Itō Hirobumi

Prince , born , was a Japanese statesman who served as the first prime minister of Japan from 1885 to 1888, and later from 1892 to 1896, in 1898, and from 1900 to 1901. He was a leading member of the '' genrō'', a group of senior statesmen that dictated policy during the Meiji era.

Born into a poor farming family in the Chōshū Domain, Itō and his father were adopted into a low-ranking samurai family. After the opening of Japan in 1854, he joined the nationalist '' sonnō jōi'' movement before being sent to England to study at University College London in 1863. Following the Meiji Restoration of 1868, Itō was appointed the junior councilor for foreign affairs in the newly formed Empire of Japan. In 1870, he traveled to the United States to study Western currency, and subsequently helped establish Japan's taxation system in 1871. Itō then set off on another overseas trip with the Iwakura Mission to the U.S. and Europe. Upon his return to Japan in 1873, he became a full councilor and public works minister.

During the 1880s, Itō emerged as the '' de facto'' leader of the Meiji oligarchy. In 1881, he was officially entrusted with overseeing the drafting of Japan's first Constitution. After traveling to Europe to study its nations' political systems, Itō settled on adopting a constitution emulating that of Prussia by reserving considerable power with the emperor while limiting political parties' involvement in government. In 1885, he replaced the Daijō-kan with a cabinet composed of ministry heads, and himself took up the new position of prime minister. When a draft of the constitution was prepared in 1888, he established a supra-cabinet Privy Council led by himself to discuss and approve it on the emperor's behalf before having the Meiji Constitution officially proclaimed in 1899. Even out of office as Japan's head of government, Itō continued to wield vast influence over the country's policies as a permanent imperial adviser, or ''genkun'', and as the President of the Emperor's Privy Council.

On the world stage, Itō Hirobumi presided over an ambitious foreign policy. He strengthened diplomatic ties with the Western powers including Germany, the United States and especially the United Kingdom. In Asia, he oversaw the First Sino-Japanese War and negotiated the surrender of China's ruling Qing dynasty on terms aggressively favourable to Japan, including the annexation of Taiwan and the release of Korea from the Chinese Imperial tribute system. While expanding his country's claims in Asia, Itō sought to avoid conflict with the Russian Empire through the policy of ''Man-Kan kōkan'' – the proposed surrender of Manchuria to Russia's sphere of influence in exchange for recognition of Japanese hegemony in Korea. When Itō's attempts at diplomacy failed, Japan's incumbent prime minister, Katsura Tarō, elected to abandon the pursuit of ''Man-Kan kōkan'' which ultimately resulted in the outbreak of the Russo-Japanese War.

After Japanese forces emerged victorious over Russia, the ensuing Japan–Korea Treaty of 1905 made Itō the first Japanese Resident-General of Korea. He consented to the total annexation of Korea in response to pressure from the increasingly powerful Imperial Army. Shortly thereafter, he resigned as Resident-General in 1909 and assumed office once again as President of the Imperial Privy Council. Four months later, Itō was assassinated by Korean-independence activist and nationalist An Jung-geun in Harbin, Manchuria.

Early life and education

Origins and adoption

Itō Hirobumi was born Hayashi Risuke on 16 October 1841 ( Tenpō 12, 2nd day of the 9th month) in Tsukari village, Suō Province (present-day Hikari, Yamaguchi Prefecture), within the Chōshū Domain. He was the son of Hayashi Jūzō, a farmer of humble origins. His father served a low-ranking samurai named Itō Naoemon in the castle town of Hagi. When Hirobumi was very young, his father was adopted into the Itō family along with his household, granting them samurai status, albeit at the lowest rank of ''chūgen'' (foot soldier). After the adoption, Risuke's name was changed to Itō Risuke, then Itō Shunsuke in 1858, and finally to Hirobumi around 1869. The name "Hirobumi" (博文), meaning "extensive learning", was reportedly suggested by Takasugi Shinsaku and derived from '' The Analects of Confucius''.

Yoshida Shōin and early activism

In 1856, Itō was sent for guard duty in Sagami Province. There, in 1857, Kuruhara Ryōzō, a brother-in-law of Kido Takayoshi, recognized Itō's potential and encouraged his intellectual pursuits. Later that year, Itō returned to Chōshū and, with Kuruhara's introduction, enrolled in the Shōka Sonjuku, a private academy run by the influential scholar and activist Yoshida Shōin. The academy was a crucible for many future leaders of the Meiji Restoration, including Takasugi Shinsaku and Yamagata Aritomo.

Yoshida Shōin's execution in the Ansei Purge of 1859 profoundly impacted Itō, who, along with Kido Takayoshi and others, retrieved Yoshida's body for burial. Following this, Itō became deeply involved in the radical '' Sonnō jōi'' (Revere the Emperor, Expel the Barbarians) movement. In 1862, he participated in an unsuccessful plot to assassinate Nagai Uta, a Chōshū official. Later that year, he took part in the burning of the British legation in Edo. Subsequently, along with Yamao Yōzō, he assassinated the Japanese classics scholar Hanawa Jirō Tadatomi, acting on a false report. Takii notes that Itō is the only Japanese prime minister known to have killed a person outside of a battlefield (except for Kuroda Kiyotaka, who was rumored to have killed his wife).

Despite his early immersion in Shōin's ideology, Itō later distanced himself from its radicalism, viewing the anti-Western sentiment of the era as "entirely emotional" and lacking "thoughtful political calculations". He came to admire figures like Nagai Uta for their pragmatic "political strategy", signaling his own developing preference for statesmanship grounded in realism.

Study in Britain and return

Driven by a strong desire for Western knowledge, Itō was selected as one of the Chōshū Five to secretly travel to Britain in 1863 for study, an act that violated the Tokugawa shogunate's ban on overseas travel. The Chōshū Domain's leadership, including Sufu Masanosuke, saw this as crucial for acquiring "human tools" and understanding Western civilization to prepare Japan for future international engagement. Itō and Inoue Kaoru departed Japan on 27 June 1863, arriving in London on 4 November. The five students commenced their studies at University College London, lodging with Professor Alexander Williamson and immersing themselves in English language and Western customs.

Itō's initial period of study in Britain was cut short. After about six months, he and Inoue Kaoru decided to return to Japan upon learning from ''The Times'' about the Bombardment of Shimonoseki by Western powers and the conflict between the Satsuma Domain and a British naval squadron. Their aim was to persuade the Chōshū leaders of the impracticality of expelling foreigners.

This first overseas experience, though brief, proved to be a pivotal moment in Itō's life. He returned to Japan in July 1864, during a period of national crisis. His firsthand knowledge of the West and his newly acquired English skills made him an invaluable asset. Following Chōshū's defeat by the allied Western naval forces at Shimonoseki, Itō played a crucial role as a negotiator in the peace talks. This experience launched his career as a skilled negotiator, a talent Yoshida Shōin had earlier recognized. His time in Britain broadened his perspective beyond narrow domainal loyalties and the anti-foreign movement, fostering an independent spirit and a commitment to "extensive learning" (the meaning of "Hirobumi"). Itō developed a functional command of English, later delivering speeches in the language during the Iwakura Mission and maintaining a habit of reading English publications. He frequently gave interviews to Western media without an interpreter and conducted correspondence in English throughout his career.

Early Meiji statesman

Rise in the Meiji government

After the Meiji Restoration in 1868, Itō's understanding of Western affairs became a significant asset, propelling his career in the new imperial government. In February 1868, he was assigned to a role in foreign affairs. Later that year, he was appointed the first governor of Hyōgo Prefecture, which included the recently opened port of Kobe. This position placed him at the forefront of Japan's diplomatic and international trade activities.

In February 1869, Itō submitted a significant policy paper, "Principles for National Policy" (''Kokuze kōmoku''), also known as the "Hyōgo Proposal". This comprehensive six-point plan advocated for:
# The establishment of a monarchy.
# The centralization of political and military power under imperial rule, which included supporting the return of feudal domains to the emperor (''hanseki hōkan'').
# Active engagement and interaction with foreign countries.
# The elimination of traditional class distinctions and the granting of greater freedom to the populace.
# The promotion of scientific learning and knowledge acquisition from around the world.
# International cooperation and the definitive end of anti-foreignism (''jōi'').
The proposal strongly emphasized the necessity "to let people throughout Japan learn the science behind the scientific achievements of the world, thereby spreading knowledge of the natural sciences". This highlighted Itō's early and enduring focus on education as a cornerstone of national development, reflecting his role as what Takii Kazuhiro terms a "statesman of knowledge". He urged the government to cultivate a "civilized and enlightened" populace and proposed the establishment of universities in Tokyo and Kyoto.

Itō was profoundly influenced by the example of the United States, viewing its founding as a model for creating a unified nation-state where national prosperity was driven by the "united hearts and minds of the people". He advocated for transcending narrow domainal loyalties to forge a cohesive Japanese national identity.

Financial and monetary reforms

In 1870, while serving as deputy vice-minister of finance, Itō traveled to the United States to study its financial and monetary institutions. This investigative tour, which lasted from December 1870 to June 1871, directly influenced the establishment of Japan's New Currency Regulation (''Shinka Jōrei'') in 1871. This landmark legislation placed Japan on the gold standard, aligning its monetary system with those of Western nations. Itō was a fervent champion of this reform, dispatching a memorandum from the U.S. that argued for its adoption based on the successful experience of "civilized Western countries". While the move to the gold standard was considered radical by some contemporaries, Takii notes that the reform also incorporated elements of continuity with Japan's pre-existing monetary framework.

Itō also played a pivotal role in the development of a modern banking system in Japan. He advocated for the creation of a bank of issue, and in December 1872, the National Bank Regulation (''Kokuritsu Ginkō Jōrei'') was promulgated, drawing inspiration from America's National Bank Act. His proposal envisioned a system where national banks would be authorized to issue banknotes backed by government bonds. This was part of a strategy to gradually replace inconvertible paper currency with banknotes convertible into specie. This methodical, step-by-step approach to monetary reform was an early manifestation of the gradualism that would become a hallmark of Itō's broader reform philosophy.

Iwakura Mission and shift to gradualism

From late 1871 to 1873, Itō served as one of four deputy ambassadors in the Iwakura Mission, a comprehensive eighteen-month diplomatic and investigative tour of the United States and Europe. The primary objectives of the mission were to initiate preliminary negotiations for the revision of the unequal treaties imposed on Japan by Western powers and to observe and study various aspects of Western civilization, including political systems, industry, and education. Itō had been a key proponent of such an undertaking, having earlier suggested sending government officials abroad to study treaty revision and related international practices.

During the mission's initial leg in the United States, Itō's English proficiency and confident demeanor were notable, although his assertive style occasionally caused friction with some colleagues, such as Sasaki Takayuki. In January 1872, at a welcoming event in San Francisco, he delivered a widely reported and spirited address, subsequently known as the "rising sun speech" (''hinomaru enzetsu''). In this speech, he proudly described Japan's rapid advancements in adopting Western institutions and proclaimed the nation's strong aspiration to achieve a high level of civilization and take its place among the advanced nations of the world.

A significant diplomatic misstep occurred in Washington D.C. when Itō and fellow deputy ambassador Ōkubo Toshimichi advocated for immediate treaty renegotiation with the United States, deviating from the mission's original plan to engage with Western powers collectively at a later stage. They even returned to Japan briefly to secure the necessary full Letters of Credence for this purpose. However, upon their return to Washington, they discovered that the other mission members, having become aware of the complexities and potential disadvantages of unilateral most-favored-nation clauses, had decided to adhere to the original strategy. This "Letters of Credence Incident" resulted in considerable embarrassment for Itō and significantly strained his relationship with Kido Takayoshi, another influential member of the mission.

Despite this setback, the Iwakura Mission proved to be a profoundly transformative experience for Itō, significantly shaping his political philosophy. His direct observations of political conditions in Europe, including periods of instability in France and the intricacies of Otto von Bismarck's Germany, coupled with his intensive study of Western governmental and legal institutions, particularly in Prussia, led him to a deeper appreciation for the importance of well-established institutions and a more measured, gradual approach to national reform. He was particularly impressed by Kido Takayoshi's systematic and methodical study of various government systems encountered during the tour. This experience solidified Itō's transition from a proponent of more radical reforms to an advocate for gradual, systematic institution-building. He returned to Japan in September 1873, more convinced than ever of Japan's potential for successful modernization, but now firmly believing that gradualism, adapted to Japan's specific conditions, was the most effective path forward.

Father of the Meiji Constitution

Building the foundations (1873–1881)

Upon his return to Japan from the Iwakura Mission in September 1873, Itō was immediately thrust into the intense political debate surrounding the '' Seikanron'' (debate over conquering Korea). He aligned himself with senior leaders like Iwakura Tomomi, Kido Takayoshi, and Ōkubo Toshimichi, who opposed a military expedition to Korea, advocating instead for a focus on domestic development and gradual reform. Following the "Political Crisis of 1873" (''Meiji rokunen seihen''), which saw the resignation of key proponents of the expedition, including Saigō Takamori, Itō was appointed as a councilor ('' sangi'') and concurrently as minister of public works, solidifying his position as a key figure in the government.

In November 1873, Itō, along with Terashima Munenori, was tasked with "investigating constitutional government" (''seitai torishirabe''), marking the formal beginning of Japan's journey towards a written constitution. He was significantly influenced by the ideas of Kido and Ōkubo, both of whom submitted memorials to the throne advocating for the eventual establishment of a constitutional system that would include popular participation, to be achieved through a gradual process. Itō began to formulate concrete plans, proposing the convention of prefectural governors to form a lower assembly and the expansion of an existing imperial advisory body, the ''Jakō-no-ma'', into an upper assembly. These initiatives culminated in the Osaka Conference of 1875, a meeting of key Meiji leaders that resulted in an imperial edict promising the gradual establishment of constitutional government. This edict led to the creation of the Assembly of Prefectural Governors and the Genrōin (Chamber of Elders), institutions Itō saw as precursors to a future parliament.

In an 1880 opinion paper on the future constitution, submitted to Emperor Meiji, Itō reiterated his cautious approach. He advised against hastily establishing a full-fledged parliament, proposing instead a further strengthening of the Genrōin and the introduction of a system of public auditors, selected from the general populace, to oversee fiscal matters and promote transparency. This proposal underscored his commitment to gradualism and his belief that the emperor should publicly demonstrate this principle of measured reform.

Political Crisis of 1881 and European tour

The political landscape underwent a significant upheaval with the "Political Crisis of 1881". Councilor Ōkuma Shigenobu controversially submitted a proposal directly to the throne (or via an intermediary, aiming for direct imperial attention) advocating for the immediate adoption of a British-style parliamentary cabinet system and the rapid establishment of a national assembly, with elections to be held as early as the following year. This move, perceived as a challenge to the established oligarchic leadership and their gradualist approach, combined with public outcry over the "Hokkaido Colonization Office Scandal" (in which government assets were to be sold cheaply to private interests connected to some officials), led to Ōkuma's dismissal from government. A crucial outcome of this crisis was an imperial edict promising the establishment of a National Diet (parliament) by the year 1890. It was also decided that the forthcoming constitution would be primarily modeled on that of Prussia (Germany), rather than the British system favored by Ōkuma.

In March 1882, Itō embarked on an extensive year-and-a-half-long study tour of Europe, with the primary mission of researching various European constitutions and systems of government in preparation for drafting Japan's own. His objective, as Takii Kazuhiro notes, was not merely to study constitutional texts but to understand "how to give living substance to that framework" – to learn how to effectively operate a constitutional state. In Berlin, he attended lectures by the legal scholar Professor Rudolf von Gneist, but found Gneist's emphasis on historical jurisprudence and his skepticism about transplanting constitutional models less directly applicable to Japan's immediate needs. Itō encountered strong anti-parliamentarian sentiments in Germany, with both Gneist and even Kaiser Wilhelm I expressing reservations about the establishment of a powerful parliament, particularly in a nation without a long tradition of such institutions.

A more formative part of his European tour was his time in Vienna, beginning in August 1882, where he studied with the political economist Professor Lorenz von Stein. Stein's ''Staatswissenschaft'' (science of the state) had a profound impact on Itō. Stein's theories emphasized the critical role of effective state administration (''Verwaltung'') as a necessary complement to constitutional government (''Verfassung''), arguing for a system that could reconcile parliamentary mechanisms with the broader public interest and efficient governance of the state. This approach resonated deeply with Itō's pragmatic desire for practical guidelines for establishing and managing a constitutional state. Stein's ideas provided Itō with a sophisticated conceptual framework that moved beyond the abstract natural law theories then popular among some popular rights advocates in Japan, offering instead a model of a state grounded in administrative capacity and historical context. Furthermore, Stein stressed the importance of a robust system of education to support a constitutional state and cultivate an informed citizenry, reinforcing Itō's own belief in the concept of a "knowledge-based state". Itō returned to Japan in August 1883, equipped with new insights and renewed confidence for the task of constitution-making.

Drafting and promulgation, first premiership (1885–1888)

Upon his return from Europe, Itō assumed leadership of the newly established Bureau for Investigation of Constitutional Systems (''Seido Torishirabe Kyoku'') within the Imperial Household Ministry in 1884. This body was specifically created to draft the constitution. He worked closely with a team of legal scholars and officials, including Inoue Kowashi (often considered the principal drafter of the text), Itō Miyoji, and Kaneko Kentarō. While Inoue Kowashi was a strong proponent of the German model, Itō's extensive research across Europe, including his period of study in London, contributed to a broader and more nuanced understanding of constitutional principles. According to Takii Kazuhiro, Itō's overarching goal was to design a state structure that could effectively channel the energy and capabilities of an educated populace, integrating them into the machinery of government.

Several key institutional reforms led by Itō paved the way for the new constitutional order:
* Establishment of the Cabinet System (1885): Itō spearheaded the creation of Japan's modern cabinet system, becoming the nation's first Prime Minister. This reform replaced the traditional Daijōkan (Grand Council of State) system. In principle, it opened cabinet positions to individuals beyond the traditional aristocracy, based on merit and ability.
* Founding of the Imperial University (1886): He established the Imperial University (later the University of Tokyo) with the specific aim of educating and training a competent bureaucratic elite to administer the modern state. Within the university, the ''Kokka Gakkai'' (Society for Staatswissenschaft) was founded, with Itō's support, to serve as a policy research institution and think-tank.
* Creation of the Privy Council (1888): After resigning as Prime Minister in April 1888, Itō became the first president of the Privy Council. This body was initially formed to deliberate on the draft constitution and the Imperial Household Law. Itō envisioned it as a high-level advisory body to the emperor on important political matters, serving to institutionalize the emperor's constitutional role while keeping the monarch separate from direct involvement in day-to-day political affairs and partisan disputes.

The Meiji Constitution was officially promulgated on 11 February 1889. In speeches delivered shortly after the promulgation, Itō emphasized that the constitution was granted by the Emperor, a framework rooted in Japan's unique national polity ('' kokutai'') where sovereignty ultimately resided in the monarch. At the same time, he consistently stressed that the constitution also guaranteed popular participation in government through the Diet and acknowledged the inevitable emergence and role of political parties in a constitutional system. He conceived of a system where the emperor exercised sovereignty in accordance with the provisions of the constitution, with various administrative agencies acting on his behalf and responsible to the state. His underlying vision was for a "people-centered government", where an educated and politically aware populace would contribute to the nation's strength and development. For Itō, the promulgation of the constitution was not an endpoint but rather the foundational framework for the ongoing, gradual evolution of popular and responsible government in Japan.

Continued political career

Worldview and approach to governance

A core element of Itō's worldview was the belief in constant change and evolution in political systems. He recognized that as Japan modernized and its people became more educated and politically aware, the nature of its governance would also need to adapt. While he initially championed a "transcendental" cabinet that stood above partisan politics, his experiences, particularly after the promulgation of the Meiji Constitution, led him to acknowledge the inevitable rise and importance of political parties. In a letter to Inoue Kaoru in August 1889, he criticized the Kuroda Kiyotaka cabinet for its inflexibility and failure to prepare the populace for constitutional government, likening the process of nurturing a civilized nation to cultivating a seed into a healthy plant over many years. This reflects his consistent emphasis on gradualism and the cultivation of an informed citizenry capable of participating in constitutional government.

Itō's approach to governance was pragmatic. He believed that effective leadership required guiding the flow of political change rather than rigidly resisting it, steering the nation towards stable constitutional government. This involved not only establishing institutions but also fostering a "spirit of tolerance", a belief in freedom of speech, and orderly parliamentary proceedings.

Second and third premierships (1892–1896, 1898)

Itō remained a powerful figure even out of the Prime Minister's office, primarily through his leadership of the Privy Council. The first session of the Imperial Diet was held in November 1890. In August 1892, Itō formed his second cabinet, serving as Prime Minister until August 1896. This period was marked by the outbreak of the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895). Following Japan's victory, Itō was involved in the negotiations for the Treaty of Shimonoseki in 1895.

Itō formed his third cabinet in January 1898. During this brief premiership, he expressed his intention to found a political party. However, facing difficulties in managing the government and opposition from figures like Yamagata Aritomo to his party plans, Itō dissolved the House of Representatives in June 1898. Later that month, with the merger of the opposition Liberal and Progressive parties into the Kenseitō, Itō resigned as Prime Minister, recommending that Ōkuma Shigenobu and Itagaki Taisuke form Japan's first party cabinet. This was a significant moment, signaling a shift in Itō's approach towards acknowledging the practical necessity of party-based support for governance.

Relations with China

Itō Hirobumi's engagement with China was a significant, though complex, aspect of his later career, influencing his views on regional stability, economic development, and Japan's role in East Asia. His two-month visit to Korea and China in August–November 1898, undertaken shortly after the dissolution of his third cabinet, proved particularly formative.

During this trip, Itō was warmly received by Chinese reformers, including Kang Youwei, who saw Meiji Japan as a model for China's own modernization. He arrived in Beijing at the height of the Hundred Days' Reform movement, led by the Guangxu Emperor. However, Itō found himself on the fringes of the 1898 coup engineered by Empress Dowager Cixi, which abruptly ended the reforms and led to the persecution of its leaders. While Itō was critical of the reformers' precipitous approach and maintained a cautious distance from their movement, he was deeply concerned by the ensuing political instability and the purge of reformist intellectuals. He intervened to help some reformers, like Liang Qichao, escape to Japan and advocated for the protection of others.

Itō's encounters with prominent Chinese officials like Zhang Zhidong, viceroy of Huguang, were particularly significant. Despite the political turmoil, Itō and Zhang found common ground in their advocacy for gradual reform and their appreciation for Western science and technology, albeit within a framework that respected national context. Itō was particularly interested in Zhang's efforts to develop industry in the Hubei region, including the Hanyang Steel Mill. Their meeting facilitated an agreement for Japan's Yahata Steel Works to obtain iron ore from China's Daye mine, a development that marked the beginning of significant Japan-China economic cooperation in this sector, though it later became a point of contention in imperialistic narratives.

While pessimistic about China's immediate political future due to its internal divisions and the perceived rigidity of its institutions, Itō was highly optimistic about its economic potential. He believed that Japan, as a more advanced nation in the region, had a role to play in fostering economic ties and promoting "civilization" – by which he meant modern science, industry, and rational governance – in China. His vision for Japan involved steering clear of direct political interference in China while actively engaging with its economy, seeing mutual benefit in regional development. He consistently argued against territorial expansion for its own sake, emphasizing that economic prosperity and the exchange of knowledge were more important. However, he also spoke of Japan's "moral obligation" as a "pioneer of modernization" to guide China and Korea, a stance that, while framed in terms of shared progress, carried paternalistic undertones. His experiences in China in 1898 reinforced his belief in a gradual, education-focused approach to modernization and informed his strategy for Japan's engagement with the continent, emphasizing economic cooperation and the cultivation of a "nation of commerce".

Stumping for the Constitution

Following the promulgation of the Meiji Constitution in 1889, Itō embarked on extensive speaking tours across Japan in 1899, the tenth anniversary of the event. His primary aim was to "enlighten the people of his country and help equip them to become members of a constitutional state". These tours were not primarily for partisan political gain but to propagate the ideals of constitutionalism and popular government. He used a sophisticated media strategy, ensuring that reporters from newspapers like the '' Tōkyō Nichinichi Shinbun'' accompanied him, and his speeches were widely disseminated and even compiled into a book.

In these speeches, Itō emphasized that the constitution guaranteed the people's right to participate in government and that a "civilized government" was predicated on an educated and politically aware populace. He argued that as the people's knowledge and intellect grew, their involvement in supervising the government would become essential. He promoted "practical science" and apolitical education, which he believed would foster a competent citizenry capable of contributing to national prosperity and effective governance, rather than engaging in empty political rhetoric. This reflected his long-held belief, first articulated in his 1879 proposal "On Education" (''Kyōiku-gi''), that education should focus on practical skills and knowledge to counteract excessively passionate political debate.

Treaty revision and foreign relations

A major national goal during Itō's career was the revision of the unequal treaties imposed on Japan by Western powers in the mid-19th century. The new treaties, which abolished extraterritoriality and partially restored tariff autonomy, came into effect in July–August 1899. Itō saw this as a momentous occasion, marking Japan's full entry into the international community and the "mixed residence" (''naichi zakkyo'') of Japanese and foreigners. He countered fears of economic invasion by arguing that opening the country would facilitate Japan's economic growth through competition and the absorption of Western knowledge and experience. His primary concern was that Japan should face the world "with the magnanimity of a great nation" and maintain its "civilized" status.

His views on patriotism (''aikokushin'') were pragmatic, emphasizing economic development and national wealth creation over ideological fervor or jingoism. "Without wealth the culture of the people cannot advance", he stated, advocating for patriotism that served practical ends.

Founding of the Rikken Seiyūkai

Despite his earlier advocacy for a "transcendental" cabinet, Itō's thinking on the role of political parties evolved. He became increasingly dissatisfied with the existing state of party politics in Japan, which he viewed as fractious and often detrimental to national harmony and effective governance. His decision to form a new political party stemmed from a desire to reform party politics from within and to create an organization that could support his vision of constitutional government.

In September 1900, Itō founded the Rikken Seiyūkai (Friends of Constitutional Government), becoming its first president. This marked the birth of Japan's first political party capable of taking the reins of government, and it became a dominant force in Japanese politics for decades, eventually evolving into the modern Liberal Democratic Party.

Motivations and ideals

Itō envisioned the Seiyūkai not merely as a vehicle for gaining political power but as a new kind of political organization – a "society" (''kai'') rather than a traditional "party" (''tō''), a term he felt carried connotations of self-serving factions (''hōtō''). He aimed to create an organization that could transcend narrow partisan interests and act for the public benefit. According to Takii Kazuhiro's re-evaluation, the Seiyūkai was part of Itō's broader plan to revamp Japan's administrative system and bureaucracy to meet the demands of a new industrial era and to more fully realize the potential of constitutional government by expanding popular participation. He saw the party as a means to channel the rising political awareness of local leaders, businessmen, and industrialists into constructive engagement with the state.

The Seiyūkai was intended to function as a "think-tank", a repository of knowledge and expertise drawn from various segments of society, capable of formulating sound policies for national development. Itō believed that a responsible party should supply competent personnel to the cabinet and contribute to harmonious governance, rather than simply seeking to control the executive branch.

Formation, fourth premiership (1900–1901)

The formation of the Seiyūkai was not without difficulties. Itō's attempts to rally support from the business and financial communities met with limited success. Prominent figures like Shibusawa Eiichi, while sympathetic to Itō's policies, were hesitant to directly join the party, partly due to a traditional disdain among entrepreneurs for direct political involvement and partly due to interference from established political and business interests, such as those connected to Iwasaki Yanosuke, who was aligned with Ōkuma's Progressive Party. Ultimately, the Seiyūkai was formed largely on the existing organizational base of the Kenseitō (the former Liberal Party faction), led by figures like Hoshi Tōru.

Itō's draft rules for the Seiyūkai emphasized several key principles:
# The Emperor's prerogative in appointing cabinet ministers, with the party not opposing appointments from outside its ranks.
# The cabinet's role as an advisory body to the Emperor and a body of responsible government, free from direct party interference.
# A focus on administrative reform through the selection of competent individuals for government posts, regardless of party affiliation.
# A commitment to acting for the public benefit and avoiding undue involvement in local interests.
# Strong leadership by the party president in public pronouncements and parliamentary activities.
These rules reflected Itō's ideal of a party that maintained a distinction between itself and the cabinet, promoted national unity, and was led with clear authority and discipline. He advocated for a "salon-like" or club-style organization for the party's local branches to encourage broad participation and the free exchange of ideas, while simultaneously insisting on strong central leadership.

Soon after its founding, Itō formed his fourth cabinet in October 1900, with most ministerial posts filled by Seiyūkai members. However, this cabinet was short-lived, plagued by internal disunity and difficulties in managing party members' demands for posts. Itō resigned as Prime Minister in May 1901. He continued as president of the Seiyūkai but faced ongoing challenges in instilling his ideals of party discipline and national-level focus. Disappointment over issues like the government's handling of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance (which he had initially opposed in favor of a Russo-Japanese entente) and internal party conflicts led to his resignation as Seiyūkai president in July 1903. He was succeeded as party leader by Saionji Kinmochi.

Constitutional Reforms of 1907

Even after stepping down from active party leadership, Itō continued to be deeply involved in shaping Japan's constitutional framework. From 1903, as reappointed president of the Imperial Household Research Committee (which he had first headed in 1899), he embarked on a major project of constitutional reforms, culminating in significant legislative changes in 1907. These reforms aimed to consolidate the national structure, clarify the emperor's role, and strengthen the cabinet's authority in governance.

The committee's primary task, under Itō's guidance and with the detailed work of legal scholar Ariga Nagao, was to restructure the imperial household system and integrate it more fully as an organ of the state, rather than a separate entity. This involved revising the Imperial Household Law and establishing a unified system of national laws that clearly positioned the imperial household within the state's constitutional framework. The Kōshikirei Order (Order concerning Forms of Imperial Rescripts, Statutes, and Other State Documents) of 1907 was a key outcome, establishing procedures for issuing imperial edicts and revising fundamental laws, including the Meiji Constitution and the Imperial Household Law itself.

A crucial aspect of these reforms was the effort to bolster the power of the Prime Minister and the cabinet, particularly in relation to the military. The revised Cabinet Organization Order, implemented alongside the Kōshikirei Order, restored the requirement for the Prime Minister to countersign all laws and imperial ordinances, an attempt to curb the military's practice of ''iaku jōsō'' (direct appeal to the emperor on military matters, bypassing the cabinet). Itō envisioned a system of responsible government led by a strong cabinet, with the emperor acting as a constitutional monarch whose prerogatives were exercised in accordance with law and through designated state organs.

However, these efforts to subordinate the military to cabinet control met with strong resistance from army leaders, particularly Yamagata Aritomo. The ensuing compromise resulted in the promulgation of Military Ordinance No. 1 ("On Military Ordinances") in September 1907, which, while intended by some in government (like Home Minister Hara Takashi) to codify and thus limit ''iaku jōsō'', effectively institutionalized the military's right of direct appeal for "supreme command-related matters". This outcome, though a partial setback for Itō's goal of full cabinet supremacy, was seen by him as a step towards clarifying the military's constitutional position, with the ongoing intent to bring military administration under greater legal and cabinet oversight, particularly during his subsequent role in Korea. The 1907 reforms, therefore, represented a complex and somewhat ambiguous development in Meiji constitutionalism, aiming to create a more integrated and powerful state but also inadvertently solidifying a degree of military independence.

Resident-General of Korea

Itō Hirobumi's final major role was as the first Resident-General of Korea, a position he assumed in March 1906 following the establishment of Japan's protectorate over Korea via the Second Japan–Korea Treaty (Eulsa Treaty) in November 1905. This period of his career is among the most controversial, directly preceding Japan's full annexation of Korea in 1910.

Dual role and objectives

During his tenure as Resident-General, Itō simultaneously continued his work on constitutional reforms in Japan as president of the Imperial Household Research Committee. Takii Kazuhiro argues that these two roles were interconnected; Itō's administration in Korea was, in part, an attempt to implement and test his ideas on governance and constitutionalism, particularly regarding the control of the military, which he hoped could serve as a precedent for reforms in Japan.

Itō approached the governance of Korea with a philosophy of "civilization", aiming to modernize the country through gradual reforms in its political, economic, and social structures. He emphasized democracy (popular government), the rule of law, and gradualism as the guiding principles for Korea's development, much as he had for Japan. He believed that an educated populace was key to national advancement and initially expressed hope for Korea's potential for self-government.

Policies and challenges

A central part of Itō's agenda was educational reform. He advocated for the introduction of Western-style practical science and the establishment of a modern education system, aiming to move Korea away from its traditional Confucian-centric learning, which he viewed as anachronistic and detrimental to progress. He sought to depoliticize the Korean imperial court and integrate it into a rationalized state structure, similar to his efforts with the Japanese imperial system.

However, Itō's policies faced immense challenges. His gradualist approach clashed with the growing Korean nationalist movement, which fiercely resisted Japanese interference and sought immediate independence. His efforts to win over Korean intellectuals and Confucian scholars were largely unsuccessful, as his modernization agenda was perceived as an imposition by a foreign power. The Hague Secret Emissary Affair in 1907, where Emperor Gojong attempted to appeal to international powers against the protectorate, led to Gojong's forced abdication and the signing of the Third Japan–Korea Treaty, which significantly expanded the Resident-General's powers and effectively brought Korean domestic administration under Japanese control.

Itō also worked to assert civilian control over the Japanese military garrison in Korea, a continuation of his efforts in Japan to subordinate the military to the cabinet. The ordinance establishing the Residency-General, which Itō himself drafted, granted him the authority to command the Japanese troops in Korea, a rare power for a civilian official. He used this authority to limit military expansion and check arbitrary actions by the army.

Shift towards annexation and resignation

Despite his initial emphasis on reform and gradual development, the persistent Korean resistance and the complex geopolitical situation led Itō to eventually acquiesce to the idea of annexing Korea. While he had previously counseled caution, viewing annexation as "extremely difficult and burdensome", by April 1909, he agreed to the proposal put forward by Foreign Minister Komura Jutarō and Prime Minister Katsura Tarō. This shift is attributed by Takii to Japan's decision to secure Korea in exchange for ceasing its pursuit of interests in Manchuria, a compromise reached amidst international pressures, particularly concerning the Gando territorial dispute with China. For Itō, preventing deeper military entanglement in Manchuria became a paramount concern.

Itō resigned as Resident-General in June 1909. Even as he agreed to annexation, his dictated memo outlined a post-annexation structure for Korea that included a two-house parliament with elected Korean representatives and a responsible cabinet composed of Koreans, supervised by a Japanese viceroy. This suggests that even in the context of annexation, Itō envisioned a degree of Korean autonomy and popular participation, though whether this was a realistic or achievable plan remains debatable.

Assassination

On 26 October 1909, Itō Hirobumi was assassinated at the Harbin railway station in Manchuria. He was there to meet with Vladimir Kokovtsov, a Russian representative, to discuss regional issues, including Manchuria. As Itō stepped off the train, he was shot multiple times by An Jung-geun, a Korean nationalist and independence activist. An viewed Itō as the prime architect of Japan's usurpation of Korean sovereignty and held him responsible for the loss of Korean independence. Itō's death sent shockwaves through Japan and the international community. His assassination removed a powerful, albeit controversial, voice from Japanese politics and is considered by some historians to have accelerated Japan's path towards the full annexation of Korea, which occurred in August 1910.

Legacy

Itō Hirobumi remains a highly significant and complex figure in modern Japanese history. He is widely recognized as a principal architect of the Meiji state, the "father of the Meiji Constitution", and a driving force behind Japan's rapid modernization in the late 19th century. His achievements include the establishment of key institutions such as the cabinet system, the Imperial University, the Diet, and the Privy Council, all of which laid the groundwork for modern Japanese governance. His founding of the Rikken Seiyūkai was a pivotal step in the development of party politics in Japan.

However, his legacy is also deeply controversial, particularly due to his role as Resident-General of Korea and his part in the process that led to Korea's annexation. While some interpretations, such as that of Takii Kazuhiro, emphasize his commitment to gradualism, civilization-building, and constitutionalism, even in his approach to Korea, he is widely viewed in Korea as a symbol of Japanese imperialism.

Takii Kazuhiro's scholarship presents Itō not as an unprincipled opportunist, but as a "statesman of knowledge" (''chi no seijika'') who consistently pursued a vision of a strong, civilized, and constitutional Japanese state. This interpretation highlights Itō's lifelong emphasis on education, the acquisition of practical knowledge, and the gradual development of popular participation in government as essential components of nation-building. His efforts to integrate the imperial institution into a modern constitutional framework and to balance executive power with parliamentary mechanisms were central to his political project.

The complexities of his legacy are reflected in the contrasting ways he is remembered: in Japan, often as a great modernizer, and in Korea, as a key figure in its colonization. His assassination by An Jung-geun is a stark reminder of the deep enmities engendered by Japan's imperial expansion. Reconciling these different facets of Itō Hirobumi's life and impact remains an ongoing task for historians.

Former residence of Itō in Hagi
The house where Itō lived from age 14 in Hagi after his father was adopted by Itō Naoemon still exists, and is preserved as a museum. It is a one-story house with a thatched roof and a gabled roof, with a total floor area of 29 ''tsubo'' and is located 150 meters south of the Shōkasonjuku Academy. The adjacent villa is a portion of a house built by Itō in 1907 in Oimura, Shimoebara-gun, Tokyo (currently Shinagawa, Tokyo). It was a large Western-style mansion, of which three structures, a part of the entrance, a large hall, and a detached room, were transported Hagi. The large hall has a mirrored ceiling and its wooden paneling uses 1000-year old cedar trees from Yoshino. The buildings were collectively designated a National Historic Site in 1932.

On 26 October 1932, the Japanese unveiled in Seoul the Hakubun-ji ( 博文寺) Buddhist Temple dedicated to Prince Itō. Full official name "Prince Itō Memorial Temple (伊藤公爵祈念寺院)". Situated in then Susumu Tadashidan Park on the north slope of Namsan, which after liberation became Jangchungdan Park 장충단 공원. From October 1945, the main hall served as student home, ca. 1960 replaced by a guest house of the Park Chung-Hee administration, then reconstructed and again a student guest house. In 1979 it was incorporated into the grounds of the Shilla Hotel then opened. Several other parts of the temple are still at the site.

Personal life

Itō Hirobumi married Itō Umeko, who was the daughter of Kida Kyūbei of Jōnokoshi, Shimonoseki, in 1866. He had previously been married to Irie Sumiko from 1863, but they divorced in 1866. He had a son-in-law, Suematsu Kenchō, and an adopted son, Yūkichi (1870–1931).

Honours

Japanese

Peerages

*Count (7 July 1884)
*Marquess (5 August 1895)
*Prince (21 September 1907)

Decorations

* Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun (2 November 1877)
* Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun with Paulownia Flowers (11 February 1889)
* Grand Cordon of the Order of the Chrysanthemum (5 August 1895)
* Collar of the Order of the Chrysanthemum (1 April 1906)

Court ranks

*Fifth rank, junior grade (1868)
*Fifth rank (1869)
*Fourth rank (1870)
*Senior fourth rank (18 February 1874)
*Third rank (27 December 1884)
*Second rank (19 October 1886)
*Senior second rank (20 December 1895)
*Junior First Rank (26 October 1909; posthumous)

Foreign

* :
** Knight 1st Class of the Order of the Crown (29 December 1884)
** Grand Cross of the Order of the Red Eagle (22 December 1886); in Brilliants (December 1901)
** : Grand Cross of the Order of the White Falcon (29 September 1882)
* :
** Knight of the Order of the White Eagle (17 September 1883)
** Knight of the Order of St. Alexander Nevsky (19 March 1896); in Brilliants (28 November 1901)
* Sweden-Norway: Commander Grand Cross of the Order of Vasa (25 May 1885)
* : Knight 1st Class of the Order of the Iron Crown (27 September 1885)
* Siam: Grand Cross of the Order of the Crown of Siam (24 January 1888)
* : Grand Cross of the Order of Charles III (26 October 1896)
* : Grand Cordon of the Royal Order of Leopold (4 October 1897)
* : Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour (29 April 1898)
* : Order of the Double Dragon, Class I Grade III (5 December 1898)
* : Honorary Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath (civil division) (14 January 1902)
* : Knight of the Supreme Order of the Most Holy Annunciation (16 January 1902)
* : Grand Cordon of the Order of the Golden Ruler (18 April 1904)

Popular culture

See also

* Japanese students in Britain

References

Works cited

*
* Nish, Ian (1998). ''The Iwakura Mission to America and Europe: A New Assessment''. Richmond, Surrey: Japan Library. . .

Further reading

* Edward, I. "Japan's Decision to Annex Taiwan: A Study of Itō-Mutsu Diplomacy, 1894–95". ''Journal of Asian Studies'' 37#1 (1977): 61–72.
* Hamada Kengi (1936). ''Prince Ito''. Tokyo: Sanseido Co.
* Johnston, John T.M. (1917). ''World Patriots''. New York: World Patriots Co.
* Kusunoki Sei'ichirō (1991). ''Nihon shi omoshiro suiri: Nazo no satsujin jiken wo oe''. Tokyo: Futami bunko.
* Ladd, George T. (1908)
''In Korea with Marquis Ito''
* Nakamura Kaju (1910)
''Prince Ito: The Man and the Statesman: A Brief History of His Life''.
New York: Japanese-American commercial weekly and Anraku Pub. Co.
* Palmer, Frederick (1901). "Marquis Ito: The Great Man of Japan". ''Scribner’s Magazine'' 30(5), 613–621.

External links

*

About Japan: A Teacher's Resource
Ideas about how to teach about Ito Hirobumi in a K–12 classroom
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