The Indus River Delta forms where the

Indus River The Indus ( ) is a transboundary river of Asia and a trans-Himalayas, Himalayan river of South Asia, South and Central Asia. The river rises in mountain springs northeast of Mount Kailash in the Western Tibet region of China, flows northw ...

flows into the

Arabian Sea The Arabian Sea () is a region of sea in the northern Indian Ocean, bounded on the west by the Arabian Peninsula, Gulf of Aden and Guardafui Channel, on the northwest by Gulf of Oman and Iran, on the north by Pakistan, on the east by India, and ...

, mostly in the southern

Sindh Sindh ( ; ; , ; abbr. SD, historically romanized as Sind (caliphal province), Sind or Scinde) is a Administrative units of Pakistan, province of Pakistan. Located in the Geography of Pakistan, southeastern region of the country, Sindh is t ...

province of

Pakistan Pakistan, officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by population, fifth-most populous country, with a population of over 241.5 million, having the Islam by country# ...

with a small portion in the Kutch Region of

India India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, seventh-largest country by area; the List of countries by population (United Nations), most populous country since ...

. The delta covers an area of about , and is approximately across where it meets the sea. The active part of the delta is . The climate is arid, the region only receives between of rainfall in a normal year. The delta is home to the largest arid mangrove forests in the world, as well as many birds, fish and the Indus dolphin. The fifth largest in the world, the Indus Delta is a designated wetland and

Ramsar site A Ramsar site is a wetland site designated to be of international importance under the Ramsar Convention,8 ha (O) *** Permanent 8 ha (P) *** Seasonal Intermittent < 8 ha(Ts) **

creeks or

estuaries An estuary is a partially enclosed coastal body of brackish water with one or more rivers or streams flowing into it, and with a free connection to the open sea. Estuaries form a transition zone between river environments and maritime environm ...

and numerous minor creeks. Major estuaries of the Indus are home to the Indian Ocean humpback dolphin.IndusRIver Delta Dolphins
MarineMammalHabitat.org, accessed 28 Feb 2025. The population of the active part of the delta was estimated at 900,000 in 2003. Most of the population depends on agriculture and fishing. Mangrove forests provide fuel wood. Many former settlements have been abandoned as result of lack of water in the Indus and the encroaching Arabian Sea. The delta faces several issues. Since 1883, due to land erosion and sea intrusion it has shrunk by 92 percent from around to nearly in 2018. Since the 1940s, the delta has received less water as a result of large-scale irrigation works capturing large proportions of the Indus' flow before it reaches the delta. The result has been catastrophic for both the environment and the local population. As a result, the 2010 Pakistan floods were considered "good news" for the ecosystem and population of the river delta as they brought much needed fresh water.

History

According to some accounts, the Macedonian fleet (of

Alexander the Great Alexander III of Macedon (; 20/21 July 356 BC – 10/11 June 323 BC), most commonly known as Alexander the Great, was a king of the Ancient Greece, ancient Greek kingdom of Macedonia (ancient kingdom), Macedon. He succeeded his father Philip ...

) anchored itself for some time in the Indus river delta. It was damaged by a tsunami generated by an earthquake off the Makran Coast in 325 BC. According to ''Tarikh-i-Hind'' (also known as the ''Chach Nama'') by 6th century AD there existed a port called '' Debal'' in what is now the western part of the Indus delta. Debal also seemed to be the base of pirates from the tribe of ''Nagamara''. These pirates' raids against the

Umayyad The Umayyad Caliphate or Umayyad Empire (, ; ) was the second caliphate established after the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and was ruled by the Umayyad dynasty. Uthman ibn Affan, the third of the Rashidun caliphs, was also a membe ...

s, and the refusal to redress the issue by the ruling prince, precipitated the Muslim conquest around 710 AD (by Muhammad bin Qasim). Debal remained a port, and the last recorded mention of it was in 1223 AD. By the time

Ibn Batuta Ibn Battuta (; 24 February 13041368/1369), was a Maghrebis, Maghrebi traveller, explorer and scholar. Over a period of 30 years from 1325 to 1354, he visited much of Africa, the Middle East, Asia and the Iberian Peninsula. Near the end of his ...

reached the Indus delta, Debal had been abandoned due to increased shoaling preventing the then-port from accessing the sea. When the

Abbasid The Abbasid Caliphate or Abbasid Empire (; ) was the third caliphate to succeed the prophets and messengers in Islam, Islamic prophet Muhammad. It was founded by a dynasty descended from Muhammad's uncle, Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib (566–653 C ...

caliphate A caliphate ( ) is an institution or public office under the leadership of an Islamic steward with Khalifa, the title of caliph (; , ), a person considered a political–religious successor to the Islamic prophet Muhammad and a leader of ...

began to disintegrate, the delta came under the control of the increasingly autonomous province centered at Mansura. The eastern part of the delta was even more independent and controlled by the Sumra tribe until 1053 AD, when the region was brought under the control of the Khalji

Delhi Sultanate The Delhi Sultanate or the Sultanate of Delhi was a Medieval India, late medieval empire primarily based in Delhi that stretched over large parts of the Indian subcontinent for more than three centuries.

by Alauddin Khalji. The tribe had several capitals, but none are populated today. In 1333 AD, the Samma Dynasty ruled all of the delta, and established their capital first at ''Samu-i'' (on the south bank of Keenjhar Lake) and later at Thatta. It was during this dynasty that the "golden age of native rule" (1461-1509 AD) happened in the delta and Sindh, under the rule of Jam Nizamuddin II. From 1591 to 1592, the

Mughal empire The Mughal Empire was an Early modern period, early modern empire in South Asia. At its peak, the empire stretched from the outer fringes of the Indus River Basin in the west, northern Afghanistan in the northwest, and Kashmir in the north, to ...

waged a campaign to bring lower Sindh under imperial rule, resulting in the delta coming under the province of

Multan Multan is the List of cities in Punjab, Pakistan by population, fifth-most populous city in the Punjab, Pakistan, Punjab province of Pakistan. Located along the eastern bank of the Chenab River, it is the List of cities in Pakistan by populatio ...

and ruled by Mirza Ghazi Beg. In 1739, the region, along with many others, was ceded to Nadir Shah. The Kalhora ruled the region until 1783. The power then transferred to the Talpurs until the

British East India Company The East India Company (EIC) was an English, and later British, joint-stock company that was founded in 1600 and dissolved in 1874. It was formed to Indian Ocean trade, trade in the Indian Ocean region, initially with the East Indies (South A ...

conquered them in 1839. In 1947, the Indus delta, along with rest of Sindh became a part of Pakistan. Since 1957, the Sindh Forest and Wildlife Department has been tasked with protecting and managing of mangrove-forested area of the Indus delta. In 1973, were transferred to Port Qasim. The Sindh Board of Revenue continues to manage of the area. In December 2010, realizing the importance of mangrove conservation, the Government of Sindh declared all the mangrove forests in the Indus Delta as "Protected Forests", under the Forest Act of 1927. Apart from this action, a Mangrove Conservation Committee, with membership of all the relevant stakeholders has been formed to ensure the sustainable conservation of the Indus Delta Mangroves

Geography

The Indus river started to form some 50 million years ago. 25 million years ago, the Indus Plain was lifted.Haq, 1997, p.67-69

Coastline

The estimated coastline of the Indus delta with the Arabian Sea (the maximum length in the direction of the coast) is approximated at , 220 km, and . Because the Indus river has switched its location at various points in history, it has an "active" delta region, and total delta region (all area that was once a part of the delta). The total area is estimated at , and . The active area is estimated at , and . The length of the total delta along the axis of Indus is estimated at , whereas the current delta stretches from the Arabian Sea to just south of Thatta (~).

Estuaries

Indus Delta has 17 major creeks or

and numerous minor creeks. The estuaries in the Indus delta are spread across

in Pakistan in the west and

Gujarat Gujarat () is a States of India, state along the Western India, western coast of India. Its coastline of about is the longest in the country, most of which lies on the Kathiawar peninsula. Gujarat is the List of states and union territories ...

in India in the east.

Pakistan

Creeks in Indus Delta in Pakistan are listed from west to east as follows, many of which fall within the Keti Bunder South Wildlife Sanctuary which is a

Ramsar site A Ramsar site is a wetland site designated to be of international importance under the Ramsar Convention,8 ha (O) *** Permanent 8 ha (P) *** Seasonal Intermittent < 8 ha(Ts) **

Creeks in Pakistan in Indus Delta
ramsar.org, accessed on 28 Feb 2025. Listed west to east" * Korangi Creek: southeast coastline of

Karachi Karachi is the capital city of the Administrative units of Pakistan, province of Sindh, Pakistan. It is the List of cities in Pakistan by population, largest city in Pakistan and 12th List of largest cities, largest in the world, with a popul ...

. * Phiti Creek: * Kadiro Creek: * Chann Waddo Creek: * Khuddi Creek (Wadhi Khudi Creek): * Khai Creek: * Pitiani Creek (Paitiani Creek, Pittiani Creek, Patiani Creek): * Dabbo Creek (Dhabo Creek): * Sisa Creek: * Chan Creek (Chann Creek): ** Sheeshah Creek: ** Jua Wali Creek: ** Rumwah 1 Creek: * Gorabio Creek: * Hajamro Creek (Hajambro Creek): location of the historical port town Keti Bandar in Thatta District. * Turshian Creek: * Khobar Creek (Keti Creek): Mouth of Indus, designated as the main flow of Indus. ** Chann Chati Creek * Qalandri Creek: * Gaghiar Creek: * Bajari Creek ( Bajri Creek or Bajri Nahar): * Gehbar Creek: * Kahr Creek: * Jongo Jalbani Creek: * Wari Creek: * Mangra Creek: * Bhitiaro Creek: * Kajhar Creek: * Sir Creek: disputed border between India and Pakistan.

India

Great Rann of Kutch lies east of Indus delta. There are six main creeks on the Indian side as listed below west to east:21 months on, BSF still bereft of hi-tech tools to fight nature
The Tribune, 2015. * Sir Creek: disputed between India and Pakistan. * Vian Wari Creek (Vianbari and Viyanbari): ** Harami Dhoro (bastard's stream): name of Vian Vari after it leaves India and enters Pakistan.Away from the LoC, how BSF has secured the natural border between Gujarat and Pakistan
Economic Times 13 July 2018. ** Harami Nala (bastard's stream): name of Vian Vari after it leaves Pakistan and re-enters India. ** Bondho Dhoro channel: enters India further north of Harami Nala in the Sujawal District of Sindh province of Pakistan. *

Pir Sanai Creek Pir or PIR may refer to: Places * Pir, Kerman, a village in Kerman Province, Iran * Pir, Satu Mare, commune in Satu Mare County, Romania Religion * Pir (Sufism), a Sufi teacher or spiritual leader * Pir (Zoroastrianism), pilgrimage site in Pers ...

: * Pabevari Creek: * Padala Creek: southeast of Sir Creek. * Kori Creek: southeast of Sir Creek. Kori, the easternmost creek of Indus Delta, is also the location of Narayan Sarovar and Narayan Sarovar Sanctuary and 18th century Lakhpat Fort - both reachable by the NH-41.

Water volume

The delta receives almost all of its water from the Indus river, which has an annual flow of approximately , and is accompanied by 400 million tonnes of silt. Since the 1940s, dams, barrages and irrigation works have been constructed on the river Indus. (In fact the

World Bank The World Bank is an international financial institution that provides loans and Grant (money), grants to the governments of Least developed countries, low- and Developing country, middle-income countries for the purposes of economic development ...

has characterized the works as the "world's largest" and the Indus Basin Irrigation System as the "largest contiguous irrigation system developed over the past 140 years" anywhere in the world.) This has served to reduce the flow of water and by 1994, the annual flow of water into the delta was , and annual amount of silt discharged was estimated to be . Since 1994, the water flow has decreased as Punjab has been allocated a higher share of the water.

Climate

The climate of the delta is described as arid. It receives only of rain in a normal year. Average temperatures for the delta region range from in July, and in January. During the summer, the delta experiences intense

monsoon A monsoon () is traditionally a seasonal reversing wind accompanied by corresponding changes in precipitation but is now used to describe seasonal changes in Atmosphere of Earth, atmospheric circulation and precipitation associated with annu ...

al winds from the southwest, causing parts of the delta to be covered by sea-water. When this water retreats, it leaves behind salts in the delta's soil. During the winter the winds in the delta come from the northeast. The summer monsoonal winds also contribute to high wave energy levels. In fact, the delta is subjected to the highest

wave In physics, mathematics, engineering, and related fields, a wave is a propagating dynamic disturbance (change from List of types of equilibrium, equilibrium) of one or more quantities. ''Periodic waves'' oscillate repeatedly about an equilibrium ...

action of any river delta in the world. (The amount of wave energy the Indus delta receives in a single day is greater than that received by the Mississippi River Delta in a year.) Throughout history the delta has survived this wave action because of the large discharge of fresh water to counter the

erosion Erosion is the action of surface processes (such as Surface runoff, water flow or wind) that removes soil, Rock (geology), rock, or dissolved material from one location on the Earth's crust#Crust, Earth's crust and then sediment transport, tran ...

al impact of waves. This large amount of wave energy, coupled with lack of silt flowing in from the Indus river (as mentioned above), has resulted in the formation of sand beaches.

Biodiversity

Flora

Mangrove A mangrove is a shrub or tree that grows mainly in coastal saline water, saline or brackish water. Mangroves grow in an equatorial climate, typically along coastlines and tidal rivers. They have particular adaptations to take in extra oxygen a ...

forests are one of the most abundant ecological communities of the delta, but they have declined over the years. According to Haq ''et al.'', they covered an area of until the 1980s and could be found along the entire 240 km coastline, in 40% of the tidal zone, and in 10% of the delta fan. Memon reports that the area of mangrove forests was 263,000 hectares in 1977 and in 1990. Both agree that they were sixth-largest mangrove forests in the world. Previously there had been eight species of mangroves, although only four now remain: ''

Aegiceras corniculatum ''Aegiceras corniculatum'', commonly known as black mangrove, river mangrove, goat's horn mangrove, or khalsi, is a species of shrub or tree mangrove in the primrose family (biology), family, Primulaceae, with a distribution in coastal and estua ...

'', '' Avicennia marina'', '' Ceriops tagal'', and '' Rhizophora mucronata''. Among these ''Avicennia marina'' constitutes 99% of the mangrove population.Haq, Saifullah, 1997, p.333-336 As of 2007, the mangroves of the Indus delta are the largest

desert climate The desert climate or arid climate (in the Köppen climate classification ''BWh'' and ''BWk'') is a dry climate sub-type in which there is a severe excess of evaporation over precipitation. The typically bald, rocky, or sandy surfaces in desert ...

mangrove forests in the world. However the Indus Delta saw an increase in number of mangroves after preservation and plantation initiatives. Mangrove forests of Indus delta now cover an area of around 600, 000 hectares. The mangroves are under control of three different organizations, namely: - Sindh Forest Department (280, 470 Ha) - Port Qasim Authority (64, 400 Ha) - Sindh Board of Revenue (255, 130 Ha) '' Arthrocnemum macrostachyum'' is also found growing in the delta.

Threats

The natural flow of water and fertile sediments from Indus river into the delta has been impeded due to the construction of dams along the river. The reduction of freshwater due to the dams also increases salinity, making the waters of the delta unsuitable for the freshwater species. In case of the Indus dolphin, the damming of the river has isolated the delta dolphin population from those dolphins upstream. The 2010 Pakistan floods were considered "good news" for the ecosystem of the river delta as they brought an excess of much needed fresh water. The Sindh government announced that 8,000 hectares of mangrove forests had been planted, and more plantation was considered (however, the delta has lost 170,000 hectares of mangroves over the past 50 years). The delta faces pollution both from sea and the Indus river. Chemical run-off into the river threatens many species. Most of this chemical run-off consists of agriculture

pesticide Pesticides are substances that are used to control pests. They include herbicides, insecticides, nematicides, fungicides, and many others (see table). The most common of these are herbicides, which account for approximately 50% of all p ...

and fertilizer. The delta faces pollution from the Arabian Sea.

, Pakistan's largest city, releases sewage and discharge from industrial units into the Arabian sea, most of which is untreated. Both Port of Karachi and Port Qasim handle significant shipping traffic, resulting in oil discharge, some of which reaches the delta. All of this pollution lowers the river water quality, causes eutrophication, reducing the amount of habitat. Indus delta has shrunk by 92% since 1833. In light of the threats, Indus Delta was designated a

Ramsar site A Ramsar site is a wetland site designated to be of international importance under the Ramsar Convention,8 ha (O) *** Permanent 8 ha (P) *** Seasonal Intermittent < 8 ha(Ts) **

freshwater Fresh water or freshwater is any naturally occurring liquid or frozen water containing low concentrations of dissolved salts and other total dissolved solids. The term excludes seawater and brackish water, but it does include non-salty mi ...

Population

The population of the delta was estimated at 900,000 in 2003 (the total population of Indus River Delta-Arabian Sea mangroves was 1.2 million). Within the river delta, about 140,000 people (16% of the population) depended on the mangrove forests for their livelihood, and 60% depended on the forests for fuels. At least 75% of the population in the active delta depend on the fishing industry. The population suffers from the lack of health facilities and medical staff. Only about a third of the population has access to clean drinking water. Ethnic groups of lower Sindh can be found in the delta region: Mallaah, Mohano, Soomro, Samma and Jat. All of these groups speak Sindhi and follow

Islam Islam is an Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the Quran, and the teachings of Muhammad. Adherents of Islam are called Muslims, who are estimated to number Islam by country, 2 billion worldwide and are the world ...

The delta falls within the districts of Thatta and Badin of the Sindh province. Pakistan's fifth largest city,

Hyderabad Hyderabad is the capital and largest city of the Indian state of Telangana. It occupies on the Deccan Plateau along the banks of the Musi River (India), Musi River, in the northern part of Southern India. With an average altitude of , much ...

, lies about 130 miles north of the mouths of the Indus. Towns are found throughout the delta, but there are no large cities on the delta south of Hyderabad. Karachi, Pakistan's largest city, lies west of the delta on the coast of the Arabian Sea. The 2010 floods displaced nearly 1 million people in southern Sindh, including those living in the delta. In spite of this displacement and other destruction caused in the rest of Pakistan, however, many people in the delta considered the floods as "good news". Villagers reported abundance of fresh water for drinking and agriculture. Fishermen reported increase in catches.

Economy

The economy of the delta consists of agriculture and fishing. As of 2005, more than 140,000 hectares of land were used for agriculture, mostly used to cultivate

rice Rice is a cereal grain and in its Domestication, domesticated form is the staple food of over half of the world's population, particularly in Asia and Africa. Rice is the seed of the grass species ''Oryza sativa'' (Asian rice)—or, much l ...

, followed by

sugarcane Sugarcane or sugar cane is a species of tall, Perennial plant, perennial grass (in the genus ''Saccharum'', tribe Andropogoneae) that is used for sugar Sugar industry, production. The plants are 2–6 m (6–20 ft) tall with stout, jointed, fib ...

and

wheat Wheat is a group of wild and crop domestication, domesticated Poaceae, grasses of the genus ''Triticum'' (). They are Agriculture, cultivated for their cereal grains, which are staple foods around the world. Well-known Taxonomy of wheat, whe ...

Barley Barley (), a member of the grass family, is a major cereal grain grown in temperate climates globally. It was one of the first cultivated grains; it was domesticated in the Fertile Crescent around 9000 BC, giving it nonshattering spikele ...

gram The gram (originally gramme; SI unit symbol g) is a Physical unit, unit of mass in the International System of Units (SI) equal to one thousandth of a kilogram. Originally defined in 1795 as "the absolute Mass versus weight, weight of a volume ...

, oil seeds,

maize Maize (; ''Zea mays''), also known as corn in North American English, is a tall stout grass that produces cereal grain. It was domesticated by indigenous peoples in southern Mexico about 9,000 years ago from wild teosinte. Native American ...

millet Millets () are a highly varied group of small-seeded grasses, widely grown around the world as cereal crops or grains for fodder and human food. Most millets belong to the tribe Paniceae. Millets are important crops in the Semi-arid climate, ...

cotton Cotton (), first recorded in ancient India, is a soft, fluffy staple fiber that grows in a boll, or protective case, around the seeds of the cotton plants of the genus '' Gossypium'' in the mallow family Malvaceae. The fiber is almost pure ...

, and jowar are other important crops. Fruits such as

coconut The coconut tree (''Cocos nucifera'') is a member of the palm tree family (biology), family (Arecaceae) and the only living species of the genus ''Cocos''. The term "coconut" (or the archaic "cocoanut") can refer to the whole coconut palm, ...

, mango, fig, pomegranate,

apple An apple is a round, edible fruit produced by an apple tree (''Malus'' spp.). Fruit trees of the orchard or domestic apple (''Malus domestica''), the most widely grown in the genus, are agriculture, cultivated worldwide. The tree originated ...

peach The peach (''Prunus persica'') is a deciduous tree first domesticated and Agriculture, cultivated in China. It bears edible juicy fruits with various characteristics, most called peaches and the glossy-skinned, non-fuzzy varieties called necta ...

, melon,

banana A banana is an elongated, edible fruit – botanically a berry – produced by several kinds of large treelike herbaceous flowering plants in the genus '' Musa''. In some countries, cooking bananas are called plantains, distinguishing the ...

, guava and papaya are also reportedly grown. The delta also used to have large pastures for livestock grazing. As of 2003, fishing was an important source of revenue. Catches of mangrove dependent fish were valued at $20 million annually, shrimp at $70 million and mud crabs at $3 million.

Migration

As a result of resource degradation, a large exodus of people has taken place from the Indus delta. Altaf Memom estimates that 90,000 have been displaced and about 120 villages have been depopulated. One reason give is the shortage of local bushes and plants that are used for preparing various materials (especially by the Jat villagers). Others have migrated due to lack of potable drinking water. The Pakistan Fisherfolk Forum estimates that 14,400 people from the delta coast, majority of them fishermen, are amongst those that have left. Kharochan, until the 1970s was a bustling city in the delta. Its port was used to export locally grown silk, rice and wood. However, rising salinity destroyed the local agriculture and the port was lost to the encroaching Arabian sea by 2006.

Sustainable development

In 2009, the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) constructed a large water reservoir, of capacity , in Tippin village (at Keti Bandar) and a few plastic storage tanks (with a capacity of 4,000 litres). It also set up 200-watt solar panels to supply electricity to a school. Finally it installed two 500-watt wind turbines. Electricity was previously unavailable due to high cost of establishing power lines in the difficult-to-access area. In 2010, Sindh Radiant Organization (in partnership with WWF) installed a solar-powered desalination plant developed by the Pakistan Council of Scientific and Industrial Research in the village of Jat Mohammad. The plant is capable of providing 40 gallons of drinking water every day. While the plant is not enough to meet the needs of the entire village, Pakistan's Ministry of Science and other NGOs have shown interest in replicating it to alleviate water shortages in the delta.Research and Development Foundation
a Pakistani NGO, has also started implementing solar desalination in six villages in Thatta with funding from Oxfam. The

United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific United may refer to: Places * United, Pennsylvania, an unincorporated community * United, West Virginia, an unincorporated community Arts and entertainment Films * ''United'' (2003 film), a Norwegian film * ''United'' (2011 film), a BBC Two f ...

has estimated the potential of generating 100KW of electricity by harnessing the power of tidal currents along of the delta's coastline.

Pakistan-India conflict

Pakistani fishermen in the delta have increasingly faced detention for accidentally straying over into Indian waters while fishing. Fishermen have been forced to fish near the border as a result of destruction of ecosystems elsewhere in the delta. Because the boundaries between India and Pakistan are poorly demarcated in some areas (e.g. Sir Creek), fishermen often don't know when they've crossed the border. NGOs say that under Indian laws, fisherman can face, at most, three months in prison and a $12 fine. However, most are jailed for a year, and their boats are sold at an auction. Indian fishermen crossing into Pakistan face a similar fate.

Satellite view

References

;Citations ;Bibliography * * * *

External links

Indus River Delta
at the World Wildlife Fund {{Authority control Landforms of Pakistan Landforms of Sindh Landforms of Gujarat Indus basin Indus River Ramsar sites in Pakistan River deltas of Asia Water pollution in Pakistan

History

Geography

Coastline

Estuaries

Pakistan

India

Water volume

Climate

Biodiversity

Flora

Threats

Population

Economy

Migration

Sustainable development

Pakistan-India conflict

Satellite view

See also

References

External links