East Asian Yogācāra
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East Asian Yogācāra refers to the
Mahayana Mahāyāna ( ; , , ; ) is a term for a broad group of Buddhist traditions, Buddhist texts#Mahāyāna texts, texts, Buddhist philosophy, philosophies, and practices developed in ancient India ( onwards). It is considered one of the three main ex ...
Buddhist traditions in
East Asia East Asia is a geocultural region of Asia. It includes China, Japan, Mongolia, North Korea, South Korea, and Taiwan, plus two special administrative regions of China, Hong Kong and Macau. The economies of Economy of China, China, Economy of Ja ...
which developed out of the Indian Buddhist
Yogācāra Yogachara (, IAST: ') is an influential tradition of Buddhist philosophy and psychology emphasizing the study of cognition, perception, and consciousness through the interior lens of meditation, as well as philosophical reasoning (hetuvidyā). ...
(lit. "yogic practice") systems (also known as ''Vijñānavāda'', "the doctrine of consciousness" or ''Cittamātra'', "mind-only"). In East Asian Buddhism, this school of Buddhist
idealism Idealism in philosophy, also known as philosophical realism or metaphysical idealism, is the set of metaphysics, metaphysical perspectives asserting that, most fundamentally, reality is equivalent to mind, Spirit (vital essence), spirit, or ...
was known as the "Consciousness-Only school" (). The 4th-century
Gandhara Gandhara () was an ancient Indo-Aryan people, Indo-Aryan civilization in present-day northwest Pakistan and northeast Afghanistan. The core of the region of Gandhara was the Peshawar valley, Peshawar (Pushkalawati) and Swat valleys extending ...
n brothers, Asaṅga and
Vasubandhu Vasubandhu (; Tibetan: དབྱིག་གཉེན་ ; floruit, fl. 4th to 5th century CE) was an influential Indian bhikkhu, Buddhist monk and scholar. He was a philosopher who wrote commentary on the Abhidharma, from the perspectives of th ...
, are considered the classic founders of Indian Yogacara school.Siderits, Mark, ''Buddhism as philosophy'', 2017, p. 146. The East Asian tradition developed through the work of numerous Buddhist thinkers working in Chinese. They include Bodhiruci, Ratnamati, Huiguang, Paramārtha, Jingying Huiyuan, Zhiyan,
Xuanzang Xuanzang (; ; 6 April 6025 February 664), born Chen Hui or Chen Yi (), also known by his Sanskrit Dharma name Mokṣadeva, was a 7th-century Chinese Bhikkhu, Buddhist monk, scholar, traveller, and translator. He is known for the epoch-making ...
and his students Kuiji, Woncheuk and Dōshō. The East Asian consciousness only school is traditionally seen as being divided into two main branches. There is the Dharma nature schools (''Fǎxìng zōng'', 法性), which refers to the earliest traditions to develop in China, like Dilun and Shelun, as well as to their specific doctrinal position which often blends buddha-nature thought with Yogācāra. The other branch is the "Dharma Characteristics school" (''Fǎxiàng-zōng''), which is mostly used to refer specifically to the tradition of Xuanzang and tends to focus much more strictly on mainstream Yogācāra philosophy.


Names

In
Chinese Buddhism Chinese Buddhism or Han Buddhism ( zh, s=汉传佛教, t=漢傳佛教, first=t, poj=Hàn-thoân Hu̍t-kàu, j=Hon3 Cyun4 Fat6 Gaau3, p=Hànchuán Fójiào) is a Chinese form of Mahayana Buddhism. The Chinese Buddhist canonJiang Wu, "The Chin ...
, the overall Yogācāra tradition is mostly called ''Wéishí-zōng'' (, yusik) which is a translation of the
Sanskrit Sanskrit (; stem form ; nominal singular , ,) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in northwest South Asia after its predecessor languages had Trans-cultural ...
''Vijñānavādin'' ("cognition only", "mere consciousness"). The consciousness-only view is the central philosophical tenet of the school which states that ontologically there are only '' vijñāna'' (consciousness, mental events). Yogācāra may also be referred to as ''Yújiāxíng Pài'' (瑜伽行派), a direct translation of the Sanskrit term Yogācāra ("Yogic praxis"). The term ''Fǎxiàng-zōng'' ("dharma characteristics", ) was first applied to a branch of Yogacara by the Huayan scholar Chengguan, who used it to characterize the teachings of the school of
Xuanzang Xuanzang (; ; 6 April 6025 February 664), born Chen Hui or Chen Yi (), also known by his Sanskrit Dharma name Mokṣadeva, was a 7th-century Chinese Bhikkhu, Buddhist monk, scholar, traveller, and translator. He is known for the epoch-making ...
and the '' Cheng Wei Shi Lun'' as provisional, dealing with the characteristics of phenomena or
dharma Dharma (; , ) is a key concept in various Indian religions. The term ''dharma'' does not have a single, clear Untranslatability, translation and conveys a multifaceted idea. Etymologically, it comes from the Sanskrit ''dhr-'', meaning ''to hold ...
s. As such, this name was an outside term used by critics of the school, which eventually was adopted by Weishi nevertheless. Another lesser known name for the school i''s Yǒu Zōng'' ( "School of Existence"). Yin Shun also introduced a threefold classification for Buddhist teachings which designates this school as ''Xūwàng Wéishí Xì'' ( "False Imagination Mere Consciousness System"). In opposition to the "Dharma characteristics" view, the term Dharma nature school (''Fǎxìng zōng'', 法性) is used to refer to a form of Yogācāra which blends Yogācāra with buddha-nature (tathagatagarbha) thought, especially with the doctrines of texts like the '' Awakening of Faith.'' This term would include schools like Dilun, Shelun, Chan, and Huayan, who affirm basic Yogācāra principles like mind-only, while also promoting metaphysical views which are not strictly compatible with orthodox Yogācāra.


Characteristics

Like the Indian parent Yogācāra school, the East Asian Weishi tradition teaches that reality is only consciousness, and rejects the existence of mind-independent objects or matter. Instead, Weishi holds that all phenomena (dharmas) arise from the mind. In this tradition, deluded minds distort the ultimate truth, and project false appearances of independent subjects and objects (which is termed the imagined nature). In keeping with Indian Yogācāra tradition, Weishi divides the mind into
Eight Consciousnesses The Eight Consciousnesses (Skt. ''aṣṭa vijñānakāyāḥ'') are a classification developed in the tradition of the Yogacara, Yogācāra school of Mahayana Buddhism. They enumerate the five sense consciousnesses, supplemented by the mental ...
and the Four Aspects of Cognition, which produce what we view as reality. The analysis of the eighth, the ālayavijñana, or store-consciousness (阿賴耶識) which is at the root of all experience, is a key feature of all forms of Weishi Buddhism. This root consciousness is also held to be the carrier of all karmic seeds (種子). Another central doctrinal schema for the Weishi traditions is the schema of the three natures (三性). The central canonical texts of Weishi Buddhism are the classic Indian sutras associated with Yogācāra, such as the '' Saṃdhinirmocana-sūtra'' and the '' Daśabhūmikasūtra,'' as well as the works associated with
Maitreya Maitreya (Sanskrit) or Metteyya (Pali), is a bodhisattva who is regarded as the future Buddhahood, Buddha of this world in all schools of Buddhism, prophesied to become Maitreya Buddha or Metteyya Buddha.Williams, Paul. ''Mahayana Buddhism: Th ...
, Asanga and
Vasubandhu Vasubandhu (; Tibetan: དབྱིག་གཉེན་ ; floruit, fl. 4th to 5th century CE) was an influential Indian bhikkhu, Buddhist monk and scholar. He was a philosopher who wrote commentary on the Abhidharma, from the perspectives of th ...
, including the '' Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra'', '' Mahāyānasaṃgraha'', '' Viṃśatikā,'' ''Triṃśikā'', and the ''Xianyang shengjiao lun'' (顯揚聖教論, T 1602.31.480b-583b). Besides these Indic works, the '' Chéng Wéishì Lùn'' (成唯識論'', The Demonstration of Consciousness-only'') compiled by Xuanzang is also a key work of the tradition. There are different sub-sects of the East Asian Weishi, including the early "Dharma-nature" schools such as Dilun and Shelun, the school of Xuanzang, as well as Korean and Japanese branches of Weishi.


History in mainland Asia

Translations of Indian Yogācāra texts were first introduced to China in the early fifth century. Among these was Guṇabhadra's translation of the '' Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra'' in four fascicles, which would also become important in the early history of
Chan Buddhism Chan (; of ), from Sanskrit '' dhyāna'' (meaning " meditation" or "meditative state"), is a Chinese school of Mahāyāna Buddhism. It developed in China from the 6th century CE onwards, becoming especially popular during the Tang and Song ...
. Another early set of translations where two texts by Dharmakṣema (Ch: Tan Wuchen 曇無讖; 385–433): the ''Bodhisattvabhūmi-sūtra'' (''Pusa di chi jing'' 菩薩地持經; ''Stages of the Bodhisattva Path''), and the ''Bodhisattva Prātimokṣa'' (which contains excerpts from the ''Yogācārabhūmi''). The earliest Yogacara traditions were the Dilun ('' Daśabhūmika'') and Shelun ('' Mahāyānasaṃgraha'') schools, which were based on Chinese translations of Indian Yogacara treatises. The Dilun and Shelun schools followed traditional Indian Yogacara teachings along with tathāgatagarbha (i.e. buddha-nature) teachings, and as such were really hybrids of Yogācāra and tathāgatagarbha. While these schools were eventually eclipsed by other Chinese Buddhist traditions, their ideas were preserved and developed by later thinkers, including the Korean monks Woncheuk (–696) and Wohnyo, and the patriarchs of the Huayan school like Zhiyan (602–668), who himself studied under Dilun and Shelun masters and Fazang (643–712).King Pong Chiu (2016). ''Thomé H. Fang, Tang Junyi and Huayan Thought: A Confucian Appropriation of Buddhist Ideas in Response to Scientism in Twentieth-Century China,'' p. 53. BRILL.


Dilun school

The Dilun or Daśabhūmikā school (
Sanskrit Sanskrit (; stem form ; nominal singular , ,) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in northwest South Asia after its predecessor languages had Trans-cultural ...
. Chinese: 地論宗;
pinyin Hanyu Pinyin, or simply pinyin, officially the Chinese Phonetic Alphabet, is the most common romanization system for Standard Chinese. ''Hanyu'' () literally means 'Han Chinese, Han language'—that is, the Chinese language—while ''pinyin' ...
''di lun zong,'' "School of the Treatise on the Bhūmis") was a tradition that derived from the translators Bodhiruci (Putiliuzhi 菩提流支; d. 527) and Ratnamati (Lenamoti 勒那摩提; d.u.). Both translators worked on Vasubandhu's ''Shidijing lun'' (十地經論, Sanskrit: ''*Daśabhūmi-vyākhyāna'' or ''*Daśabhūmika-sūtra-śāstra, "Commentary on the Daśabhūmikasūtra"''), producing a translation during the
Northern Wei Wei (), known in historiography as the Northern Wei ( zh, c=北魏, p=Běi Wèi), Tuoba Wei ( zh, c=拓跋魏, p=Tuòbá Wèi), Yuan Wei ( zh, c=元魏, p=Yuán Wèi) and Later Wei ( zh, t=後魏, p=Hòu Wèi), was an Dynasties of China, impe ...
.Makeham, John. ''Transforming Consciousness: Yogacara Thought in Modern China'', p. 6. Oxford University Press, 2014 Bodhiruci and Ratnamati ended up disagreeing on how to interpret Yogacara doctrine and thus, this tradition eventually split into northern and southern schools. During the Northern and Southern Dynasties era this was the most popular Yogacara school. The northern school followed the interpretations and teachings of Bodhiruci (6th century CE) while the southern school followed Ratnamati. Modern scholars argue that the influential treatise called the '' Awakening of Faith'' was written by someone in the northern Dilun tradition of Bodhiruci. Ratnamati also translated the '' Ratnagotravibhāga'' (究竟一乘寶性論 Taisho no. 1611), an influential buddha-nature treatise.Brunnhölzl, Karl (2015). ''When the Clouds Part: The Uttaratantra and Its Meditative Tradition as a Bridge between Sutra and Tantra'', p. 94. Shambhala Publications. According to Hans-Rudolf Kantor, one of the most important doctrinal differences and points of contention between the southern and northern Dilun schools was "the question of whether the ālaya-consciousness is constituted of both reality and purity, and is identical with the pure mind (Southern Way), or whether it comprises exclusively falsehood, and is a mind of defilements giving rise to the unreal world of sentient beings (Northern Way)." According to Daochong (道寵), a student of Bodhiruci and the main representative of the northern school, the storehouse consciousness is not ultimately real and buddha-nature is something that one acquires only after attaining Buddhahood (that is, the storehouse consciousness ceases and transforms into the buddha-nature). On the other hand, the southern school of Ratnamatiʼs student Huiguang (慧光) held that the storehouse consciousness was real and synonymous with buddha-nature, which is immanent in all sentient beings like a jewel in a trash heap. Other important figures of the southern school were Huiguangʼs disciple Fashang (法上, 495–580), and Fashangʼs disciple Jingying Huiyuan (淨影慧遠, 523–592). This school's doctrine was later passed on to the Huayan school via Zhiyan. An important founding figure of the southern Dilun, Huiguang (468–537) was the leading disciple of Ratnamati, who composed various commentaries, including: ''Commentary on the Ten Grounds Sutra'' (十地論疏 (Shidilun shu), ''Commentary on the Flower Garland Sutra'' (華嚴經疏 Huayanjing shu), ''Commentary on the Nirvana Sutra'' (涅槃經疏 Niepanjing shu) and ''Commentary on the Sutra of Queen Srimala'' (人王經疏 Renwangjing shu).


Shelun school

During the sixth century CE, the Indian monk and translator Paramārtha (Zhendi 真諦; 499–569) widely propagated Yogācāra teachings in China. His translations include the '' Saṃdhinirmocana Sūtra'', the '' Madhyāntavibhāga-kārikā'', the '' Triṃśikā-vijñaptimātratā'', Dignāga’s ''Ālambana-parīkṣā'' (''Wu xiang si chen lun'' 無相思塵論), the '' Mahāyānasaṃgraha'' and the ''Viniścayasaṃgrahaṇī'' (Juedingzang lun 決定藏論; a part of the a Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra). Paramārtha also taught widely on the principles of Consciousness Only, and developed a large following in southern China. Many monks and laypeople traveled long distances to hear his teachings, especially those on the ''Mahāyānasaṃgraha''. This tradition was known as the Shelun school (摂論宗, ''Shelun zong'').Keng Ching and Michael Radich
"Paramārtha." ''Brill's Encyclopedia of Buddhism. Volume II: Lives''
edited by Jonathan A. Silk (editor-in chief), Richard Bowring, Vincent Eltschinger, and Michael Radich, 752-758. Leiden, Brill, 2019.
The most distinctive teaching of this school was the doctrine of the "pure consciousness" or "immaculate consciousness" (''amalavijñāna'', Ch: ''amoluoshi'' 阿摩羅識 or ''wugou shi'' 無垢識).Radich, Michael.
The Doctrine of *Amalavijnana in Paramartha (499-569), and Later Authors to Approximately 800 C.E.
' ''Zinbun'' 41:45-174 (2009)  Copy  BIBTEX
Lusthaus, Dan (1998), Buddhist Philosophy, Chinese. In: ''Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', p. 84. Taylor & Francis. Paramārtha taught that there was a pure and permanent (''nitya'') consciousness that is unaffected by
suffering Suffering, or pain in a broad sense, may be an experience of unpleasantness or aversion, possibly associated with the perception of harm or threat of harm in an individual. Suffering is the basic element that makes up the negative valence (psyc ...
or mental afflictions, is not a basis for the defilements (unlike the ''
ālayavijñāna The Eight Consciousnesses (Skt. ''aṣṭa vijñānakāyāḥ'') are a classification developed in the tradition of the Yogacara, Yogācāra school of Mahayana Buddhism. They enumerate the five sense consciousnesses, supplemented by the mental ...
''), but rather is a basis for the noble path (''āryamārga''). Thus, the immaculate consciousness is the purifying counteragent to all the defilements. According to Paramārtha, at the moment of enlightenment, one experiences a “transformation of the basis” (''āśrayaparāvṛtti'') which leads to the cessation of the storehouse consciousness, leaving only the immaculate consciousness. Some texts attributed to Paramārtha also state that the perfected nature (''pariniṣpannasvabhāva'') is equivalent to the ''amalavijñāna.'' Furthermore, some sources attributed to Paramārtha also identify the immaculate consciousness with the “innate purity of the mind” (prakṛtiprabhāsvaracitta), which links the idea with the doctrine of
Buddha nature In Buddhist philosophy and Buddhist paths to liberation, soteriology, Buddha-nature (Chinese language, Chinese: , Japanese language, Japanese: , , Sanskrit: ) is the innate potential for all Sentient beings (Buddhism), sentient beings to bec ...
.


Xuanzang's school

By the time of
Xuanzang Xuanzang (; ; 6 April 6025 February 664), born Chen Hui or Chen Yi (), also known by his Sanskrit Dharma name Mokṣadeva, was a 7th-century Chinese Bhikkhu, Buddhist monk, scholar, traveller, and translator. He is known for the epoch-making ...
(602 – 664), Yogācāra teachings had already been propagated widely in China, but there were many conflicting interpretations among the different schools. At the age of 33, Xuanzang made a dangerous journey to India in order to study Buddhism there and to procure Buddhist texts for translation into Chinese. He sought to put an end to the various debates in Chinese consciousness-only Buddhism by obtaining all the key Indian sources and receiving direct instruction from Indian masters. Xuanzang's journey was later the subject of legend and eventually fictionalized as the classic Chinese novel ''
Journey to the West ''Journey to the West'' () is a Chinese novel published in the 16th century during the Ming dynasty and attributed to Wu Cheng'en. It is regarded as one of the Classic Chinese Novels, great Chinese novels, and has been described as arguably the ...
'', a major component of East Asian popular culture from
Chinese opera Traditional Chinese opera (), or ''Xiqu'', is a form of musical theatre in China with roots going back to the early periods in China. It is an amalgamation of various art forms that existed in ancient China, and evolved gradually over more tha ...
to Japanese television ('' Monkey Magic''). Xuanzang spent over ten years in India traveling and studying under various Buddhist masters. These masters included Śīlabhadra, the abbot of the Nālandā Mahāvihāra, who was then 106 years old. Xuanzang was tutored in the Yogācāra teachings by Śīlabhadra for several years at Nālandā. Upon his return from India, Xuanzang brought with him a wagon-load of Buddhist texts, including important Yogācāra works such as the '' Yogācārabhūmi-śastra''. In total, Xuanzang had procured 657 Buddhist texts from India. Upon his return to China, he was given government support and many assistants for the purpose of translating these texts into Chinese. As an important contribution to East Asian Yogācāra, Xuanzang composed the treatise '' Cheng Weishi Lun'', or "Discourse on the Establishment of Consciousness Only." This work is framed around
Vasubandhu Vasubandhu (; Tibetan: དབྱིག་གཉེན་ ; floruit, fl. 4th to 5th century CE) was an influential Indian bhikkhu, Buddhist monk and scholar. He was a philosopher who wrote commentary on the Abhidharma, from the perspectives of th ...
's '' Triṃśikā-vijñaptimātratā'' ("Thirty Verses on Consciousness Only") but it draws on numerous other sources and Indian commentaries to Vasubandhu's verses to create a doctrinal summa of Indian consciousness only thought. This work was composed at the behest of Xuanzang's disciple Kuiji, and became a central representation of East Asian Yogācāra. Xuanzang also promoted devotional meditative practices toward
Maitreya Maitreya (Sanskrit) or Metteyya (Pali), is a bodhisattva who is regarded as the future Buddhahood, Buddha of this world in all schools of Buddhism, prophesied to become Maitreya Buddha or Metteyya Buddha.Williams, Paul. ''Mahayana Buddhism: Th ...
Bodhisattva In Buddhism, a bodhisattva is a person who has attained, or is striving towards, '' bodhi'' ('awakening', 'enlightenment') or Buddhahood. Often, the term specifically refers to a person who forgoes or delays personal nirvana or ''bodhi'' in ...
. Xuanzang's disciple Kuiji wrote a number of important commentaries on the Yogācāra texts and further developed the influence of this doctrine in China, and was recognized by later adherents as the first true patriarch of the school. His ''Cheng weishi lun shuji'' (成唯識 論述記; Taishō no. 1830, vol. 43, 229a-606c) is a particularly important text for the Weishi school.Lusthaus, Dan (undated). ''Quick Overview of the Faxiang School'' (). Source

(accessed: December 12, 2007)
After Xuanzang, the second patriarch of the Weishi school was Hui Zhao. According to A.C. Muller "Hui Zhao 惠沼 (650-714), the second patriarch, and Zhi Zhou 智周 (668-723), the third patriarch, wrote commentaries on the ''Fayuan yulin chang'', the ''Lotus Sūtra'', and the ''Madhyāntavibhāga''; they also wrote treatises on Buddhist logic and commentaries on the ''Cheng weishi lun''." Another important figure is Yijing (monk), Yijing 義淨 (635–713), who traveled to India in imitation of Xuanzang. He translated several works of Vinaya, as well as Yogācāra commentaries by Dharmapāla on Dignāga’s '' Ālambana-parīkṣā'' and on Vasubandhu’s '' Viṃśikā''.


Wŏnch’ŭk's school and Korean Yogācāra

While the lineage of Kuiji and Hui Zhao was traditionally considered the "orthodox" tradition of Xuanzang's school, there were also other lineages of this tradition which differed in their interpretations from Kuiji's sect. Perhaps the most influential heterodox group was a group of Yogācāra (Korean: Beopsang) scholars from the Korean Silla kingdom, mainly: Wŏnch’ŭk, Tojŭng, and Taehyŏn (大賢). Wŏnch’ŭk (圓測, 613–696) was a Korean student of Xuanzang as well as a disciple of the Shelun master Fachang (567–645).Wŏnch’ŭk
i
''The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism'', 996–97.
Princeton University Press, 2014.
He composed various texts, including ''Haesimmilgyǔng so'' (C. ''Jieshenmi jing shu''), an influential commentary to the ''Saṃdhinirmocanasūtra'' which was even translated to Tibetan and is known as the "Great Chinese Commentary" to Tibetans. This work later influenced Tibetan scholars like Tsongkhapa. Wŏnch’ŭk's interpretations often differ from that of the school of Xuanzang and instead promotes ideas closer to those of the Shelun school, such as the doctrine of the "immaculate consciousness" (''amalavijñāna'') and the idea that the ''ālayavijñāna'' was essentially pure. Due to this, Wŏnch’ŭk's work was criticized by the disciples of Kuiji.Buswell, Robert E. (2004). ''Encyclopedia of Buddhism'', 'Wŏnch'ŭk', p. 903. Volumes 1,2. Macmillan Reference. Wŏnch’ŭk's tradition came to be known as the Ximing tradition (since he resided at Ximingsi monastery), and it was contrasted with Kuiji's tradition, also called the Ci'en tradition after Kuiji's monastery at Da Ci'ensi. While in China, Wŏnch’ŭk took as a disciple a Korean-born monk named Tojŭng (), who travelled to
Silla Silla (; Old Korean: wikt:徐羅伐#Old Korean, 徐羅伐, Yale romanization of Korean, Yale: Syerapel, Revised Romanization of Korean, RR: ''Seorabeol''; International Phonetic Alphabet, IPA: ) was a Korean kingdom that existed between ...
in 692 and propounded and propagated Woncheuk's exegetical tradition there where it flourished. In Korea, these Beopsang teachings did not endure long as a distinct school, but its teachings were frequently included in later schools of thought and also studied by Japanese Yogācāra scholars. Another influential figure in Korean Yogācāra is Wŏnhyo (元曉 617–686). While he usually seen as a Huayan scholar, he also wrote many works on Yogācāra and according to Charles Muller "if we look at Wŏnhyo’s oeuvre as a whole, along with accounts of his life, his involvement in Yogācāra studies looms large, and in fact, in terms of sheer quantity, forms the largest portion of his work."Muller, A. Charles. "Introduction: Yogācāra Studies of Silla." ''Journal of Korean Religions'' Vol. 11, No. 1 (April 2020): 5–21 6 2020 Institute for the Study of Religion, Sogang University, Korea. His work was influential on later Chinese figures like Fazang.


Dharma characteristics vs Dharma nature debates

With the rise of other Sinitic Mahayana schools to prominence, like Huayan and Chan, the Yogacara tradition of Xuanzang came under some doctrinal criticism.Hamar, Imre, 2007. “A Huayan Paradigm for the Classification of Mahāyāna Teachings: The Origin and Meaning of Faxingzong and Faxiangzong.” In Imre Hamar, ed. ''Reflecting Mirrors: Perspectives on Huayan Buddhism''. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, pp. 195–220. Sinitic schools like Huayan were influenced by the buddha-nature and ekayana (one vehicle) teachings, especially the doctrines of the '' Awakening of Faith''. They were thus connected with the teachings of the Dilun and Shelun schools.King Pong Chiu (2016). ''Thomé H. Fang, Tang Junyi and Huayan Thought: A Confucian Appropriation of Buddhist Ideas in Response to Scientism in Twentieth-Century China,'' p. 53. BRILL. As such, their doctrines differed in significant ways from that of the school of Xuanzang. The scholars of the Huayan school like Fazang (643–712), Chengguan (738–839), and Zongmi (780–841), critiqued the school of Xuanzang, which they termed "Faxiang-zong" (dharma-characteristics school, a term invented by Chengguan), on various points.Gregory, Peter N. ''Tsung-mi and the Sinification of Buddhism,'' p. 189. University of Hawaii Press, 2002. A key contention was that Xuanzang's school failed to understand the true Dharma-nature (Ch: fa-xin, dharmata or tathata, i.e. the buddha-nature, the one mind of the ''Awakening of Faith''), even if they did understand the nature of dharmas (fa-xiang). According to Dan Lusthaus, "This distinction became so important, that every Buddhist school originating in East Asia, including all forms of Sinitic Mahayana, viz. T' ien-t' ai, Hua-yen, Ch'an, and
Pure Land Pure Land is a Mahayana, Mahayana Buddhist concept referring to a transcendent realm emanated by a buddhahood, buddha or bodhisattva which has been purified by their activity and Other power, sustaining power. Pure lands are said to be places ...
, came to be considered Dharma-nature schools." The Huayan school sees the Dharma nature as dynamic and responding to conditions (of sentient beings), it also sees the Dharma nature (the buddha-nature, original enlightenment) as the basis and source of samsara ''and''
nirvana Nirvana, in the Indian religions (Jainism, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Sikhism), is the concept of an individual's passions being extinguished as the ultimate state of salvation, release, or liberation from suffering ('' duḥkha'') and from the ...
. As such, Huayan scholars like Zongmi critiqued the view of the Xuanzang "Faxiang" school which held that the Dharma nature ( suchness) was "totally inert" and "unchanging" in favor of the view found in the ''Awakening of Faith'' which sees the one mind (the dharma nature) as having ''both'' an unconditioned and a conditioned aspect. This conditioned aspect of the dharma nature is an active and dynamic aspect out of which all pure and impure dharmas arise. As Imre Hamar explains:
The issue at stake is the relationship between the Absolute and phenomena. Is the tathata, the Absolute, dependent arising, or is it immovable? Does the Absolute have anything to do with the phenomenal world? According to the interpretation of the final teaching of Mahayana (i.e. Faxingzong), the Absolute and phenomena can be described with the 'water and wave' metaphor. Due to the wind of ignorance, waves of phenomena rise and fall, yet they are not different in essence from the water of the Absolute. In contrast with this explanation, the elementary teaching of Mahayana (i.e. Faxiangzong) can be presented by the metaphor of 'house and ground' . The ground supports the house but is different from it.
Another key distinction and point of debate was the nature of the alayavijñana. For Xuanzang's school, the alayavijñana is a defiled consciousness, while the so called "Dharma-nature" position (following the ''Awakening of Faith'') is that the alaya has a pure untainted aspect (which is buddha-nature) as well as an impure aspect. The schools which were more aligned with the "Dharma-nature" position (like Huayan, Tiantai and Chan) also affirmed the ultimate truth of the one vehicle, while the Xuanzang school affirms the difference among the three vehicles. They also reject Xuanzang's view that states that there is a certain class of very deluded beings called icchantikas who can never become Buddhas. The Xuanzang school also maintained the Five Natures Doctrine () which was seen as provisional and as being superseded by the one vehicle teaching by schools like Huayan and Tiantai.


Later history

After the third patriarch, the influence of the school of Xuanzang declined, though it continued to be studied at certain key centers, such as Chang’an, Mt. Wutai, Zhendingfu (now)
Shijiazhuang Shijiazhuang; Mandarin: ; formerly known as Shimen and romanized as Shihkiachwang is the capital and most populous city of China's Hebei Province. A prefecture-level city southwest of Beijing, it administers eight districts, three county-le ...
), and
Hangzhou Hangzhou, , Standard Mandarin pronunciation: ; formerly romanized as Hangchow is a sub-provincial city in East China and the capital of Zhejiang province. With a population of 13 million, the municipality comprises ten districts, two counti ...
.Makeham, John. ''Transforming Consciousness: Yogacara Thought in Modern China'', p. 10. Oxford University Press, 2014 The Weishi (consciousness-only) school survived into the Song and Yuan dynasties, but as a minor school with little influence. However its texts have remained important sources for the study of Yogācāra thought down to today. The Xuanzang school's influence declined due to competition with other Chinese Buddhist traditions such as Tiantai, Huayan, Chan and
Pure Land Buddhism Pure Land Buddhism or the Pure Land School ( zh, c=淨土宗, p=Jìngtǔzōng) is a broad branch of Mahayana, Mahayana Buddhism focused on achieving rebirth in a Pure land, Pure Land. It is one of the most widely practiced traditions of East Asi ...
. Nevertheless, classic Yogācāra philosophy continued to exert an influence, and Chinese Buddhists of other schools relied on its teachings to enrich their own intellectual traditions. An important later figure associated with Yogācāra studies was the syncretic Chan scholar monk Yongming Yanshou (904–975), who wrote some commentaries on Yogācāra texts. During the Ming dynasty, two scholars also wrote Weishi commentaries: Mingyu 明昱 (1527–1616) and Zhixu 智旭 (1599–1655). Other Yogācāra teachings remained popular in Chinese Buddhism, such as devotion to the
bodhisattva In Buddhism, a bodhisattva is a person who has attained, or is striving towards, '' bodhi'' ('awakening', 'enlightenment') or Buddhahood. Often, the term specifically refers to a person who forgoes or delays personal nirvana or ''bodhi'' in ...
Maitreya Maitreya (Sanskrit) or Metteyya (Pali), is a bodhisattva who is regarded as the future Buddhahood, Buddha of this world in all schools of Buddhism, prophesied to become Maitreya Buddha or Metteyya Buddha.Williams, Paul. ''Mahayana Buddhism: Th ...
(who was associated with the tradition and is seen as the founder of Yogācāra). Various later Chinese figures promoted Maitreya devotion as a
Pure Land Pure Land is a Mahayana, Mahayana Buddhist concept referring to a transcendent realm emanated by a buddhahood, buddha or bodhisattva which has been purified by their activity and Other power, sustaining power. Pure lands are said to be places ...
practice and as a way to receive teachings in visions. Hanshan Deqing (1546–1623) was one figure who describes a vision of Maitreya.


Modern revival

The 20th century saw a revival in Weishi studies in China. Important figures in this revival include Yang Wenhui (1837-1911), Taixu, Liang Shuming, Ouyang Jingwu (1870–1943), Wang Xiaoxu (1875-1948), and Lu Cheng.Makeham, John. ''Transforming Consciousness: Yogacara Thought in Modern China'', Oxford University Press, 2014Hammerstrom, Erik J.
“The Expression "The Myriad Dharmas are Only Consciousness"
in Early 20th Century Chinese Buddhism.” (2010).
Weishi studies was also revived among Japanese philosophers like Inoue Enryō. Modern Chinese thinkers of the Weishi studies revival also discussed
Western philosophy Western philosophy refers to the Philosophy, philosophical thought, traditions and works of the Western world. Historically, the term refers to the philosophical thinking of Western culture, beginning with the ancient Greek philosophy of the Pre ...
(especially Hegelian and Kantian thought) and modern
science Science is a systematic discipline that builds and organises knowledge in the form of testable hypotheses and predictions about the universe. Modern science is typically divided into twoor threemajor branches: the natural sciences, which stu ...
in terms of Yogacara thought. In his 1929 book on the history of Chinese Buddhism, Jiang Weiqiao wrote: Ouyang Jian founded the Chinese Institute of Inner Studies (), which provided education in Yogācāra teachings and the Prajñāparamita sūtras, given to both monastics and laypeople. Many modern Chinese Buddhist scholars are second-generation descendants of this school or have been influenced by it indirectly. New Confucian thinkers also participated in the revival of Weishi studies.Aviv, E. (2020). "Chapter 3 The Debate over the Awakening of Faith in Mahāyāna". In ''Differentiating the Pearl from the Fish-Eye''. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. New Confucians like
Xiong Shili Xiong Shili (, 1885 – May 23, 1968) was a Chinese essayist and philosopher whose major work ''A New Treatise on Vijñaptimātra'' (新唯識論, ''Xin Weishi Lun'') is a Confucian critique of the Buddhist ''Vijñapti-mātra'' "consciousnes ...
, Ma Yifu,
Tang Junyi Tang Chun-I or Tang Junyi (, 17 January 1909 – 2 February 1978) was a Chinese philosopher who was one of the leading exponents of New Confucianism. Born in Sichuan, he moved to Hong Kong in 1949 due to the establishment of the People's Rep ...
and
Mou Zongsan Mou Zongsan (; 12 June 1909 – 12 April 1995) was a Chinese philosopher and translator. He was born in Shandong province and graduated from Peking University. In 1949 he moved to Taiwan, and later Hong Kong, remaining outside of mainland China ...
, were influenced by the philosophy of Indian Yogācāra philosophy, and by the thought of the '' Awakening of Faith,'' though their work also critiqued and modified Weishi philosophy in various ways''.'' The work of Xiong Shili was particularly influential in the establishment of what is now called
New Confucianism New Confucianism () is an intellectual movement of Confucianism that began in the early 20th century in Republic of China (1912–1949), Republican China, and further developed in post-Mao era People's Republic of China, contemporary China. I ...
. His ''A New Treatise on Vijñaptimātra'' (新唯識論, ''Xin Weishi Lun'') draws on Yogacara and Confucian thought to construct a new philosophical system.


History in Japan


Early period

The Consciousness-Only teachings were transmitted to Japan as "Hossō-shū" (法相宗, Japanese for "Faxiang School"), and they made considerable impact. There were various key figures who established early Hossō in Japan. One of them was Dōshō 道昭 (629–749), a student of Xuanzang from 653 to 660. Dōshō and his students Gyōki and Dōga followed the "orthodox" texts and teachings of Xuanzang's school and transmitted these to Japan at Gangōji Temple.Green, Ronald S. Chanju Mun. ''Gyōnen’s Transmission of the Buddha Dharma in Three Countries'', pp. 59-60. BRILL, 2018. Other important figures who also studied under Xuanzang were Chitsu and Chitatsu. Together with Dōshō they defended the orthodox interpretations of Kuiji. Another line of transmission was that of Chihō, Chiran, and Chiyu (all three visited Korea and then China c. 703), as well as the later figures Gien / Giin (653-728) and Genbō (d. 746). This tradition is known as the "Northern Temple transmission" since the lineage came to be based at Kōfuku-ji.Green, Ronald S. Chanju Mun. ''Gyōnen’s Transmission of the Buddha Dharma in Three Countries'', pp. 60-62. BRILL, 2018. This tradition was known to follow the teachings of the school of the Korean monk Wŏnch’ŭk in contrast to the "southern temple" tradition of Gangōji. The northern and southern temple traditions debated each other for centuries over their varying interpretations (Kuiji's "orthodoxy" vs the views of the Silla Korean masters and their commentaries).Green, Ronald S. (2020). Early Japanese Hosso in Relation to Silla Yogacara in Disputes between Nara'€™s Northern and Southern Temple Traditions. ''Journal of Korean Religions'', 11(1), 97–121. doi:10.1353/jkr.2020.0003 These debates can be found in various later Hossō doctrinal sources, including: ''Record of the Light of the Lamp of Hossō'' (''Hossō tōmyō ki'' 法相燈明記; 815) by Zen’an, ''Summary of the School of the Weishi lun'' (''Yuishikiron dōgakushō'' 唯識論同學鈔) by Ryōsan 良算 (1202–?) and ''Chapters Providing a Brief Study of the Mahāyāna Yogācāra'' (''Daijō hossō kenjinshō'' 大乘法相硏神章序) by Gomyō (750–834). Hossō was an influential school during the
Heian period The is the last division of classical Japanese history, running from 794 to 1185. It followed the Nara period, beginning when the 50th emperor, Emperor Kammu, moved the capital of Japan to Heian-kyō (modern Kyoto). means in Japanese. It is a ...
. Hossō scholars also frequently debated with other emerging schools of Japanese Buddhism at the time. Both the founder of
Shingon is one of the major schools of Buddhism in Japan and one of the few surviving Vajrayana lineages in East Asian Buddhism. It is a form of Japanese Esoteric Buddhism and is sometimes called "Tōmitsu" (東密 lit. "Esoteric uddhismof Tō- ...
,
Kūkai , born posthumously called , was a Japanese Buddhist monk, calligrapher, and poet who founded the Vajrayana, esoteric Shingon Buddhism, Shingon school of Buddhism. He travelled to China, where he studied Tangmi (Chinese Vajrayana Buddhism) und ...
, and the founder of Tendai, Saichō, exchanged letters of debate with Hossō scholar Tokuitsu. Saichō condemned the school for not accepting the one vehicle teaching of the '' Lotus Sutra'', which was seen as a provisional teaching in Hossō. Kukai, who became an influential figure at
Nara The National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) is an independent agency of the United States government within the executive branch, charged with the preservation and documentation of government and historical records. It is also task ...
, was more conciliatory with Hossō, and maintained amicable relations with the tradition. After Kukai, Shingon scholar monks often studied and commented on Hossō sources, while Hossō monks adopted Shingon ritual practices. However, over time, the universalist doctrine of the Tendai school won out and the Hossō position (which held that only some beings can become Buddhas and some beings called icchantikas have no hope for awakening) became a marginal view.Ford, James L. (2006). ''Jokei and Buddhist Devotion in Early Medieval Japan.'' Oxford University Press, USA. pp. 35-68.


Kamakura revival and modernity

The tumultuous
Kamakura period The is a period of History of Japan, Japanese history that marks the governance by the Kamakura shogunate, officially established in 1192 in Kamakura, Kanagawa, Kamakura by the first ''shōgun'' Minamoto no Yoritomo after the conclusion of the G ...
(1185–1333), saw a revival (fukkō) and reform (kaikaku) of Hossō school teachings, which was led by figures like Jōkei (1155–1213) and Ryōhen.Ford, James L. (2006). ''Jokei and Buddhist Devotion in Early Medieval Japan.'' Oxford University Press, USA. pp. 35-68. The reformed doctrines can be found in key sources like ''Jō yuishiki ron dōgaku shō'' (''A Collaborative Study of the Treatise on Consciousness-only''), Jōkei's ''Hossōshū shoshin ryakuō'' and Ryōhen's ''Kanjin kakumushō'' (''Summation on Contemplating the Mind and Awakening from a Dream''). A key element of Jōkei's teachings is the idea that even though the five classes of beings and the one vehicle teaching are relatively true, they are not ultimately so (since all phenomena are ultimately empty, non-dual and "neither the same nor different"). He also affirms that even icchantikas can attain enlightenment, since they will never be abandoned by the Buddhas and their compassionate power (which is not bound by causal laws). In a similar fashion, Ryōhen writes:
Thus it should be remembered that in our school the doctrine of one vehicle and the doctrine of five groups of sentient beings are regarded as being equally true, for the doctrine of one vehicle is formulated from the standpoint that recognizes the unchangeable quality of the underlying substance of dharrnas, whereas the doctrine of the five groups of sentient beings has its roots in the distinctiveness of conditioned phenomena.… Thus, since our standpoint is that the relationship between the absolute and conditioned phenomena is one of “neither identity nor difference,” both the concept of one vehicle as well as the concept of five groups of sentient beings are equally valid.
During the Kamakura, several new Buddhist schools were founded, with the various Pure Land sects derived from Hōnen becoming especially popular. As a novice monk, Hōnen had studied with Hossō scholars, but he later debated them while promoting his Pure land path. Jōkei was among Hōnen's toughest critics. Jōkei is also known for popularizing the devotional aspects of Hossō, and for working to make it accessible to a wider audience.Ford, James L. (2006). ''Jokei and Buddhist Devotion in Early Medieval Japan.'' Oxford University Press, USA. pp. 69-71. Jōkei promoted devotion to various figures, like Shakyamuni, Kannon, Jizo, and
Maitreya Maitreya (Sanskrit) or Metteyya (Pali), is a bodhisattva who is regarded as the future Buddhahood, Buddha of this world in all schools of Buddhism, prophesied to become Maitreya Buddha or Metteyya Buddha.Williams, Paul. ''Mahayana Buddhism: Th ...
, as well as numerous practices, like various nenbustu seeking birth in a pure land, dharani, precepts, liturgy ( koshiki), rituals, lectures, worship of relics, etc. His pluralist and eclectic teachings thus offer a contrast to the more exclusive Kamakura schools who focused on one Buddha ( Amitabha) or one practice (
nembutsu file:玉里華山寺 (21)南無阿彌陀佛古碑.jpg, 250px, Chinese Nianfo carving The Nianfo ( zh, t=wikt:念佛, 念佛, p=niànfó, alternatively in Japanese language, Japanese ; ; or ) is a Buddhist practice central to East Asian Buddhism. ...
etc.). For Jōkei, difference and diversity matters and people are not all the same (on the relative level), and thus it is not true that one practice or one Buddha is suitable for everyone. However, like the
Pure Land Pure Land is a Mahayana, Mahayana Buddhist concept referring to a transcendent realm emanated by a buddhahood, buddha or bodhisattva which has been purified by their activity and Other power, sustaining power. Pure lands are said to be places ...
schools, Jōkei stressed the importance of relying on the "other power" (of a Buddha or bodhisattva) and of birth in a
pure land Pure Land is a Mahayana, Mahayana Buddhist concept referring to a transcendent realm emanated by a buddhahood, buddha or bodhisattva which has been purified by their activity and Other power, sustaining power. Pure lands are said to be places ...
(Jōkei stressed the pure land of Maitreya), as well as practices that were accessible to less elite practitioners. Jōkei is also a leading figure in the efforts to revive monastic discipline at places like Tōshōdai-ji, Kōfuku-ji and counted other notable monks among his disciples, including Eison, who founded the Shingon Risshu sect. Although a relatively small Hossō sect exists in Japan to this day, its influence diminished due to competition from newer Japanese Buddhist schools like Zen and Pure Land. During the
Meiji period The was an era of Japanese history that extended from October 23, 1868, to July 30, 1912. The Meiji era was the first half of the Empire of Japan, when the Japanese people moved from being an isolated feudal society at risk of colonizatio ...
, as tourism became more common, the Hossō sect was the owner of several famous temples, notably Hōryū-ji and Kiyomizu-dera. However, as the Hossō sect had ceased Buddhist study centuries prior, the head priests were not content with giving part of their tourism income to the sect's organization. Following the end of World War II, the owners of these popular temples broke away from the Hossō sect, in 1950 and 1965, respectively. The sect still maintains Kōfuku-ji and Yakushi-ji.


Notes


Bibliography

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * {{Authority control History of Buddhism in China Buddhism in the Nara period History of Buddhism in Korea East Asian religions Yogacara