations, avoiding the potential ambiguities of Sino-Japanese ''jiten'': ''cídiǎn'' "word dictionary", ''zìdiǎn'' "character dictionary", or "encyclopedia". The usual Japanese word for "encyclopedia" is ''hyakka jiten'' ( "100/many subject dictionary", see Japanese encyclopedias). The ''jiten'', ''jisho'', and ''jibiki'' terms for dictionaries of ''kanji'' "Chinese characters" share the element ''ji'' ( "character; graph; letter; script; writing").

Lexicographical collation is straightforward for romanized languages, and most dictionaries enter words in alphabetical order. In contrast, the Japanese writing system, with ''kanji'', ''hiragana'', and ''katakana'', creates complications for dictionary ordering. University of Arizona professor Don C. Bailey (1960:4) discusses how Japanese lexicography differentiates semantic, graphic, and phonetic collation methods, namely:
*''bunruitai'' ( "classification form") "semantic collation; grouping words with similar meanings; thesaurus-like organization"
*''jikeibiki'' ( "character shape arrangement") "logographic collation; organizing ''kanji'' dictionaries by radicals (recurring graphic components)"
*''onbiki'' ( "pronunciation arrangement") "phonetic collation; organization by the Japanese syllabary in '' iroha'' or '' gojūon'' ordering"
In general, ''jikeibiki'' organization is for a readers' dictionary, ''bunruitai'' for a writers' dictionary, and ''onbiki'' for both types.

The Japanese writing system originated with the introduction of Chinese characters around the 4th century CE, and early Japanese dictionaries developed from Chinese dictionaries circa the 7th century CE. These three Japanese collation systems were borrowed and adapted from Chinese character dictionaries.

The first, and oldest, Chinese system of collation by semantic field (for instance, "birds" or "fish") dates back to the '' Erya'' (). Only a few dictionaries like the '' Xiao Erya'' (), '' Guangya'' (), and '' Piya'' () used semantic collation. This system is inefficient looking up a word unless the dictionary user already knows its meaning; such as using Roget's Thesaurus without an alphabetical index. ''Bunruitai'' collation is obsolete among modern Japanese dictionaries, with the exception of thesauri.

The second system of dictionary collation by radicals (Chinese ''bushou'', Japanese ''bushu'', "section headers") originated with the 121 CE ''Shuowen Jiezi'' () . Japanese dictionaries followed the Chinese example of reducing the number of radicals: original 540 (''Shuowen Jiezi''), adjusted 542 ('' Yupian'' ()), condensed 214 ('' Zihui'' (), ''Kangxi Dictionary'' ()), and abridged 189 (''Xinhua Zidian'' ()). Japanese ''jikeibiki'' collation by radical and stroke ordering is standard for character dictionaries, and does not require a user to know the meaning or pronunciation beforehand.

The third Chinese system of ordering by pronunciation is evident in a rime dictionary, which collates the characters by tone and rime. The 601 CE ''Qieyun'' () is the oldest extant Chinese dictionary collated by pronunciation, and was expanded in the ''Guangyun'' () and '' Jiyun'' () . The shortcoming of this unwieldy tone-rime method is that a user needs to know, or guess, the pronunciation of a character in order to look it up. The modern Chinese dictionary improvement is alphabetical collation by ''pinyin'' romanization. Japanese ''onbiki'' dictionaries historically changed from poetic '' iroha'' to practical '' gojūon'' ordering around 1890. Compare the former pangram poem (''i-ro-ha-ni-ho-he-to, chi-ri-nu-ru-wo'', ... "Although flowers glow with color, They are quickly fallen, ...) with the latter "fifty sounds" 10 consonants by 5 vowels grid (''a-i-u-e-o, ka-ki-ku-ke-ko'', ...).

Early Japanese lexicography

The first Japanese dictionaries are no longer extant and only known by titles. For example, the ''Nihon Shoki'' (tr. Aston 1896:354) says Emperor Tenmu was presented a dictionary in 682 CE, the ''Niina'' (, "New Characters") with 44 fascicles (''kan'' ). The earliest dictionaries made in Japan were not for the Japanese language but rather dictionaries of Chinese characters written in Chinese and annotated in Japanese.

Japanese lexicography flowered during the Heian period, when Chinese culture and Buddhism began to spread throughout Japan. During the Kamakura and Muromachi eras, despite advances in woodblock printing technology, there was a decline in lexicography that Bailey (1960:22) describes as "a tendency toward simplification and popularization".

The following review of the first published Japanese dictionaries is divided into the above lexicographical ''jikeibiki'', ''bunruitai'', and ''onbiki'' types.

Graphically organized dictionaries

''Jikeibiki'' graphic collation began with the oldest extant Japanese dictionary: the '' Tenrei Banshō Meigi'' (), edited by the Heian monk and scholar Kūkai. It enters approximately 1,000 characters under 534 radicals, and each entry gives the seal script character, Chinese fanqie reading, and definition (usually copied from the ''Yupian''), but does not give native kun'yomi Japanese readings.

The first dictionary containing Japanese readings of ''kanji'' was the '' Shinsen Jikyō'' (), which the editor Shōjū () compiled from the ''Yupian'' and ''Qieyun''. It enters 21,300 characters, giving both Chinese and Sino-Japanese readings, and cites many early Japanese texts. Internal organization innovatively combines ''jikeibiki'' and ''bunruitai'' methods; a simplified system of 160 radicals is ordered semantically (e.g., 5-7 are Rain, Air, and Wind).

The Buddhist '' Ruiju Myōgishō'' () dictionary lists over 32,000 characters and compounds under 120 radicals. The structure and definitions closely follow the Chinese ''Yupian'' and ''Qieyun''. This Heian reference work gives both Sino-Japanese and Japanese readings for ''kanji'', usually with Kanbun annotations in citations from Chinese classic texts.

The '' Jikyōshū'' () collates Chinese characters primarily by the 542 ''Yupian'' radicals and secondarily by semantic headings adapted from the ''Iroha Jiruishō''. This Kamakura dictionary, edited by Sugawara no Tamenaga (), exists in 3, 7, and 20 fascicle editions that have convoluted textual histories.

The next ''jikeibiki'' collated dictionary of ''kanji'' was the '' Wagokuhen'' (). This "Japanese ''Yupian''" was based on the Chinese ''Yupian'', actually the 1013 ''Daguang yihui Yupian'' (, "Expanded and Enlarged ''Yupian''"), which was current in Muromachi Japan. The ''Wagokuhen'' went through dozens of editions, which collate entries through various systems of (from 100 to 542) radicals, without any overt semantic subdivisions.

Two historical aspects of these logographically arranged Japanese ''jikeibiki'' dictionaries are reducing the number of radicals and semantically ordering them. The radical systems ranged from 542 (the ''Yupian''), 534, 160, 120, down to 100. Both the ''Shinsen Jikyō'' and ''Jikyōshū'' refined logographic categorization with ''bunruitai''-type arrangements. While Chinese dictionaries have occasional examples of semantically ordered radicals (for instance, Kangxi radicals 38 and 39 are Woman and Child), Japanese lexicography restructured radicals into more easily memorable sequences.

Semantically organized dictionaries

Japanese ''bunruitai'' semantic collation of dictionaries began with the 938 CE '' Wamyō Ruijushō'' (), compiled by Minamoto no Shitagō (). This Heian dictionary adapts the ancient Chinese ''Erya'' dictionary's 19 semantic categories into 24 Japanese headings with subheadings. For instance, Heaven and Earth is subdivided into Stars and Constellations, Clouds and Rain, Wind and Snow, etc.
The character entries give source citations, Chinese pronunciations, definitions, and Japanese readings in the ancient ''Man'yōgana'' character system.

The '' Kagakushū'' () was an anonymous Muromachi era Japanese language dictionary or encyclopedia that defined some 3000 words into 18 semantic categories. It was designed for the literate public rather than for priests and literati, and was reissued many times.

Phonetically organized dictionaries

Japanese ''onbiki'' phonetic collation began during the late Heian Period. The circa 1144–1165 CE '' Iroha Jiruishō'' () was the first dictionary to group entries in the ''iroha'' order. Words are entered by 47 first ''kana'' syllables, each subdivided into 21 semantic groups.

The '' Setsuyōshū'' () was a popular Muromachi dictionary collated in ''iroha'' order and subdivided into 12 (later 13) semantic categories. It defined current Japanese vocabulary rather than borrowed Sino-Japanese compounds, and went through many editions and reprints.

The 1484 '' Onkochishinsho'' () was the first Japanese dictionary to collate words in ''gojūon'' rather than conventional ''iroha'' order. This Muromachi reference work enters about 13,000 words, first by pronunciation and then by 12 subject classifications.

All three of these ''onbiki'' dictionaries adapted the ''bunruitai'' method to collate primarily by first syllable and secondarily by semantic field. This is comparatively less efficient than modern Japanese dictionaries with single-sorting ''gojūon'' collation by first syllable, second syllable, etc.

Modern Japanese lexicography

The development of early Japanese lexicography from Chinese–Japanese dictionaries has cross-linguistic parallels, for instance, early English language lexicography developed from Latin–English dictionaries. Nonetheless, modern Japanese lexicography adapted to an unparalleled second foreign wave from Western language dictionaries and romanization.

During the Nanban trade Period (1543–1650 CE) when Japan was opened to Europeans, the Jesuit Mission Press published two groundbreaking dictionaries. The 1598 monolingual '' Rakuyōshū'' (, "Collection of Fallen Leaves") gave Sino-Japanese and native Japanese readings of characters, and introduced the small raised circle (''handakuten'' ) to indicate the ''p'' sound (compare ''ha'' and ''pa'' ). The 1603–1604 bilingual Japanese-Portuguese '' Nippo Jisho'' or ''Vocabvlario da Lingoa de Iapam'' dictionary is still cited as an authority for early Japanese pronunciation. The year 1604 was at the beginning of the Edo Period and also, as Nakao (1998:37) points out, the date of the first monolingual English dictionary, the Table Alphabeticall.

During the Sakoku Period (1641–1853) when Japan was closed to foreigners, with the exception of the Dutch East India Company, ''Rangaku'' ("Dutch/Western learning") influenced Japanese lexicography through bilingual Japanese and Dutch dictionaries. Another notable publication was the 1712 ''Wakan Sansai Zue'' () encyclopedia, which was based on the 1609 Chinese '' Sancai Tuhui'' ().

Japanese language dictionaries

''Kokugo jiten/jisho'' (/ "national language dictionary") means "Japanese–Japanese dictionary, monolingual Japanese dictionary". This "national language" term ''kokugo'', which Chinese borrowed as ''guoyu'', usually refers to the Japanese language as taught in Japanese schools. ''Nihongo jisho'' ( "Japanese language dictionary") is a neologism that contrasts Japanese with other world languages. There are hundreds of ''kokugo'' dictionaries in print, ranging from huge multivolume tomes to paperback abridgments. According to Japanese translator Tom Gally (1999:n.p.), "While all have shortcomings, the best ''kokugo'' dictionaries are probably among the best reference works in existence in any language."

The Edo '' Kokugaku'' scholar Tanikawa Kotosuga (, 1709–1776) began compilation of the first full-scale Japanese language dictionary, the ''Wakun no Shiori'' or ''Wakunkan'' ( "Guidebook to Japanese Pronunciations"). This influential 9-volume dictionary of classical Japanese words was posthumously completed and finally published in 1887.

The first truly modern Japanese language dictionary was edited by the grammarian and English translator Ōtsuki Fumihiko (), who used ''Webster's Dictionary'' as the model for his pioneering ''Genkai'' ( "Sea of Words", 1889–1891). His revised 5-volume ''Daigenkai'' ( "Great/Comprehensive Sea of Words", Fuzambō, 1932–1937) dictionary continues to be cited for its definitions and etymologies.

The ''Dainihon Kokugo Jiten'' (, Fuzambō, 1915–1919), edited by Matsui Kanji (), contains 220,000 headwords, with detailed interpretations and almost complete source material.

The ''Daijiten'' ( "Great/Comprehensive Dictionary", Heibonsha 1934–1936), edited by Shimonaka Yasaburō (), is the largest ''kokugo'' dictionary ever published. The original 26-volume edition, which is still available in condensed versions, entered over 700,000 headwords, listed by pronunciation, and covered a wide variety of Japanese vocabulary.

The '' Nihon Kokugo Daijiten'' (, Shogakukan, 1972–1976, 2nd ed. 2000–2002) is the successor to the ''Dainihon Kokugo Jiten''. Matsui Shigekazu (), who led the compilation of the dictionary, is the grandson of Matsui Kanji. This multivolume historical dictionary enters about 500,000 headwords, and is currently the most complete reference work for the Japanese language.

The bestselling ''kokugo'' titles are practical 1-volume dictionaries rather than encyclopedic works like the ''Nihon Kokugo Daijiten''. For present purposes, they are divided between large-size dictionaries that enter 100,000–200,000 headwords on 2000–3000 pages and medium-size ones with 60,000–100,000 on 1300–1500 pages. The following discussion will introduce the central ''kokugo'' dictionaries, excepting the numerous smallest editions.

Larger single-volume Japanese language dictionaries are a highly profitable and competitive market for Japanese publishing houses.
*The '' Kōjien'' ( "Wide Garden of Words", Iwanami Shoten, 1955, 7th ed. 2018), edited by Shinmura Izuru (), enters 200,000 headwords. This highly respected dictionary gives definitions in chronological order, which is useful for understanding diachronic semantics. Japanese newspaper editorials commonly cite ''Kōjien'' definitions as authoritative, but the following dictionaries are sometimes lexicographically superior.
*The ''Daijirin'' ( "Great Forest of Words", 1988, Sanseido, 4th ed. 2019), edited by Matsumura Akira (), has 233,000 headwords. This highly-evaluated rival of the ''Kōjien'' gives detailed definitions, and arranges word meanings with the most common ones first, instead of historical order.
*The '' Daijisen'' ( "Great Fountainhead of Words", Shogakukan, 1995, 2nd ed. 2012), also edited by Matsumura Akira (above), has 220,000 entries, and is practically a twin of the ''Daijirin''. Two minor improvements are color pictures instead of line art and replacing classical usage citations with contemporary ones.
*The '' Nihongo Daijiten'' ( "Great Japanese Dictionary", Kōdansha, 1989, 2nd ed. 1995), edited by Umesao Tadao (), enters 175,000 headwords. It is distinguished by numerous color illustrations and occasional English translations.
The hefty scale of these larger dictionaries provides comprehensive coverage of Japanese words, but also renders them cumbersome and unwieldy.

Medium single-volume dictionaries have comparative advantages in portability, usability, and price.
*The '' Sanseido Kokugo Jiten'' ( "Sanseido's Japanese Dictionary", Sanseido, 1960, 8th ed. 2021), edited by Kenbō Hidetoshi (), has currently around 84,000 headwords (the first edition had about 57,000 headwords). It emphasizes contemporary usage and includes many colloquialisms.
*The ''Iwanami Kokugo Jiten'' ( "Iwanami's Japanese Dictionary", Iwanami Shoten, 1963, 8th ed. 2019), edited by Nishio Minoru (), has 57,000 headwords. It is marketed as a reliable authority.
*The '' Shin Meikai Kokugo Jiten'' ( "New Lucid Japanese Dictionary", Sanseido, 1972, 8th ed. 2020), edited by Yamada Tadao (), has currently around 79,000 entries. This popular and distinctive dictionary achieved notoriety from Akasegawa Genpei ()'s 1996 bestseller that listed many amusingly idiosyncratic definitions.
*The ''Meiji Shoin Seisen Kokugo Jiten'' ( "Meiji Shoin's Selected Japanese Dictionary", 1972, new revised ed. 1998), edited by Miyaji Yutaka () and Kai Mutsurō (), has 50,000 headwords. It includes many uncommon features such as synonyms, antonyms, stroke orders, and JIS encoding.
*The ''Gendai Kokugo Reikai Jiten'' ( "Modern Illustrated Japanese Dictionary", Shogakukan, 1985, 5th ed. 2016), edited by Hayashi Ōki (), gives 69,000 entries, and includes numerous tables explaining Japanese usage.
*The ''Gakken Kokugo Daijiten'' ( "Gakken's Great Japanese Dictionary", Gakushū Kenkyūsha, 1978, 2nd ed. 1988), edited by Kindaichi Haruhiko () and Ikeda Yasaburō (), enters about 120,000 headwords. This was the first Japanese dictionary fully edited with computers, and give illustrative citations from over 350 published sources.
Some Japanese publishers sell both a larger dictionary with more archaisms and classical citations as well as a smaller condensation with more modern examples, for instance, Shogakukan's ''Daijisen'' and ''Gendai Kokugo Reikai Jiten''.

Chinese character dictionaries

''Kan-Wa jiten'' ( "'' Kan'' 'ji''Chinese haracter'' Wa'' Japanese dictionary") means "Japanese dictionary of ''kanji'' (Chinese characters)". This unique type of monolingual dictionary enters Japanese borrowings of ''kanji'' and multi-character compounds (''jukugo'' ), but is not a bilingual Chinese–Japanese dictionary. A ''Kan–Wa'' dictionary headword (''oyaji'' "parent character") entry typically gives variant graphic forms, graphic etymology, readings, meanings, compounds, and idioms. Indexes usually include both radical-stroke and pronunciation (''on'' and ''kun'' readings), and sometimes other character indexing systems like the four corner method.

The history of ''Kan–Wa'' dictionaries began with early Japanese references such as the ''Tenrei Banshō Meigi'' and ''Ruiju Myōgishō'' (above). In 1716, the Edo author of '' Yomihon'', Tsuga Teishō (, 1718–1794) published the ''Kōki Jiten'' (), a Japanese version of the ''Kangxi Dictionary'', which standardized the ''Kan-Wa jiten'' system of 214 Kangxi radicals. The first dictionary titled with ''Kan-Wa'' was the ''Kan-Wa Daijiten'' ( "Great ''Kanji''-Japanese Character Dictionary", Sanseido, 1903), edited by Shigeno Yasutsugu (, 1827–1910), founder of the '' Shigaku zasshi''. The ''Daijiten'' ( "Great Character Dictionary", Kodansha, 1917), edited by Sakaeda Takei , went through numerous reprints.

The best available ''Kan–Wa'' dictionary is unquestionably Morohashi Tetsuji ()'s 13-volume '' Dai Kan-Wa Jiten'' ( "Great/Comprehensive ''Kanji''–Japanese Dictionary", Taishukan, 1956–60), which contains over 50,000 characters and 530,000 compounds. It was condensed into the 4-volume ''Kō Kan-Wa Jiten'' ( "Broad ''Kanji''–Japanese Dictionary", Taishukan, 1982), edited by Morohashi, Kamata Tadashi (), and Yoneyama Toratarō (), which enters 20,000 characters and 120,000 compounds.

The following major ''Kan–Wa'' dictionaries are presented in the chronological order of their first editions. Note that the numbers of character headwords include variants.
*The ''Kan-Wa Daijiten'' ( "Great ''Kanji''-Japanese Character Dictionary", Gakken, 1978), edited by Todo Akiyasu (), enters 20,000 headwords and 120,000 compounds.
*The ''Kadokawa Daijigen'' ( "Kadokawa's Great Source of Characters", 1992), edited by Ozaki Yūjirō (), gives 12,300 characters and 100,000 compounds.
*The ''Dai Kangorin'' ( "Great Forest of Chinese", Taishukan, 1992), edited by Kamada Tadashi and Yoneyama Toratarō, includes 13,938 characters and 100,000 compounds.
*The ''Shin Daijiten'' ( "New ''Daijiten'', Kōdansha, 1993), edited by Ueda Kazutoshi (), enters 21,094 characters and 110,000 compounds, and is a modern revision of the ''Daijiten''.
*The ''Jitsū'' ( "Mastery of Characters", Heibonsha, 1996), edited by Shirakawa Shizuka (), includes 9,500 characters and 22,000 compounds, collated by pronunciation in ''gojūon'' order. It combines two other Heibonsha dictionaries edited by Shirakawa, the etymological ''Jitō'' (, 1994) and the phonological ''Jikun'' (, 1995).
*The ''Taishukan Gendai Kan-Wa Jiten'' ( "Taishukan's Modern ''Kanji''–Japanese Dictionary", 1996), edited by Kimura Shūji () and Kurosawa Hiromitsu (), enters 7500 characters and 25,000 compounds.
*The ''Gojūon Biki Kan-Wa Jiten'' ( "''Kanji''–Japanese Dictionary Indexed by the Fifty Sounds", Sanseido, 2004), edited by Okimori Takuya (), gives 6,300 characters and 30,000 compounds, collated by pronunciation (like the ''Jitsū'') rather than radical.
*The ''Shinchō Nihongo Kanji Jiten'' ( "Shincho Japanese Kanji Dictionary", Shinchosha, 2007), gives 15,375 characters and 47,000 compounds.

''Kan-Ei jiten'' ( "''Kanji''–English dictionary") refers to a character dictionary designed for English-speaking students of Japanese. An early example of, if not the prototype for, this type of dictionary is Arthur Rose-Innes' 1900 publication ''3000 Chinese-Japanese Characters in Their Printed and Written Forms'', issued in Yokohama. Reprinted in 1913, a revised and enlarged edition appeared in 1915 and that volume was reprinted by United States Government Printing Office in 1943. This work evidently expanded for the second edition of Rose-Innes' ''Beginners' Dictionary of Chinese-Japanese Characters with Common Abbreviations, Variants and Numerous Compounds'' appeared in 1927 and contained 5,000 characters. Far from being a hastily-compiled wartime production, Rose-Innes' ''Beginners' Dictionary'' was an established work when reprinted during World War II―new editions having appeared in 1927, 1936, and 1942. Reprints of various editions were made in 1943, 1945, and 1950. A third edition appeared in 1953 and a fourth in 1959. Currently, an edition is kept in print by Dover Publications. However, the ''Beginner's Dictionary of Chinese-Japanese Characters'' (Harvard University Press, 1942, Dover reprint, 1977), edited by Arthur Rose-Innes is not the only one reprinted by Dover for it also reprinted the 1959 edition. A "new eighth edition" of the ''Beginner's Dictionary of Chinese-Japanese Characters'' appeared in Tokyo (the publisher was Meiseisha) in 1984. However, it has the same pagination of the 1959 edition, so, it may merely be a reprint. Another early English character dictionary is '' = 6000 Chinese Characters with Japanese Pronunciation and Japanese and English Renderings'' by J. Ira Jones and H.V.S. Peeke published in 1915 in Tokyo. The fourth edition of this work appeared in 1936.Worldcat Record No. 220678406 entitled 6000 Chinese Characters with Japanese Pronunciation and Japanese and English Renderings by J. Ira Jones and H.V.S. Peeke (1936 ed.).
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There are currently four major ''Kan–Ei'' dictionaries.
*''The Modern Reader's Japanese-English Character Dictionary'' (, Tuttle, 1962, 2nd ed. 1974), edited by Andrew Nelson and commonly called "Nelson's dictionary", enters a total of 5,446 characters (including variants) and 70,000 compounds. It is collated through an idiosyncratic "Radical Priority System" reorganization of the 214 Kangxi radicals.
*The ''Japanese Character Dictionary With Compound Lookup via Any Kanji'' (, Nichigai, 1989), edited by Mark Spahn and Wolfgang Hadamitzky, lists 7,054 characters and nearly 47,000 compounds, collated under a simplified system of 79 radicals. This "reverse dictionary" cross-references compounds by their component characters; for instance, the ''ten'' headword lists compounds including ''jiten'' ("dictionary") under the second position, ''hyakka jiten'' ( "encyclopedia") under the fourth, etc.
*The ''New Japanese-English Character Dictionary'' (, Kenkyūsha, 1990, NTC reprint, 1993), edited by Jack Halpern, enters approximately 3,500 characters, emphasizing etymologies and historical semantics. Primary collation follows a "System of Kanji Indexing by Patterns" (SKIP), but pronunciation and radical indexes are provided. It was revised as ''The Kodansha Kanji Dictionary'', (Kodansha, 2013), and its abridged '' Kodansha Kanji Learner's Dictionary''.
*''The New Nelson Japanese-English Character Dictionary'' (, Tuttle, 1997), edited by John H. Haig, is a complete revision of Nelson's, and includes 7107 characters and 70,000 compounds. It employs a modified ''Kangxi'' system of 217 radicals, and has a 230-page "Universal Radical Index" that fully cross-references under each component radical. For example, ''tō'' or ''agari'' ( "gallop, prance; soar; rise up") is entered under radical 187 "horse", but is also indexed under radicals 1 "one", 12 or "eight", 37 "big", and 130 "meat; moon".
It is noteworthy that all four of these ''Ei–Wa'' dictionaries attempted to improve upon the traditional radical system, which can be problematical for users, but none of their improvements has been widely accepted.

Japanese and English dictionaries

Since Japanese bilingual dictionaries, which are available for most major world languages, are too numerous to be discussed here, the two cases in point are ''Ei-Wa jiten'' () "English–Japanese dictionaries" and ''Wa-Ei jiten'' () "Japanese–English dictionaries".

First, the history of English–Japanese dictionaries began at the end of the Edo period. The English missionary Walter H. Medhurst, who never traveled to Japan, compiled the first bilingual wordbook ''An English and Japanese, and Japanese and English Vocabulary'' (Batavia, 1830). The Dutch translator Hori Tatsunosuke (), who interpreted for Commodore Perry, compiled the first true English–Japanese dictionary: ''A Pocket Dictionary of the English and Japanese Language'' (, Yosho-Shirabedokoro, 1862). It was based upon English-Dutch and Dutch-Japanese bilingual dictionaries, and contained about 35,000 headwords.

English–Japanese dictionary publishing flourished during the Taishō period. Kanda Naibu () used the ''Century Dictionary'' as the basis for his ''Mohan odelEnglish–Japanese Dictionary'' (, Sanseido, 1911). ''Saito's Idiomological'' ic''English–Japanese Dictionary'' (, Ōbunsha, 1915) was edited by Saitō Hidesaburō ().Jūkichi Inouye (), a graduate of London University, edited ''Inouye's English–Japanese Dictionary'' (, Shiseidō, 1921). ''Kenkyusha's New English–Japanese Dictionary on Bilingual Principles'' (, 1927) was edited by Okakura Yoshisaburō ().

In the present day, four major English–Japanese dictionaries are available.

*''Iwanami's Comprehensive English–Japanese Dictionary'' (, 1970), edited by Nakajima Fumio (), has 110,000 headwords.
*''Shogakukan Random House English–Japanese Dictionary'' (), 1973 edited by Katsuaki Horiuchi, 2nd ed. 1994 edited by Konishi Tomoshichi (), has 345,000 headwords and 175,000 usage examples.
*''Taishukan's Unabridged Genius English–Japanese Dictionary'' (, 2001), edited by Konishi Tomoshichi () and Minamide Kosei (), has 255,000 headwords (see Minamide 2002).
*''Kenkyusha's New English–Japanese Dictionary'' (, 6th ed. 2002), edited by Takebayashi Shigeru (), has 260,000 headwords.

Second, the history of Japanese–English dictionaries began towards the end of the Edo period. The American missionary James Curtis Hepburn edited ''A Japanese and English Dictionary with an English and Japanese Index'' (, Shanghai, American Presbyterian Press, 1867), with 20,722 Japanese-English and 10,030 English-Japanese words, on 702 pages. Although designed to be used by missionaries in Japan, this first Japanese–English dictionary was so popular among the Japanese that nine editions were published by 1910.

The history of English–Japanese dictionaries began with the arrival of HMS Phaeton, in order to better facilitate sakoku policy in the future due to the Nagasaki Harbour Incident. The Rangaku interpreter, Motoki Shōzaemon (), compiled the first Japanese English dictionary, purported to contain 6000 words in 1814 with the help of Dutch scholars in Japan titled "Angeria Gorintaisei" ().

''An Unabridged Japanese–English Dictionary, with copious illustrations'' (, Sanseido, 1896), edited by Frank Brinkley, Nanjō Bunyū () and Iwasaki Yukichika (), adapted and expanded Hepburn's dictionary into 1687 pages. It was primarily intended for English-speaking learners of Japanese. Jūkichi Inouye () also edited ''Inouye's Japanese–English Dictionary'' (, Sanseido, 1909), which was the first dictionary intended for Japanese learners of English. Takenobu Yoshitarō () edited the authoritative ''Takenobu's Japanese–English Dictionary'' (, Kenkyusha, 1918), which had more coverage and better usage examples than any contemporary dictionaries. It was subsequently revised as '' Kenkyusha's New Japanese-English Dictionary'' (2nd ed. 1931) in order to compete with ''A Standard Japanese–English Dictionary'' (, Taishukwan, 1924), edited by Takehara Tsuneta (), with 57,000 headwords and 300,000 examples; and ''Saitō's Japanese–English Dictionary'' (, Nichi-Eisha, 1928), also edited by Saito Hidesaburo, with 50,000 headwords and 120,000 examples. Kenkyusha's mainstay dictionary is now in its fifth edition, with little contest.
*''Grand Concise Japanese–English Dictionary'' (, Sanseido, 2002), has 210,000 headwords and 110,000 usage examples.
*''Kenkyusha's New Japanese-English Dictionary'' (, 5th ed. 2003), edited by Watanabe Toshirō (), Edmund R. Skrzypczak, and Paul Snowden, has 480,000 headwords.

Specialized dictionaries

''Senmon jiten'' () means " specialized dictionary" and ''senmon-go jiten'' () means "jargon dictionary; technical dictionary". Since specialized Japanese dictionaries are too diverse and numerous to be covered here, four exemplary types are reviewed: dictionaries of old words, current words, loanwords, and thesauri. (See the bibliographies listed under "External links" below for more complete listings of specialized dictionaries.)

''Kogo jiten'' () means "dictionary of Classical Japanese." Pre-modern or Classical Japanese can vary considerably from the modern language, and ''kogo'' dictionaries are essential for anyone reading historical texts.
*''Kadokawa Kogo Daijiten'' (, 1982–1999, 5 vols.), ed. Nakamura Yukihiko, is the most comprehensive, with 80,000 classical words, including many proper names
*''Jidaibetsu Kokugo Daijiten'' (, Sanseido, 1967–2000, 5 vols.) has a total of 70,000 headwords, with diachronic distinctions in semantics
*''Shogakukan Kogo Daijiten'' (, 1994), ed. Nakada Norio, has 55,000 headwords compiled from the ''Nihon Kokugo Daijiten''
*The ''Obunsha Kogo Jiten'' ( "Obunsha's Classical Japanese Dictionary", 1960, 10th additional ed. 2015), edited by Matsumura Akira (), has 43,500 headwords. The most famous and popular Classical Japanese dictionary in Japan. The first edition went on the market in 1960, a total of 11 million copies have been sold so far, in 2001 9th edition went on.
*The ''Obunsha Zenyaku Kogo Jiten'' ( "Obunsha's All Transrated Classical Japanese Dictionary", 1990, 4th ed. 2011), edited by Miyakoshi Ken (), has 22,500 headwords. This dictionary is the first Classical Japanese dictionary adopted on the electronic dictionary in 2001.

''Ryūkōgo jiten'' () is a specialized wordbook of catchphrases and buzzwords. Japan, like most other countries, continually creates new and ephemeral terms. Three publishers put out annual paperback dictionaries that cover the latest native coinages and foreign borrowings.
*''Gendai Yōgo no Kiso Chishiki'' (, Jiyū Kokuminsha, 1948-)
*''Jōhō Chishiki Imidas'' (, IMIDAS nnovative Multi-Information Dictionary, Annual Series Shūeisha, 1987-)
*''Chiezō'' (, Asahi Shinbunsha, 1990-)

''Gairaigo jiten'' () means "loanword dictionary". Beginning with Chinese borrowings, the Japanese language has imported many foreign loanwords and abbreviations. Below is a list of some renowned ''gairaigo'' dictionaries.
*''Kihon Gairaigo Jiten'' (, Tōkyōdō, 1990), ed. Ishiwata Toshio
*''Kankōchō no Katakanago Jiten'' (, Sanseido, 1994), ed. Shimokawabe Jun, 10,000 headwords
*''Ryakugo Daijiten'' (, Maruzen, 2nd ed. 2002), ed. Kato Daisuke
*''Konsaisu Katakanago Jiten'' (, Sanseido, 2004), 47,400 "''katakana'' words" and 7,800 acronyms

''Ruigo jiten'' () means "thesaurus," synonymous with Japanese ''ruigigo jiten'' () and the English loanword ''shisōrasu'' ().
*''Kadokawa Ruigo Shin Jiten'' (, 1981), ed. Ōno Susumu, 49,000 entries
*''Ruigo Dai Jiten'' (, Kodansha, 2002), ed. Shibata Takeshi, 76,000 entries
*''Nihongo Dai Shisōrasu'' (, Taishukan, 2003), ed. Yamaguchi Tsubasa, 200,000 entries
*''Sanseido Ruigo Shin Jiten'' (, 2005), ed. Nakamura Akira, 50,000 entries

Electronic and online dictionaries

''Denshi jisho'' () refers either generally to "dictionary software" (on CD-ROM, hard drive, ''onrain jisho'' "online dictionary", etc.) or specifically to "a dedicated PDA-type dictionary" also known as a ''denshi jiten'' ().

The specific meaning of the " electronic Japanese dictionary" as "a handheld device" became popular in the early 1980s. Modern electronic dictionaries resemble a PDA or small clamshell computer. Different manufacturers and models offer various user features, input methods, and licensed content ranging from modern Japanese, classical Japanese, ''kanji'', ''kotowaza'', English (monolingual and bilingual), medical terminology, business terminology, and other specialized dictionaries; student models also have textbooks, exam prep content, and other study materials and multimedia integrated in-device.

The general ''denshi jisho'' meaning of "dictionary database software" has evolved from early floppies that Japanese users copied onto their local computers to web-based dictionaries accessible by users through the Internet. Japanese dictionary software is available in either freeware or commercial versions, online and offline.

Many online dictionaries of Japanese are based upon Jim Breen's voluntary EDICT (Japanese–English Dictionary) Project, which consists of the 170,000 entry-strong core JMdict (XML) and EDICT (text) files (under Creative Commons license), and associated files such as KANJIDIC for ''kanji''. Eijirō, another major online database, is targeted primarily at native Japanese speakers, and as such lacks some of the features to make it more accessible to non-native speakers. Here are some major non-commercial online reference sites.
Jim Breen's WWWJDIC
primary web interface for EDICT
RomajiDesu
features EDICT-based dictionary, Japanese to Romaji/Kana/English translator, also includes KANJIDIC, KanjiVG, sample sentences, and Text to Speech.
Denshi Jisho
features EDICT-based dictionary KANJIDIC, KanjiVG and sample sentences
JLearn
features EDICT-based dictionary KANJIDIC, KanjiVG, sample sentences, conjugation tables and searching by conjugation
Tanoshii Japanese
features EDICT-based dictionary, Text to Speech, KANJIDIC, KanjiVG and learning features
POPjisyo Dictionary
pop-up definitions from EDICT
Nihongodict
interactive interface for EDICT
StudyJapanese.org
EDICT and Kanji dictionary in a learning environment
Kiki's Kanji Dictionary
interface to search and browse EDICT

FOKS (Forgiving Online Kanji Search) EDICT server with fuzzy searching
SpaceALC
an online version of the Eijirō dictionary (Japanese)
Honyaku Star
features many dictionaries and corpora such as EDICT, as well as original dictionaries.
Nihongo Master Japanese Dictionary
Nihongo Master has English to Japanese search, related words and kanji, examples sentences, Kanji lookup by radical and Kanji stroke order animation. Fueled by EDICT, KANJIDIC and KanjiVG.

Commercial Japanese dictionary publishers (Sanseido, Shogakukan, Kenkyusha, Obunsha etc.) also sell CD-ROM versions of their print dictionaries, license dictionary content for electronic dictionaries, and host dictionary content for commercial apps, free dictionary aggregator sites (such as Goo Dictionary and Kotobank), and subscription services (such as Seiko's GIGANTES Cloud Dictionary and Kenkyusha Online Dictionary).

From these high-tech online reference works, the path of Japanese lexicography extends back to early Chinese character dictionaries compiled by Heian Buddhist priests.

References

*Aston, William George, tr. 1896

Kegan Paul.
*Bailey, Don Clifford. (1960). "Early Japanese Lexicography". ''Monumenta Nipponica'' 16:1–52.
*Gally, Tom. (1999)

review article.
*Minamide, Kosei. 2002

''Kernerman Dictionary News'' 10.
*Nakao Keisuke. (1998).
The state of bilingual lexicography in Japan: learners' English–Japanese / Japanese–English dictionaries
" ''International Journal of Lexicography'' 11.1:35–50.
*Okimori Takuya , et al., eds. (1996). ''Nihon jisho jiten'' ("Encyclopedia of Dictionaries Published in Japan"). Tokyo: eview by Michael Carr. (1999). ''International Journal of Lexicography'' 12:163-176.*Smith, Henry. (2005).
Report on the Current Generation of Japanese denshi jisho
. Columbia University.

External links

Collection of Japanese bilingual dictionaries

English Japanese Electronic Dictionary

FREE Japanese Dictionaries for iOS
Benri Nihongo


Zhang Hong, for Android and Babylon

Japanese-English dictionary with hiragana, katakana and kanji on-screen keyboards


Paul D. Black


Japan Times column


Jim Breen

Online Japanese Dictionary with comprehensive searching, audio and kanji stroke animation

Online Japanese Dictionary with Romaji, Multi-Radical and stroke orders

Online Japanese Dictionary with Multi-Radical Search


University of Pittsburgh Library System
*

, many 19–20th century copyright expired Japanese dictionaries, mostly images in bigger size pdfs.

6000 Chinese Characters with Japanese Pronunciation and Japanese and English Renderings by J. Ira Jones and H.V.S. Peeke (1915 ed.)

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Helen Baroni and David Bialock

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Lexicography