Hunan Army troops commanded by General
Zeng Guofan, were dispatched by him under Gen. Liu Songshan to Shaanxi to help General Zuo, who had already raised a 55,000-man army in Hunan before he began the final push to reconquer Gansu from the Dungan rebels. They participated along with other regional armies (the Sichuan, Anhui and Henan Armies also joined the battle).
Zuo's forces consisted of the Hunan, Sichuan, Anhui and Henan Armies, along with thousands of cavalry. The Hunan soldiers were expert marksmen and excelled in battlefield maneuvers under the command of Gen. Liu Songshan. Western military drill was experimented with, but Zuo decided to abandon it. The troops practiced "twice a day for ten days" with their western made guns.
The Lanzhou Arsenal was established in 1872 by Zuo Zongtang during the revolt and staffed by Cantonese. The Cantonese officer in charge of the arsenal was Lai Ch'ang, who was skilled at artillery.
The facility manufactured "steel rifle-barreled breechloaders" and provided munitions for artillery and guns.
The Muslim Jahriyya leader
Ma Hualong controlled a massive Muslim trading network with many traders, having control over trade routes to multiple cities over various kinds of terrain. He monopolized trade in the area and used his wealth to purchase guns. Zuo Zongtang became suspicious of Ma's intentions, thinking that he wanted to seize control over the whole of Mongolia.
Liu Songshan died in combat during an offensive against the hundreds of rebel forts protected by difficult terrain. Liu Jintang, his nephew, took over his command whereupon a temporary lull in the offensive set in.
After suppressing the revolt in Shaanxi and building up enough grain reserves to feed his army, Zuo attacked Ma Hualong. General
Liu Jintang led the siege, bombarding the town over its walls with shells. The people of the town had to cannibalize dead bodies and eat grass roots to survive. Zuo's troops reached Ma's stronghold, Jinjibao () in what was then north-eastern Gansu
in September 1870, bringing
Krupp siege guns with him. Zuo and Lai Ch'ang themselves directed the artillery fire against the city. Mines were also utilized.
After a sixteen-month siege, Ma Hualong was forced to surrender in January 1871. Zuo sentenced Ma and over eighty of his officials to
death by slicing. Thousands of Muslims were exiled to other parts of China.
Zuo's next target was Hezhou (now known as
Linxia), the main center of the Hui people west of Lanzhou and a key point on the trade route between Gansu and
Tibet
Tibet (; ''Böd''; ), or Greater Tibet, is a region in the western part of East Asia, covering much of the Tibetan Plateau and spanning about . It is the homeland of the Tibetan people. Also resident on the plateau are other ethnic groups s ...
. Hezhou was defended by the Hui forces of
Ma Zhan'ao. As a pragmatic member of the Khafiya (Old Teaching) sect, he was ready to explore avenues for peaceful coexistence with the Qing government. When the revolt broke out, Ma Zhan'ao escorted Han Chinese to safety in Yixin, and did not attempt to conquer more territory during the revolt.
After successfully repulsing Zuo Zongtang's initial assault in 1872 and inflicting heavy losses on Zuo's army, Ma Zhan'ao offered to surrender his stronghold to the Qing, and provide assistance to the dynasty for the duration of the war. He managed to preserve his Dungan community with his diplomatic skill. While Zuo Zongtang pacified other areas by exiling the local Muslims (with the policy of "
washing off the Muslims" () approach that had been long advocated by some officials), in Hezhou, the non-Muslim Han were the ones Zuo chose to relocate as a reward for Ma Zhan'ao and his Muslim troops helping the Qing crush Muslim rebels. Hezhou (Linxia) remains heavily Muslim to this day, achieving the status of
Linxia Hui Autonomous Prefecture
Linxia Hui Autonomous Prefecture ( zh, s=临夏回族自治州 , t=臨夏回族自治州 , p=Línxià Huízú Zìzhìzhōu, Xiao'erjing: ), formerly known as Hezhou (河州) and Baohan (枹罕), is located in Gansu, Gansu Province, south of the pro ...
under the
PRC. Other Dungan generals including
Ma Qianling and
Ma Haiyan also defected to the Qing side along with Ma Zhan'ao. Ma's son
Ma Anliang
Ma Anliang (, French romanization: Ma-ngan-leang, Xiao'erjing: ; 1855 – November 24, 1918) was a Hui people, Hui born in Linxia City, Hezhou, Gansu, China. He became a general in the Qing dynasty army, and of the Republic of China (1912 ...
also defected, and their Dungan forces assisted Zuo Zongtang's Qing forces in crushing the rebel dungans.
Dong Fuxiang also defected to the Qing. He was in no sense a fanatical Muslim or even interested in revolt, he merely gained support during the chaos and fought, just as many others did. He joined the Qing army of
Zuo Zongtang in exchange for a Mandarinate. He acquired estates which were large.
Reinforced by the Dungan people of Hezhou, Zuo Zongtang planned to advance westward along the
Hexi Corridor toward Xinjiang. However, he felt it necessary to first secure his left flank by taking
Xining, which not only had a large Muslim community of its own, but also sheltered many of the refugees from Shaanxi.
In the eleventh year of the Tongzhi reign (August 1872), Liu Jintang led his army deep into enemy territory, adopting strategies of steady advancement and dividing forces to encircle and suppress, to confront the rebel forces commanded by Bai Yanhu and Bi Dacai. Facing harassment and defenses from the Hui Muslim armed forces, he split his troops to set up camps, strengthened defenses, continuously adjusted deployments, and commanded multiple units to successively attack hills, fortresses, and mountain passes. The government troops engaged in several fierce firefights with the enemy, relying on artillery and coordinated infantry and cavalry to suppress enemy positions. They repeatedly defeated the Hui Muslim forces, killing large numbers of enemy soldiers, and several times lured the enemy deep to encircle and annihilate them.
During the battles, Liu Jintang skillfully maneuvered and utilized the terrain to counterattack the rebels' sieges. Coordinating with artillery superiority, he continuously broke through the Hui Muslim defensive lines, ultimately forcing the main enemy forces to retreat and burning their strongholds. Through several days of combat, the government troops won successive victories in various locations, severely damaging the backbone of the Hui Muslim forces. They gradually drove the enemy away from important strongholds and ultimately secured control of the war zone.
In early August, Liu Jintang led his troops to launch encirclement and suppression of the Hui Muslim forces in places like Guanyintanggou and Xiakou. Yu Huen and He Zuolin engaged the enemy multiple times, defeating and killing several hundred Hui Muslim soldiers and capturing enemy leaders. The Hui forces under Bai Yanhu and Yu Deyan divided their troops to attack, relying on dangerous terrain to set up fortifications and stubbornly resist. Liu Jintang ordered ambushes along different routes and bombarded the enemy fortifications, successfully capturing Shika. Subsequently, the government troops heavily damaged the Hui forces at Gaojianggou, annihilating a large number of enemies. The government troops fortified their camps, repelled multiple joint attacks by Hui Muslim infantry and cavalry, and intercepted and killed fleeing enemies at river crossings. By late August, they had killed or captured over two thousand Hui Muslim soldiers.
At this time, Hui Muslim leader Ma Guiyuan conspired with his associates to mobilize Hui Muslims, planning to unite in resistance against the government troops. Han Chinese in Xining city took the opportunity when he led the Hui troops out of the city to seal the city and defend it, appointing Guo Xiangzhi and others to take charge of defense. Upon learning this, Liu Jintang was determined to resolutely eliminate the rebels to prevent them from taking advantage of the autumn harvest to expand the rebellion and to stabilize the situation in Xining.
On August 24, several thousand Hui Muslim infantry divided into two groups: one directly attacked Li Shuangliang's defensive camp, and the other moved out from Yancaigou to block the government troops. Liu Jintang led Xiong Longming and others to meet the enemy, defeating the Hui forces outside the camp. Tan Heyi and other units arrived; realizing they were outmatched, the Hui forces withdrew back into the valley. The government troops took the opportunity to press the pursuit, causing a major rout among the Hui forces. That night, the government troops set up ambushes, but the Hui forces did not come out again.
On August 25, over a thousand Hui Muslim troops from Yangjiaowan attacked Tan Shanglian's camp. He Zuolin and others assisted in repelling the Hui forces. Liu Jintang ordered the construction of fortifications and artillery positions for defense.
On August 26, the Hui forces did not come out. The government troops bombarded their camp, and the Hui forces abandoned their positions and fled. The next day, the government troops set up ambushes, lured the Hui forces down from the mountain, and routed them.
On August 28, the government troops continued to set up ambushes, and the Hui forces did not dare to come out. Liu Jintang dispatched troops at night to Yancaigou. On the 29th, the government troops feigned defeat to lure the Hui forces deeper; the ambush troops suddenly emerged, pursuing and killing the Hui forces for over ten miles. In the evening, they occupied the Hui forces' camp. The next day, they found over five hundred Hui Muslim corpses, captured local Hui leaders, and learned that Hui Muslim leaders Bai Yanhu and Ma Zhenyuan were wounded, but the Hui forces were still stubbornly resisting.
On September 5, Shi Long Xiqing led the Sui Ding Battalion to repel the Hui forces at Guo'er Fort. Subsequently, they occupied the Hui forces' camp at Shagou but were unexpectedly besieged by a large group of Hui forces, suffering heavy casualties. Battalion officer Li Enling was killed in action. Upon hearing the news, Liu Jintang dispatched cavalry the next day to rush to the rescue. After fierce battles, they relieved the siege, and Long Xiqing withdrew back to the camp.
On September 8, two groups of Hui forces from Xiaxia attacked the government troops. Liu Jintang ordered Deng Zeng to open fire and rout the enemy, then led troops in pursuit, causing the Hui forces to retreat to the mountain peaks. After September 10, Liu Jintang ordered each battalion to repair bridges and build fortifications to ensure the smooth flow of grain supplies to Weiyuan Fort. On the 14th, Hui cavalry came from Guanyintanggou to attack. The government troops relied on fortifications to resist. Xiong Longming and other units urgently reinforced; the Hui forces were repelled and were encircled and pursued, resulting in several hundred beheadings and ten captures. On September 16, the Hui forces harassed Pingrong Post. Liu Jintang led each battalion to counterattack, bombarded the Hui forces, heavily defeating them, and pursued them to Maying Bay.
On September 20, the government troops divided their camps and crossed the Huang River, building fortifications to block the enemy. Several hundred Hui cavalry came to attack but were defeated by artillery fire. After the 22nd, the Hui forces built fortifications on the opposite bank of Hongzhuang to prevent a northern route attack. Liu Jintang pretended not to know and intensified the building of bridges and fortifications. On the 28th, several thousand Hui forces attacked the new fortifications. The government troops divided their forces to strike hard; the Hui forces fled in panic. The Hui forces from Xiaxia brought large cannons to attack He Zuolin's camp but were counterattacked and their cannons seized.
In early October, the Hui forces repeatedly besieged Xiaxia, and the government troops bravely resisted. On the ninth day, Liu Jintang secretly moved his forces to Gaozhai, launched a joint attack on the Hui forces' camp at Xiaxia, and captured three mountain fortifications. The next day, over ten thousand Hui forces came to reinforce. After a bloody battle lasting until the hour of Shen (3–5 p.m.), the Hui forces finally retreated. Liu Jintang ordered each battalion to strengthen their fortifications.
On October 12, Liu Jintang learned that the Hui forces were hiding in the gorge, so he selected brave soldiers to attack the southern and northern mountain fortifications. They launched a night assault and succeeded, breaking through three fortifications, and over a thousand Hui forces were annihilated. The government troops camped overnight at the captured three fortifications.
On October 13, the Hui forces launched a major counterattack. Liu Jintang ordered the defense of the three fortifications while others arrayed to meet the enemy, and reinforced and repaired the captured Hui fortifications to ensure the smooth flow of grain supplies.
On October 17, Xining's provincial official Guo Xiangzhi requested assistance, stating that the city had been besieged for two months and was in urgent danger due to a lack of food. Liu Jintang realized that the enemy intended to delay, so the next day he led his army to advance towards the northern mountains. The Hui forces divided into three routes to attack, attempting to surprise the government troops on the south bank. Liu Jintang ordered artillery strikes on the Hui forces' fortifications. After the enemy walls collapsed, the Hui forces quickly retreated. The government troops broke through over ten fortifications on the northern mountains in succession, forcing the Hui forces to flee to the north of the Huang River and the south bank, completely flattening the fortifications within the gorge.
On the 19th, Liu Jintang saw fires around Xining's outskirts and urgently transferred forces to Dongguan. Hui Muslim leaders Ma Benyuan and Ma Guiyuan fled with their families to Dongchuan, and the government troops pursued the remaining enemies. After several days of battles, the government troops killed three to four thousand Hui soldiers and captured a large amount of military equipment and livestock. The people of Xining gratefully and tearfully welcomed Liu Jintang. Over a thousand elderly and weak Hui Muslims outside the city requested mercy, and Liu Jintang allowed them to be settled and return to normal life.
In this campaign, the Hui forces fought bravely and stubbornly, relying on dangerous terrain to set up fortifications and repeatedly counterattacking. The battles were extremely fierce, making it the most difficult battle in the entire Hui rebellion. Under Liu Jintang's command, the Qing army took advantage of the terrain to set up ambushes, continuously defeating the enemy, and finally captured various strategic positions, severely damaging the Hui forces. During this period, due to the Han-Hui tensions within Xining city, after the Hui forces left the city, the Han people closed the city gates, causing Ma Guiyuan to lose his foothold and be attacked from both front and rear, which also accelerated the suppression process. According to Zuo Zongtang's memorial: "Ma Guiyuan still claimed to be the prefect of Xining, gathering local Hui Muslims outside the city, bringing out all the Hui soldiers and civilians from within the city. After Ma Guiyuan left the city and did not return for two days, the Han civilians taking refuge inside Xining city realized his deceit, seized the opportunity to close the city and defend it, requesting Xining's provincial official Guo Xiangzhi to take charge of the city's defense, and refused to allow Ma Guiyuan and others to enter the city..."(“……马桂源仍称西宁知府,在关外调集土回,尽带城中回兵回民以出。马桂源出城两日不返,西宁城内避难汉民习知其诈,乘机闭城拒守,请西宁道郭襄之主办城防,不准马桂源等入城……”)
The Qing army cumulatively killed five to six thousand Hui soldiers while losing 137 officers of the rank of "youji" (brigadier general) and above.
Xining fell after a three-month siege in late 1872. Its commander Ma Guiyuan was captured, and defenders were killed in the thousands.
The Muslim population of Xining was spared but the Shaanxi refugees sheltering there were resettled to arable land in eastern and southern Gansu, which were isolated from other Muslim areas.
Despite repeated offers of amnesty, many Muslims continued to resist at Suzhou (
Jiuquan), their last stronghold in the Hexi Corridor in west Gansu. The city was under the command of Ma Wenlu, who was originally from Xining. Many Hui people who had retreated from Shaanxi were also in the city. After securing his supply lines, Zuo Zongtang laid siege to Suzhou in September 1873 with 15,000 troops. The fortress could not withstand Zuo's siege guns and the city fell on October24. Zuo had 7,000 Hui people executed and resettled the rest in southern Gansu, to ensure that the entire Gansu Corridor from
Lanzhou to
Dunhuang would remain Hui-free, thereby preventing the possibility of future collusion between the Muslims of Gansu and Shaanxi and those of Xinjiang. Han and Hui loyal to the Qing seized the land of Hui rebels in Shaanxi, so the Shannxi Hui were resettled in Zhanjiachuan in Gansu.
The escape of Han people from Hezhou during the revolt was assisted by
Ma Zhan'ao.
Confusion
The rebels were disorganized and without a common purpose. Some Han Chinese rebelled against the Qing state during the revolt, and rebel bands fought each other. The main Hui rebel leader, Ma Hualong, was even granted a military rank and title during the revolt by the Qing dynasty. Only later, when Zuo Zongtang launched his campaign to pacify the region, did he decide which rebels who surrendered were going to be executed, or spared.
The title Chaoqing in 1865 was granted by Mutushan, a Qing General to Ma Hualong after he officially submitted to the Qing but it was deemed as false by Zuo Zongtang.
Zuo Zongtang generally massacred New Teaching Jahriyya rebels, even if they surrendered, but spared Old Teaching Khafiya and Sunni Gedimu rebels. Ma Hualong belonged to the New Teaching school of thought, and Zuo executed him, while Hui generals belonging to the Old Teaching clique such as Ma Qianling, Ma Zhan'ao and Ma Anliang were granted amnesty and even promoted in the Qing military. Moreover, an army of Han Chinese rebels led by
Dong Fuxiang surrendered and joined Zuo Zongtang.
General Zuo accepted the surrender of Hui people belonging to the Old Teaching school, provided they surrendered large amounts of military equipment and supplies, and accepted relocation. He refused to accept the surrender of New Teaching Muslims who still believed in its tenets, since the Qing classified them as a dangerous heterodox cult, similar to the
White Lotus Buddhists. Zuo said, "The only distinction is between the innocent and rebellious, there is none between Han and Hui".
The Qing authorities decreed that the Hui rebels who had taken part in violent attacks were merely heretics and not representative of the entire Hui population, just as the heretical White Lotus did not represent all Buddhists. Qing authorities decreed that there were two different Muslim sects, the "old" religion and "new" religion. The new were heretics and deviated from Islam in the same way that the White Lotus deviated from Buddhism and Daoism, and stated its intention to inform the Hui community that it was aware that the original Islamic religion was one united sect before the advent of new "heretics", saying they would separate Muslim rebels by which sect they belonged to.
Nature of the revolt
During the revolt, some Hui people fought for the Qing against the rebels from the beginning. A reward was bestowed upon Wang Dagui, a pro-Qing Muslim Hui leader who fought against Hui rebels. The relatives of Wang Dagui and Wang himself were then slaughtered by other anti-Qing Hui rebels
In addition, the Hui Chinese rebel leaders never called for
Jihad
''Jihad'' (; ) is an Arabic word that means "exerting", "striving", or "struggling", particularly with a praiseworthy aim. In an Islamic context, it encompasses almost any effort to make personal and social life conform with God in Islam, God ...
, and never claimed that they wanted to establish an Islamic state. This stood in contrast to the Xinjiang Turki Muslims who called for Jihad. Instead of overthrowing the government, the rebels wanted to exact revenge from local corrupt officials and others who had done them injustices.
When Ma Hualong originally negotiated with the Qing authorities in 1866, he agreed to a "surrender", giving up thousands of foreign weapons, spears, swords, and 26 cannons. Ma assumed a new name signifying loyalty to the Dynasty, Ma Chaoqing. Mutushan, the Manchu official, hoped that this would lead to other Muslims following his lead and surrendering, however, Ma Hualong's surrender had no effect and the revolt continued to spread.
Even after Ma Hualong was sentenced to death, Zuo canceled the execution when Ma surrendered for the second time in 1871, surrendering all his weapons, such as cannons, gingalls, shotguns, and western weapons. Zuo also ordered him to convince other leaders to surrender. Zuo then discovered a hidden cache of 1,200 western weapons in Ma Hualong's headquarters in Jinjipao, and Ma failed to persuade the others to surrender. Thereafter Ma along with male members of his family and many of his officers were killed. Zuo then stated that he would accept the surrender of New Teaching Muslims who admitted that they were deceived, radicalized, and misled by its doctrines. Zuo excluded khalifas and mullas from the surrender.
Zuo Zongtang was made Governor general of Shaanxi and Gansu in 1866.
Ma Zhanao and his son Ma Anliang defected to the Qing during the Dungan rebellion. As noted in the previous sections, Zuo relocated Han Chinese from Hezhou as a reward for the Hui leader Ma Zhan'ao after he and his followers surrendered and joined the Qing to crush the rebels. Zuo also moved Shaanxi Muslim refugees from Hezhou, only allowing native Gansu Muslims to stay behind. Ma Zhanao and his Hui forces were then recruited into the Green Standard Army of the Qing military.
Hui Muslims in non-rebellious areas
Hui Muslims living in areas that did not take part in the revolt were completely unaffected by it, with no restrictions placed on them, nor did they try to join the rebels. Professor Hugh D. R. Baker stated in his book ''Hong Kong Images: People and Animals'', that the Hui Muslim population of Beijing remained unaffected by the Muslim rebels during the Dungan Revolt.
Elisabeth Allès wrote that the relationship between Hui Muslim and Han peoples continued normally in the
Henan
Henan; alternatively Honan is a province in Central China. Henan is home to many heritage sites, including Yinxu, the ruins of the final capital of the Shang dynasty () and the Shaolin Temple. Four of the historical capitals of China, Lu ...
area, with no ramifications or interagency from the Muslim revolts of other areas. Allès wrote in the document ''Notes on some joking relationships between Hui and Han villages in Henan'' published by the French Center for Research on Contemporary China that "The major Muslim revolts in the middle of the nineteenth century which involved the Hui in Shaanxi, Gansu and Yunnan, as well as the Uyghurs in Xinjiang, do not seem to have had any direct effect on this region of the central plain."
Hui Muslim officer and official
Ma Xinyi served the Qing dynasty
during the Dungan Revolt.
Since the Shaanxi Hui rebels, in general, were not joined by the Hui in Xi'an which remained under Qing government control, the Hui of Xi'an were spared from the war by the Qing government, and from the fighting and remained in Xi'an after the war.
Xi'an's walls withstood a rebel siege for two year in 1870 and 1871 and did not fall.
During the
Panthay Revolt, peace negotiations were held by
Zhejiang
)
, translit_lang1_type2 =
, translit_lang1_info2 = ( Hangzhounese) ( Ningbonese) (Wenzhounese)
, image_skyline = 玉甑峰全貌 - panoramio.jpg
, image_caption = View of the Yandang Mountains
, image_map = Zhejiang i ...
and
Sichuan
Sichuan is a province in Southwestern China, occupying the Sichuan Basin and Tibetan Plateau—between the Jinsha River to the west, the Daba Mountains to the north, and the Yunnan–Guizhou Plateau to the south. Its capital city is Cheng ...
Hui Muslims who were invited by the Qing to Yunnan in 1858 and they were not involved in the revolt.
The Qing dynasty did not massacre Muslims who surrendered, the Muslim General
Ma Rulong, who surrendered and join the Qing campaign to crush the rebel Muslims, was promoted, and among Yunnan's military officers serving the Qing, he was the strongest.
The Qing armies left alone Muslims who did not revolt like in Yunnan's northeast prefecture of Zhaotong where there was a big Muslim population density after the war.
Hui loyalists and Han both took over the land of the Shaanxi Hui who moved to Gansu and were relocated by General Zuo Zongtang to Zhangjiachuan after the war ended.
Revolt in Xinjiang
Pre-revolt situation
By the 1860s, Xinjiang had been under
Qing rule for a century. The area had been conquered in 1759 from the
Dzungar Khanate whose core population, the
Oirats
Oirats (; ) or Oirds ( ; ), formerly known as Eluts and Eleuths ( or ; zh, 厄魯特, ''Èlǔtè'') are the westernmost group of Mongols, whose ancestral home is in the Altai Mountains, Altai region of Siberia, Xinjiang and western Mongolia.
...
, subsequently became the targets of genocide. However, as Xinjiang consisted mostly of semi-arid or desert lands, these were not attractive to potential Han settlers except some traders, so other people such as Uyghurs settled in the area. The whole of Xinjiang was divided into three administrative
circuits:
* The North-of-
Tianshan Circuit (), including the
Ili basin and
Dzungaria. This region roughly corresponds to the modern
Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture
Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture is an autonomous prefecture in northern Xinjiang, China. Its capital is Yining, also known as Ghulja or Kulja. Covering an area of 268,591 square kilometres (16.18 per cent of Xinjiang), Ili Prefecture shares ...
and included prefectures it controlled along with a few smaller adjacent prefectures.
* The South-of-Tianshan Circuit (). This included the "Eight cities" in turn comprising the "Four Western Cities" of
Khotan,
Yarkand
Yarkant County,, National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency, United States National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency also Shache County,, National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency, United States National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency also SASM/GNC ro ...
,
Yangihissar,
Kashgar and the "Four Eastern Cities" (Ush,
Aqsu,
Kucha,
Karashahr).
* The Eastern Circuit (), in eastern Xinjiang, centered around
Urumqi.
Overall military command of all three circuits fell to the
General of Ili, stationed in
Huiyuan Cheng. He was also in charge of the civilian administration (directly in the North-of-Tianshan Circuit, and via local Muslim (Uyghur)
begs in the South Circuit). However, the Eastern Circuit was subordinated in matters of civilian administration to Gansu Province.
In 1765 the
Ush rebellion occurred in Ush Turfan. The rebellion was the result of severe misrule and exploitation by the Qing in the early years after the occupation of Xinjiang in 1759. After the conquest local Uyghur officials appointed by the Qing including ‘Abd Allah, the Hakim Beg of Ush Turfan, used their positions to extort money from the local Uyghur population. One of the Uyghur legends of the seven maidens comes from this rebellion of Uyghur girls resisting rape by Manchus. Manchus are explicitly blamed while Han Chinese are not mention by Uyghurs as the culprit in the legend. There is also another Uyghur legend about the seven maidens from the
Qarakhanid wars against Buddhist kingdoms like
Qocho that is unrelated to the one about Uyghur girls resisting Manchu rape.
As a result, in 1765 when Manchu official Sucheng commandeered 240 men to take official gifts to Peking, the enslaved porters and the townspeople revolted. The Uyghur collaborator ‘Abd Allah, Sucheng, the garrisoned Qing Manchu banner force and other Qing Manchu officials were slaughtered and the rebels took command of the Qing fortress. In response to the revolt, the Qing brought a large force to the city and besieged the rebels in their compound for several months until they surrendered. The Manchu officials then cruelly retaliated against the Uyghur rebels by executing over 2,000 men and exiling some 8,000 women.
During the
Afaqi Khoja revolts
In 1759, the Qing dynasty of China defeated the Dzungar Khanate and completed the conquest of Dzungaria. Concurrent with this conquest, the Qing occupied the Altishahr region in modern southern Xinjiang, which had been settled by Muslims who foll ...
there were multiple incursions by
Afaqi khojas from
Kokand into Kashgaria, similar to those of
Jahangir Khoja in the 1820s and
Wali Khan in 1857, meant that the government had increased troop levels in Xinjiang to some 50,000. Both Manchu and Han units were stationed in the province with the latter, mainly recruited in Shaanxi and Gansu, having a heavily Hui (Dungan) component. A large part of the Qing army in Xinjiang was based in the Nine Forts of the
Ili Region, but there were also forts with Qing garrisons in most other cities of Xinjiang.
Maintaining this army involved much higher costs than the taxation of the local economy could sustainably provide, and required subsidies from the central government. Such support became unfeasible by the 1850-60s due to the costs of suppressing the
Taiping and other rebellions in the Chinese heartland. The Qing authorities in Xinjiang responded by raising taxes, introducing new ones, and selling official posts to the highest bidders (e.g. that of governor of
Yarkand
Yarkant County,, National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency, United States National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency also Shache County,, National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency, United States National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency also SASM/GNC ro ...
to
Rustam Beg of
Khotan for 2,000
yambus, and that of
Kucha to
Sa'id Beg for 1,500 yambus). The new officeholders would then proceed to recoup their investment by fleecing their subject populations.
Increasing tax burdens and corruption only added to the discontent amongst the Xinjiang people, who had long suffered both from the maladministration of Qing officials and their local ''beg'' subordinates and from the destructive invasions of the
khojas. Qing soldiers in Xinjiang, however, were still not paid on time or properly equipped.
With the start of the revolt in Gansu and Shaanxi in 1862, rumors spread among the Hui (Dungans) of Xinjiang that the Qing authorities were preparing a wholesale preemptive slaughter of the Hui people in Xinjiang, or in a particular community. Opinions as to the veracity of these rumors vary: while the
Tongzhi Emperor described them as "absurd" in his edict of September25, 1864, Muslim historians generally believe that massacres were indeed planned, if not by the imperial government then by various local authorities. Thus it was the Dungans who usually revolted in most Xinjiang towns, although the local Turkic peopleTaranchis, Kyrgyzs, and Kazakhswould usually quickly join the fray.
Multi-centric revolt
The first spark of revolt in Xinjiang proved small enough for the Qing authorities to easily extinguish it. On March17, 1863, some 200 Dungans from the village of Sandaohe (a few miles west of
Suiding), supposedly provoked by a rumor of a preemptive Dungan massacre, attacked Tarchi ( now part of
Huocheng County), one of the Nine Forts of the Ili Basin. The rebels seized weapons from the fort's armory and killed the soldiers of its garrison, but were soon defeated by government troops from other forts and were themselves slaughtered.
Revolt broke out again the following yearthis time, almost simultaneously in all three Circuits of Xinjiangon a scale that made its suppression beyond the capability of the authorities.
On the night of June3–4, 1864, the Dungans of
Kucha, one of the cities south of Tianshan, rose up and were soon joined by the local Turkic people. The Han fort, which, unlike many other Xinjiang locations, was inside the town rather than outside it, fell within a few days. Government buildings were burnt and some 1000 Hans and 150 Mongols killed. As neither the Dungan nor Turkic leaders of the revolt had sufficient authority over the entire community to become commonly recognized as a leader, the rebels instead choose a person who had not participated in the revolt, but was known for his spiritual role: Rashidin (Rashīdīn) Khoja, a
dervish and the custodian of the grave of his ancestor of saintly fame, Arshad-al-Din (? – 1364 or 65). Over the next three years, he sent military expeditions east and west in an attempt to bring the entire
Tarim Basin
The Tarim Basin is an endorheic basin in Xinjiang, Northwestern China occupying an area of about and one of the largest basins in Northwest China.Chen, Yaning, et al. "Regional climate change and its effects on river runoff in the Tarim Basin, Ch ...
under his control; however, his expansion plans were frustrated by
Yaqub Beg.
Only three weeks after the events in Kucha, revolt broke out in the Eastern Circuit. The Dungan soldiers of the
Ürümqi
Ürümqi, , is the capital of the Xinjiang, Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in Northwestern China. With a census population of 4 million in 2020, Ürümqi is the second-largest city in China's northwestern interior after Xi'an, also the ...
garrison rebelled on June26, 1864, soon after learning about the Kucha revolt. The two Dungan leaders were
Tuo Ming (a.k.a. Tuo Delin), a New Teaching ''
ahong'' from Gansu, and
Suo Huanzhang, an officer who also had close ties to Hui religious leaders. Large parts of the city were destroyed, the tea warehouses burned, and the Manchu fortress besieged. The Ürümqi rebels then advanced westward through what is today
Changji Hui Autonomous Prefecture, taking the cities of
Manas (also known then as Suilai) on July17 (the Manchu fort there fell on September16) and
Wusu (Qur Qarausu) on September29.
On October3, 1864, the Manchu fortress of Ürümqi also fell to the joint forces of Ürümqi and Kuchean rebels. In a pattern that was to repeat in other Han forts throughout the region, the Manchu commander, Pingžui, preferred to explode his gunpowder, killing himself and his family, rather than surrender.
After they learned of the Qing authorities' plan to disarm or kill them, the Dungan soldiers in
Yarkand
Yarkant County,, National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency, United States National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency also Shache County,, National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency, United States National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency also SASM/GNC ro ...
in
Kashgaria rose up in the early hours of July26, 1864. Their first attack on the Manchu fort (which was outside of the walled Muslim city) failed, but it still cost the lives of 2,000 Qing soldiers and their families. In the morning, the Dungan soldiers entered the Muslim city, where some 7,000 Hans were forcibly converted to become Muslims or massacred. The Dungans being numerically few compared to the local Turkic Muslims, they picked a somewhat neutral partyone
Ghulam Husayn, a religious man from a
Kabul
Kabul is the capital and largest city of Afghanistan. Located in the eastern half of the country, it is also a municipality, forming part of the Kabul Province. The city is divided for administration into #Districts, 22 municipal districts. A ...
noble familyas the puppet ''
padishah
Padishah (; ) is a superlative sovereign title of Persian origin.
A form of the word is known already from Middle Persian (or Pahlavi) as ''pātaxšā(h)'' or ''pādixšā(y)''. Middle Persian ''pād'' may stem from Avestan ''paiti'', and is ...
''.
By the early fall of 1864, the Dungans of the Ili Basin in the Northern Circuit also rose up, encouraged by the success of Ürümqi rebels at
Wusu and
Manas, and worried by the prospects of preemptive repressions by the local Manchu authorities. The
General of Ili,
Cangcing (), hated by the local population as a corrupt oppressor, was sacked by the Qing government after the defeat of his troops by the rebels at Wusu. Attempts by
Mingsioi, Cangcing's replacement, to negotiate with the Dungans proved in vain. On November10, 1864, the Dungans rose both in
Ningyuan (the "Taranchi Kuldja"), the commercial center of the region, and
Huiyuan (the "Manchu Kuldja"), its military and administrative headquarters. Kulja's
Taranchis (Turkic-speaking farmers who later formed part of the
Uyghur people) joined in the revolt. When the local Muslim Kazakhs and Kyrgyzs felt that the rebels had gained the upper hand, they joined them. Conversely, the
Buddhist
Buddhism, also known as Buddhadharma and Dharmavinaya, is an Indian religion and List of philosophies, philosophical tradition based on Pre-sectarian Buddhism, teachings attributed to the Buddha, a wandering teacher who lived in the 6th or ...
Kalmyks, and
Xibes mostly remained loyal to the Qing government.
Ningyuan immediately fell to the Dungan and Turki rebels, but a strong government force at Huiyuan made the insurgents retreat after 12 days of heavy fighting in the streets of the city. The local Han Chinese, seeing the Manchus winning, joined forces with them. However, a counter-offensive by Qing forces failed. The imperial troops lost their artillery while Mingsioi barely escaped capture. With the fall of Wusu and
Aksu, the Qing garrison, entrenched in the Huiyuan fortress was completely cut off from the rest of empire-controlled territory forcing Mingsioi to send his communications to Beijing via
Russia
Russia, or the Russian Federation, is a country spanning Eastern Europe and North Asia. It is the list of countries and dependencies by area, largest country in the world, and extends across Time in Russia, eleven time zones, sharing Borders ...
.
While the Qing forces in Huiyuan successfully repelled the next attack of the rebels on 12December 1864, the revolt continued to spread through the northern part of the province (
Dzungaria), where the Kazakhs were glad to take revenge on the Kalmyk people that had ruled the area in the past.

For
Chinese New Year
Chinese New Year, or the Spring Festival (see also #Names, § Names), is a festival that celebrates the beginning of a New Year, new year on the traditional lunisolar calendar, lunisolar Chinese calendar. It is one of the most important holi ...
1865, the Hui leaders of
Tacheng (Chuguchak) invited the local Qing authorities and Kalmyk nobles to assemble in the Hui mosque, to swear a mutual oath of peace. However, once the Manchus and Kalmyks were in the mosque, the Hui rebels seized the city armory, and started killing the Manchus. After two days of fighting, the Muslims gained control of the town, while the Manchus were besieged in the fortress. Nevertheless, with the help of the Kalmyks the Manchus were able to retake the Tacheng area by the fall of 1865. This time, it was the Hui rebels who were locked up in the mosque. The fighting resulted in the destruction of Tacheng and the surviving residents fleeing the town.
Both the Qing government in Beijing and the beleaguered Kulja officials asked the Russians for assistance against the rebels via the Russian envoy in Beijing, and the Russian commander in
Semirechye, respectively. The Russians, however, were diplomatically non-committal. On the one hand, as Vlangali wrote to
Saint Petersburg
Saint Petersburg, formerly known as Petrograd and later Leningrad, is the List of cities and towns in Russia by population, second-largest city in Russia after Moscow. It is situated on the Neva, River Neva, at the head of the Gulf of Finland ...
, a "complete refusal" would be bad for Russia's relations with Beijing; on the other, Russian generals in Central Asia generally felt that providing China with serious assistance against Xinjiang's Muslims would do nothing to improve Russia's problems with its own new Muslim subjects. Were the revolt to succeed and lead to the creation of a permanent Hui state, having been on the Qing side of the former conflict would offer Russia no benefit in its relations with that new neighbor. The decision was thus made in Saint Petersburg in 1865 to avoid offering any serious help to the Qing, beyond agreeing to train Chinese soldiers in Siberiashould they send anyand to sell some grain to the defenders of Kuldja on credit. The main priority of the Russian government remained guarding its border with China and preventing any possibility of the spread of the revolt into Russia's own domain.
Considering that offense is the best form of defense, Kolpakovsky suggested to his superiors in February 1865 that Russia should go beyond defending its border and move in force into Xinjiang's border area then seize the Chuguchak,
Kuldja and
Kashgar areas. These could then be colonized with Russian settlersall to better protect the
Romanov
The House of Romanov (also transliterated as Romanoff; , ) was the reigning dynasty, imperial house of Russia from 1613 to 1917. They achieved prominence after Anastasia Romanovna married Ivan the Terrible, the first crowned tsar of all Russi ...
empire's other domains. The time was not ripe for such an adventure, however: as Foreign Minister
Gorchakov noted, such a breach of neutrality would be not a good thing if China eventually recovered its rebel provinces.
Meanwhile, Qing forces in the Ili Valley did not fare well. In April 1865, the Huining () fortress (today's , located between
Yining and Huiyuan), fell to the rebels after a three-month siege. Its 8,000 Manchu, Xibe, and
Solon defenders were massacred, and two survivors with their ears and noses cut off were sent to Huiyuanthe Qing's last stronghold in the valleyto tell the Governor-general the fate of Huining.
Most of the Huiyuan (Manchu Kulja) fell to the rebels on January8, 1866. The majority of the residents and garrison perished along with some 700 rebels. Mingsioi, still holding out in the Huiyuan fortress with the remainder of his troops, but having run out of food, sent a delegation to the rebels, bearing a gift of 40
sycees of silver and four boxes of
green tea
Green tea is a type of tea made from the leaves and buds of the '' Camellia sinensis'' that have not undergone the withering and oxidation process that creates oolong teas and black teas. Green tea originated in China in the late 1st millenn ...
, and offered to surrender, provided the rebels guaranteed their lives and allowed them to keep their allegiance to the Qing government. Twelve Manchu officials with their families left the citadel along with the delegation. The Huis and Taranchis received them and allowed the refugees from Huiyuan to settle in Yining ("the Old Kuldja"). However, the rebels would not accept Mingsioi's conditions, requiring instead that he surrender immediately and recognize the authority of the rebels. Since Mingsioi had rejected the rebels' proposal, they immediately stormed the citadel. On March3, the rebels having broken into the citadel, Mingsioi assembled his family and staff in his mansion, and blew it up, dying under its ruins. This was the temporary end, for the time being, of Qing rule in the Ili Valley.
Yaqub Beg in Kashgaria
As noted by Muslim sources, the Qing authorities in
Kashgar had all along intended to eliminate local Dungans, and managed to carry out their preemptive massacre in the summer of 1864. This weakening of the local Dungan contingent was possibly the reason why the initial revolt had not been as successful in this area as in the rest of the province. Although the Dungan rebels were able to seize
Yangihissar, neither they nor the Kyrgyzs of
Siddiq Beg could break into either the Manchu forts outside Yangihissar and Kashgar, nor into the walled Muslim city of Kashgar itself, which was held by
Qutluq Beg, a local Muslim appointee of the Qing.
Unable to take control of the region on their own, the Dungans and Kyrgyzs turned for help to
Kokand's ruler
Alim Quli. Assistance arrived in early 1865 in both spiritual and material form. Spiritual aid came in the person of
Buzurg Khoja (also known as
Buzurg Khan), a member of the influential
Afaqis family of
khojas, whose religious authority could be expected to raise the rebellious spirit of the populace. He was heir to a long family tradition of starting mischief in Kashgaria, being a son of
Jahangir Khoja and brother of
Wali Khan Khoja. Material assistanceas well as the expected conduit of Kokandian influence in Kashgariaconsisted of
Yaqub Beg, a young but already well known Kokandian military commander, with an entourage of a few dozen Kokandian soldiers, who became known in Kashgaria as ''
Andijan
Andijan ( ), also spelt Andijon () and formerly romanized as Andizhan ( ), is a city in Uzbekistan. It is the administrative, economic, and cultural center of Andijan Region. Andijan is a district-level city with an area of . Andijan is the most ...
is''.
Although Siddiq Beg's Kyrgyzs had already taken the Muslim town of Kashgar by the time Buzurg Khoja and Yaqub Beg arrived, he had to allow the popular khoja to settle in the former governor's residence (the ''urda''). Siddiq's attempts to assert his dominance were crushed by Yaqub Beg's and Buzurg's forces. The Kyrgyzs then had to accept Yaqub's authority.
With his small, but comparatively well trained and disciplined army consisting of local Dungans and Kashgarian Turkic people (Uighurs, in modern terms), their Kyrgyz allies, Yaqub's own Kokandians, as well as some 200 soldiers sent by the ruler of
Badakhshan, Yaqub Beg was able not only to take the Manchu fortress and the Han Chinese town of Kashgar during 1865 (the Manchu commander in Kashgar, as usual, blowing himself up), but to defeat a much larger force sent by the Rashidin of Kucha, who sought domination of the Tarim Basin region for himself.
While Yaqub Beg asserted his authority over Kashgaria, the situation back home in Kokand changed radically. In May 1865, Alim Quli lost his life while defending Tashkent against the Russians. Many of his soldiers (primarily, of Kyrgyz and
Kipchak background) deemed it advisable to flee to the comparative safety of Kashgaria. They appeared at the borders of Yaqub Beg's domain in early September 1865. Afghan warriors also assisted Yaqub Beg.
Yaqub Beg's rule was unpopular among the natives with one of the local Kashgaris, a warrior and a chieftain's son, commenting: "During the Chinese rule there was everything; there is nothing now." There was also a falling-off in trade.
The local Uyghurs of Altishahr came to view Yaqub Beg as a Kokandi foreigner and his Kokandi associates behaved ruthlessly to the local Uyghurs, an anti Yaqub Beg poem was written by the Uyghur:
From Peking the Chinese came, like stars in the heaven.
The Andijanis rose and fled, like pigs in the forest.
They came in vain and left in vain, the Andijanis!
They went away scared and languidly, the Andijanis!
Every day they took a virgin, and
They went hunting for beauties.
They played with the dancing boys,
Which the Holy Law has forbidden.
Yaqub Beg's Kashgaria declares Jihad against the Dungans
Taranchi Turkic Muslims in Xinjiang initially cooperated with the Dungans (Hui people) when they rose in revolt, but later abandoned them after the Hui attempted to subject the entire region to their rule. The Taranchi massacred the Dungans at
Kuldja and drove the rest through the Talk pass to the Ili Valley.
The Hui people in Xinjiang where neither trusted by the Qing authorities nor the Turkestani Muslims.
Yaqub Beg's Kokandi Andijani Uzbek forces declared a Jihad against Dungan rebels under T'o Ming (Tuo Ming a.k.a. Daud Khalifa). Fighting broke out between Dungan and Kokandi Uzbek rebels in Xinjiang. Yaqub Beg enlisted Han militia under
Xu Xuegong to fight against the Dungan troops under T'o Ming. T'o Ming's Dungan forces were defeated at the
Battle of Urumqi (1870) as part of Yaqub Beg's plan to conquer
Dzungaria and seize all Dungan territory.
Poems were written about the victories of Yaqub Beg's forces over the Hans and the Dungans .
Yakub Beg seized
Aksu from Dungan forces and forced them north of the
Tian Shan, committing massacres upon the Dungan people (Tunganis).
Independent Han Chinese militia who were not affiliated with the Qing government joined both the Turkic forces under Yaqub Beg, and the Dungan rebels. In 1870, Yaqub Beg had 1,500 Han Chinese troops with his Turkic forces attacking Dungans in Ürümqi. The following year, the Han Chinese militia joined the Dungans in fighting against Turkic forces.
Foreign relations of Kashgaria Yaqub Beg
Russia and Britain signed several treaties with Yaqub Beg's regime in Kashgar with Yaqub seeking to secure British and Russian aid for his government.
Relations with Russia
Relations between Yaqub Beg and the Russian Empire alternated between fighting and peaceful diplomatic exchanges.
The Russians detested the native population of Kashgar because of their elite's close contacts with the Kokand Khans who had recently been expelled during the Russian conquest of Turkestan. This animosity would have ruined Yaqub Beg had he sought extensive aid from them as he had originally intended.
Ottoman and British support
The
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire (), also called the Turkish Empire, was an empire, imperial realm that controlled much of Southeast Europe, West Asia, and North Africa from the 14th to early 20th centuries; it also controlled parts of southeastern Centr ...
and the
British Empire
The British Empire comprised the dominions, Crown colony, colonies, protectorates, League of Nations mandate, mandates, and other Dependent territory, territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states. It bega ...
both recognized Yaqub Beg's state and supplied him with thousands of guns. British diplomats
Robert Barkley Shaw and
Thomas Douglas Forsyth to Kashgar in 1868 and 1870 respectively, aroused British interest for Ya'qub's regime and the British concluded a commercial treaty with the emir in 1874.
Qing reconquest of Xinjiang
The Qing decided to reconquer Xinjiang in the late 1870s.
Zuo Zongtang, previously a general in the
Xiang Army
file:Zeng Guofan.png, 150px, Zeng Guofan, the leader of the Xiang Army
The Xiang Army or Hunan Army () was a standing army organized by Zeng Guofan from existing regional and village militia forces called ''tuanlian'' to contain the Taiping Rebel ...
, was the commander in chief of all Qing troops participating in this counterinsurgency. His subordinates were the Han Chinese General
Liu Jintang and Manchu Jin Shun. As Zuo Zongtang moved into Xinjiang to crush the Muslim rebels under
Yaqub Beg, he was joined by Dungan (
Hui) General
Ma Anliang
Ma Anliang (, French romanization: Ma-ngan-leang, Xiao'erjing: ; 1855 – November 24, 1918) was a Hui people, Hui born in Linxia City, Hezhou, Gansu, China. He became a general in the Qing dynasty army, and of the Republic of China (1912 ...
and General
Dong Fuxiang. Qing forces entered Ürümqi unopposed. Yaqub's subordinates defected to the Qing or fled as his forces started to fall apart, and the oasis fell easily to the Qing troops.
The mass retreat of the rebel army shrank their sphere of control smaller and smaller. Yaqub Beg lost more than 20,000 men either though desertion or at the hands of the enemy. In October 1877, after the death of Yaqub Beg, Jin Shun resumed his forward movement and encountered no serious opposition. General Zuo appeared before the walls of
Aksu, the bulwark of Kashgaria on the east, and its commandant abandoned his post at the first onset. Qing army then advanced on
Uqturpan, which also surrendered without a blow. Early in December, all Qing troops began their last attack against the capital city of the Kashgarian regime. The rebel troops were defeated and the residual troops started to withdraw to Yarkant, whence they fled to Russian territory. With the fall of Kashgaria Qing's reconquest of Xinjiang was completed. No further revolt was encountered, and the reestablished Qing authorities began the task of recovery and reorganization,
including the establishment of the Xinjiang province in 1884.
The use of Muslims in the Qing armies against the revolt was noted by
Yang Zengxin.
The third reason is that at the time that Turkic Muslims were waging
revolt in the early years of the Guangxu reign, the ‘five elite
divisions’ that governor general Liu Jintang led out of the Pass were
all Dungan troops ui dui 回队 Back then, Dungan military
commanders such as Cui Wei and Hua Dacai were surrendered
troops who had been redeployed. These are undoubtedly cases of
pawns who went on to achieve great merit. When Cen Shuying was
in charge of military affairs in Yunnan, the Muslim troops and
generals that he used included many rebels, and it was because of
them that the Muslim revolt in Yunnan was pacified. These are
examples to show that Muslim troops can be used effectively even
while Muslim uprisings are still in progress. What is more, since the
establishment of the Republic, Dungan have demonstrated not the
slightest hint of errant behaviour to suggest that they may prove to
be unreliable.
Xiang Army
file:Zeng Guofan.png, 150px, Zeng Guofan, the leader of the Xiang Army
The Xiang Army or Hunan Army () was a standing army organized by Zeng Guofan from existing regional and village militia forces called ''tuanlian'' to contain the Taiping Rebel ...
and other Han Chinese male soldiers and sojourners bought Turki Musulman (Uyghur) girls as wives from their parents after Zuo Zongtang's reconquest of Xinjiang, and the Han and Uyghurs often relied on Hui intermediaries to translate and broker the marriages. A Han Chinese man with the surname Li bought a young Uyghur woman from two Uyghur men who kidnapped her in 1880. They were employed by the magistrate of Pichan. A Turpan Uyghur girl named Ruo-zang-le who was 12 was sold for 30 taels in 1889 in Qitai to a young Han Chinese Shanxi man named Liu yun. She became pregnant with his child in 1892. Han Chinese men viewed the toyluq they paid in silver for their Uyghur brides as a bride price. Uyghur Muslim women married Han Chinese men in Xinjiang in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Han Chinese men, Hindu men, Armenian men, Jewish men and Russian men were married by Uyghur Muslim women who could not find husbands. Uyghur merchants would harass Hindu usurers by screaming at them asking them if they ate beef or hanging cow skins on their quarters. Uyghur men also rioted and attacked Hindus for marrying Uyghur women in 1907 in Poskam and Yarkand like Ditta Ram calling for their beheading and stoning as they engaged in anti-Hindu violence. Hindu Indian usurers engaging in a religious procession led to violence against them by Muslim Uyghurs.
Aftermath
Punishment
When the Qing forces under Zuo Zongtang put down the Dungan Revolt, the sons of Muslim
Hui and
Salar rebel leaders like Ma Benyuan (马本源) and Ma Guiyuan (马桂源) in
Ningxia,
Gansu
Gansu is a provinces of China, province in Northwestern China. Its capital and largest city is Lanzhou, in the southeastern part of the province. The seventh-largest administrative district by area at , Gansu lies between the Tibetan Plateau, Ti ...
and
Qinghai
Qinghai is an inland Provinces of China, province in Northwestern China. It is the largest provinces of China, province of China (excluding autonomous regions) by area and has the third smallest population. Its capital and largest city is Xin ...
were castrated by the Qing
Imperial Household Department once they became 11 years old and were sent to work as eunuch
slaves for Qing garrisons in Xinjiang and the wives of the rebel leaders were also enslaved. Among the Muslim boys were Ma Sanhe (马三和), Ma Qishizi (马七十子), Ma Shaqiang (马沙枪), Ma Suo (马锁), Ma Youzong (马由宗), Ma Feifei (马飞飞), Ma Wushijiu (马五十九), Ma Wushiliu (马五十六). Ma Jincheng, a son of the Hui Naqshbandi leader
Ma Hualong was also castrated. The Imperial Household Department immediately castrated the 9 sons of Ma Guiyuan since they already reached age 12 and were enslaved as eunuchs to Qing soldiers in Xinjiang. Ma Zhenyuan (马侦源), Ma Benyuan (马本源) and Ma Guiyuan's (马桂源) wives were all enslaved to soldiers and officials in provincial garrisons after the husbands were executed. Ma Yulong (马玉龙) was the father of the boys Ma Sanhe (马三和) and Ma Jibang (继邦). Ma Dingbang (马定邦) was the father of Ma Qishi (马七十), Ma Shaba (马沙把), Ma Suo (马锁) and Ma Youzong (;马由宗). Ma Chenglong (马成龙) was the father of Ma Feifei (马飞). Their sons were all sentenced to castration. The Muslim rebels themselves were subjected to execution by
lingchi (slow slicing) while their sons were castrated and their female relatives enslaved to soldiers and officials in provincial garrisons. The children of the Muslim rebels who were under ten included 6 year old Ga Liu (尕六), 8 year old Ga Quan (尕全) and Ma Xier (马希儿) who were imprisoned until they reached 11 and then castrated by the Imperial Household Department.
Yaqub Beg and his son Ishana's corpses were "burned to cinders" in full public view. This angered the population in Kashgar, but Qing troops quashed a rebellious plot by Hakim Khan. Surviving members of Yaqub Beg's family included his four sons, four grandchildren (two grandsons and two granddaughters), and four wives. They either died in prison in
Lanzhou, Gansu or were killed by the Qing government. His sons Yima Kuli, K'ati Kuli, Maiti Kuli, and grandson Aisan Ahung were the only survivors alive in 1879. They were all underage children at that time. They were put on trial and sentenced to an agonizing death if they were found to be complicit in their father's rebellious "sedition". If they were innocent, they were to be sentenced to
castration
Castration is any action, surgery, surgical, chemical substance, chemical, or otherwise, by which a male loses use of the testicles: the male gonad. Surgical castration is bilateral orchiectomy (excision of both testicles), while chemical cas ...
and servitude as
eunuch
A eunuch ( , ) is a male who has been castration, castrated. Throughout history, castration often served a specific social function. The earliest records for intentional castration to produce eunuchs are from the Sumerian city of Lagash in the 2 ...
slaves to the Qing troops. Afterwards, when they reached the age of 11 years, they would be handed over to the Imperial Household to be executed or castrated. In 1879, it was confirmed that the sentence of castration was carried out, Yaqub Beg's son and grandsons were castrated by the Chinese court in 1879 and turned into eunuchs to work in the Imperial Palace. Yaqub Beg's sons and grandsons who were captured were under 10 years old Aisin Ahongju (爱散阿洪俱), Kadihuli (卡底胡里) and 10 year old Imahuli (依玛胡里).
Memorials
On January25, 1891, a temple was constructed by Liu Jintang. He had been one of the generals participating in the counterinsurgency against the Dungan Revolt and at that time he was the Governor of Gansu. The temple was built in the capital of Gansu as a memorial to the victims who died during the Dungan Revolt in Kashgaria and Dzungaria. The victims numbered 24,838 and included officials, peasants, and members of all social classes and ethnic groups. It was named Chun Yi Ci. Another temple was already built in honor of the
Xiang Army
file:Zeng Guofan.png, 150px, Zeng Guofan, the leader of the Xiang Army
The Xiang Army or Hunan Army () was a standing army organized by Zeng Guofan from existing regional and village militia forces called ''tuanlian'' to contain the Taiping Rebel ...
soldiers who fought during the revolt.
Flight of the Dungans to the Russian Empire
The failure of the revolt led to the immigration of some Hui people into Imperial Russia. According to Rimsky-Korsakoff (1992), three separate groups of the Hui people fled to the Russian Empire across the Tian Shan during the exceptionally severe winter of 1877/78:
* The first group of some 1000 people originally from Turpan in Xinjiang and led by
Ma Daren (), also known as Ma Da-lao-ye () reached
Osh in southern
Kyrgyzstan
Kyrgyzstan, officially the Kyrgyz Republic, is a landlocked country in Central Asia lying in the Tian Shan and Pamir Mountains, Pamir mountain ranges. Bishkek is the Capital city, capital and List of cities in Kyrgyzstan, largest city. Kyrgyz ...
.
* The second group of 1130 people originally from Didaozhou () in Gansu led by ''
ahong'' A Yelaoren (), were settled in the spring of 1878 in the village of Yardyk some from
Karakol in Eastern Kyrgyzstan.
*The third group, originally from
Shaanxi
Shaanxi is a Provinces of China, province in north Northwestern China. It borders the province-level divisions of Inner Mongolia to the north; Shanxi and Henan to the east; Hubei, Chongqing, and Sichuan to the south; and Gansu and Ningxia to t ...
and led by
Bai Yanhu (白彦虎; also spelt Bo Yanhu; 1829()-1882), one of the leaders of the revolt, were settled in the village of
Karakunuz (now Masanchi), in the modern
Zhambyl Province of Kazakhstan. Masanchi is located on the northern (Kazakh) side of the
Chu River, north of the city of
Tokmak in north-western Kyrgyzstan. This group numbered 3314 on arrival.
Another wave of immigration followed in the early 1880s.
In accordance with the terms of the
Treaty of Saint Petersburg signed in February 1881, which required the withdrawal of the Russian troops from the Upper
Ili Basin (the
Kulja area), the Hui and
Taranchi (Uighur) people of the region were allowed to opt for moving to the Russian side of the border. Most people choose that option and according to Russian statistics, 4,682 Hui moved to the Russian Empire under the treaty. They migrated in many small groups between 1881 and 1883, settling in the village of
Sokuluk some west of
Bishkek, as well as at a number of points between the Chinese border and Sokuluk, in south-eastern Kazakhstan and northern Kyrgyzstan.
The descendants of these rebels and refugees still live in Kyrgyzstan and neighboring parts of Russia, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. They still call themselves the Hui people (''Huizu''), but to the outsiders they are known as Dungan, which means Eastern Gansu in Chinese.
After the
Sino-Soviet split, Soviet propaganda writers such as Rais Abdulkhakovich Tuzmukhamedov called the Dungan Revolt (1862–1877) a "national liberation movement" for their political purposes.
Increase in Hui military power
The revolt increased the power of Hui Generals and military men in the Qing Empire. Many Hui generals who served in the campaign were promoted by the Emperor, including
Ma Anliang
Ma Anliang (, French romanization: Ma-ngan-leang, Xiao'erjing: ; 1855 – November 24, 1918) was a Hui people, Hui born in Linxia City, Hezhou, Gansu, China. He became a general in the Qing dynasty army, and of the Republic of China (1912 ...
, and
Dong Fuxiang. This led Hui armies to fight again in the
Dungan Revolt (1895-1896) against the rebels, and in the
Boxer Rebellion
The Boxer Rebellion, also known as the Boxer Uprising, was an anti-foreign, anti-imperialist, and anti-Christian uprising in North China between 1899 and 1901, towards the end of the Qing dynasty, by the Society of Righteous and Harmonious F ...
against Western armies. The Muslim Gansu braves and Boxers, attacked and killed Chinese Christians in revenge for foreign attacks on Chinese, and were the fiercest attackers during the
siege of the legations from 20 June to 14 August 1900.
Dungan rebels were known to avoid attacking Christians and people took refuge in Christian churches. Some, therefore, attribute the significant increase in Catholics and Protestants along the west bank of the Yellow River in Gansu and Shanxi to people who sought refuge in churches.
Ma Fuxiang,
Ma Qi, and
Ma Bufang were descendants of the Hui military men from this era, and they became important and high ranking Generals in the
Republic of China's National Revolutionary Army
The National Revolutionary Army (NRA; zh, labels=no, t=國民革命軍) served as the military arm of the Kuomintang, Chinese Nationalist Party (Kuomintang, or KMT) from 1924 until 1947.
From 1928, it functioned as the regular army, de facto ...
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These pro-Qing Hui warlords rose to power by their fighting against Muslim rebels.
The sons of the defected Muslim warlords of the Dungan Revolt (1862–1877) helped the Qing crush the Muslim rebels in the
Dungan Revolt (1895–1896).
Border dispute with Russia
After General Zuo Zongtang and his Xiang Army crushed the rebels, they demanded Russia return the city of Kuldja in Xinjiang, which they had occupied. Zuo was outspoken in calling for war against Russia and hoped to settle the matter by attacking Russian forces in Xinjiang. In 1878, tensions in the area increased. Zuo massed Qing troops toward the Russian occupied Kuldja. Chinese forces also fired on Russian expeditionary forces originating from Yart Vernaic, expelling them, which resulted in a Russian retreat.
The Russians were in a very bad diplomatic and military position ''vis-a-vis'' China. Russia feared the threat of military conflict, which forced them into diplomatic negotiations instead.
Wanyan Chonghou was dispatched to Russia to negotiate a treaty, but despite China being in the stronger negotiating position, the resulting
Treaty of Livadia was highly unfavorable to China; it granted Russia a portion of Ili, extraterritorial rights, consulates, control over trade, and an indemnity. Thereafter a massive uproar by the Chinese literati ensued and they demanded the government mobilize armed forces against Russia. The government acted after this, giving important posts to officers from the Xiang Army.
Charles Gordon became an advisor to the Chinese.
Russia refused to renegotiate unless Chonghou's life was spared. Not wanting to accept the Livadia treaty and not interested in renewed fighting, China had no choice but to comply.
Zeng Jize became the new negotiator and despite the outrage caused by the original terms, the resulting
Treaty of Saint Petersburg only differed slightly: China retained control over almost all of Ili, but the indemnity payment was higher.
Western explorers
Ney Elias traveled through the area of the revolts.
Hui Muslims during the 1911 Xinhai revolution
During the Dungan Revolt, the Hui Muslims of Xi'an city (in Shaanxi province) did not rebel against the Qing and refused to join the rebels while the Hui Muslims of Gansu revolted under General Ma Zhan'ao and his son Ma Anliang revolted before defecting and surrendering to the Qing.
The Hui Muslim community was divided in its support for the 1911
Xinhai Revolution
The 1911 Revolution, also known as the Xinhai Revolution or Hsinhai Revolution, ended China's last imperial dynasty, the Qing dynasty, and led to the establishment of the Republic of China (ROC). The revolution was the culmination of a decade ...
. The Hui Muslims of Xi'an in Shaanxi supported the revolutionaries and the Hui Muslims of Gansu supported the Qing. The native Hui Muslims (Mohammedans) of Xi'an (Shaanxi province) joined the Han Chinese revolutionaries in slaughtering the entire 20,000 Manchu population of Xi'an city. The native Hui Muslims of Gansu province led by general Ma Anliang sided with the Qing and prepared to attack the anti-Qing revolutionaries of Xi'an city. Only some wealthy Manchus who were ransomed and Manchu females survived. Wealthy Han Chinese seized Manchu girls to become their slaves and poor Han Chinese troops seized young Manchu women to be their wives. Young pretty Manchu girls were also seized by Hui Muslims of Xi'an during the massacre and brought up as Muslims.
See also
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Dungan Revolt (1895–1896)
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Islam during the Qing dynasty
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List of rebellions in China
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Taiping Rebellion
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Nian Rebellion
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Miao Rebellion (1854–1873)
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Panthay Rebellion
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Punti–Hakka Clan Wars
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Nepalese-Tibetan War
References
Citations
Sources
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Further reading
; General
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Kim Hodong"Holy War in China: The Muslim Revolt and State in Chinese Central Asia, 1864–1877" Stanford University Press (March 2004). . (Searchable text available on Amazon.com)
* Bruce Elleman, "Modern Chinese Warfare (Warfare and History)". 2001, . (pp. 65-, the section on "The Tungan Rebellion, 1862–73").
; Background, and the war in Shaanxi-Gansu
* Jonathan N. Lipman, "Familiar Strangers: A History of Muslims in Northwest China (Studies on Ethnic Groups in China)", University of Washington Press (February 1998), . (Searchable text available on Amazon.com)
; War in Xinjiang, and Russian involvement
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* "Imperial Rivals: China, Russia, and Their Disputed Frontier", by Sarah C. M. Paine (1996)
* "The Ili Crisis: A Study of Sino-Russian Diplomacy, 1871-1881", by Immanuel Chung-yueh Hsü (1966)
in "Россия и Китай в Центральной Азии (вторая половина XIX в. – 1917 гг.)" (Russia and China in Central Asia (second half of the 19 c. thru 1917).
Barnaul, Azbuka Publishers, 2003.
; Dungan emigration
* Svetlana Rimsky-Korsakoff Dyer
Karakunuz: An Early Settlement of the Chinese Muslims in Russia with an English translation of V. Tsibuzgin and A.Shmakov's work. "Asian Folklore Studies", Vol. 51 (1992), pp. 243–279.
(Chinabroadcast.cn)
External links
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Dungan Revolt
19th-century rebellions
Rebellions in the Qing dynasty
Military history of Shaanxi
Military history of Gansu
History of Ningxia
19th century in Xinjiang
1860s in China
1870s in China
1862 in China
1877 in China
Death marches
Dungan
Muslim rebellions
Ethnic cleansing in Asia
Genocide of indigenous peoples in Asia
19th-century mass murder in China
19th-century military history of China