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In the
United States The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...
, diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) are organizational frameworks that seek to promote the fair treatment and full participation of all people, particularly groups who have historically been underrepresented or subject to
discrimination Discrimination is the process of making unfair or prejudicial distinctions between people based on the groups, classes, or other categories to which they belong or are perceived to belong, such as race, gender, age, class, religion, or sex ...
based on identity or
disability Disability is the experience of any condition that makes it more difficult for a person to do certain activities or have equitable access within a given society. Disabilities may be Cognitive disability, cognitive, Developmental disability, d ...
. These three notions (
diversity Diversity, diversify, or diverse may refer to: Business *Diversity (business), the inclusion of people of different identities (ethnicity, gender, age) in the workforce *Diversity marketing, marketing communication targeting diverse customers * ...
, equity, and inclusion) together represent "three closely linked values" which organizations seek to institutionalize through DEI frameworks. The concepts predate this terminology and other variations sometimes include terms such as belonging, justice, and accessibility. As such, frameworks such as inclusion and diversity (I&D), diversity, equity, inclusion and belonging (DEIB), justice, equity, diversity and inclusion (JEDI or EDIJ), or diversity, equity, inclusion and accessibility (IDEA, DEIA or DEAI) exist. In the
United Kingdom The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain, is a country in Northwestern Europe, off the coast of European mainland, the continental mainland. It comprises England, Scotlan ...
, the term equality, diversity, and inclusion (EDI) is used in a similar way. ''Diversity'' refers to the presence of variety within the organizational workforce in characteristics such as race,
gender Gender is the range of social, psychological, cultural, and behavioral aspects of being a man (or boy), woman (or girl), or third gender. Although gender often corresponds to sex, a transgender person may identify with a gender other tha ...
,
ethnicity An ethnicity or ethnic group is a group of people with shared attributes, which they Collective consciousness, collectively believe to have, and long-term endogamy. Ethnicities share attributes like language, culture, common sets of ancestry, ...
,
sexual orientation Sexual orientation is an enduring personal pattern of romantic attraction or sexual attraction (or a combination of these) to persons of the opposite sex or gender, the same sex or gender, or to both sexes or more than one gender. Patterns ar ...
,
disability Disability is the experience of any condition that makes it more difficult for a person to do certain activities or have equitable access within a given society. Disabilities may be Cognitive disability, cognitive, Developmental disability, d ...
,
age Age or AGE may refer to: Time and its effects * Age, the amount of time someone has been alive or something has existed ** East Asian age reckoning, an Asian system of marking age starting at 1 * Ageing or aging, the process of becoming older ...
,
culture Culture ( ) is a concept that encompasses the social behavior, institutions, and Social norm, norms found in human societies, as well as the knowledge, beliefs, arts, laws, Social norm, customs, capabilities, Attitude (psychology), attitudes ...
,
class Class, Classes, or The Class may refer to: Common uses not otherwise categorized * Class (biology), a taxonomic rank * Class (knowledge representation), a collection of individuals or objects * Class (philosophy), an analytical concept used d ...
, veteran status, or
religion Religion is a range of social system, social-cultural systems, including designated religious behaviour, behaviors and practices, morals, beliefs, worldviews, religious text, texts, sanctified places, prophecies, ethics in religion, ethics, or ...
. '' Equity'' refers to concepts of fairness and
justice In its broadest sense, justice is the idea that individuals should be treated fairly. According to the ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', the most plausible candidate for a core definition comes from the ''Institutes (Justinian), Inst ...
, such as fair compensation and substantive equality. More specifically, equity usually also includes a focus on societal disparities and allocating resources and "decision making authority to groups that have historically been disadvantaged", and taking "into consideration a person's unique circumstances, adjusting treatment accordingly so that the end result is equal." Finally, ''inclusion'' refers to creating an organizational culture that creates an experience where "all employees feel their voices will be heard", and a sense of belonging and integration. DEI policies are often used by managers to increase the productivity and collaborative efforts of their workforce and to reinforce positive communication. While DEI is most associated with non-elected government or corporate environments, it's commonly implemented within many types of organizations, such as
charitable organization A charitable organization or charity is an organization whose primary objectives are philanthropy and social well-being (e.g. educational, Religion, religious or other activities serving the public interest or common good). The legal definitio ...
s,
academia An academy (Attic Greek: Ἀκαδήμεια; Koine Greek Ἀκαδημία) is an institution of tertiary education. The name traces back to Plato's school of philosophy, founded approximately 386 BC at Akademia, a sanctuary of Athena, the go ...
,
school A school is the educational institution (and, in the case of in-person learning, the Educational architecture, building) designed to provide learning environments for the teaching of students, usually under the direction of teachers. Most co ...
s, and
hospital A hospital is a healthcare institution providing patient treatment with specialized Medical Science, health science and auxiliary healthcare staff and medical equipment. The best-known type of hospital is the general hospital, which typically ...
s. DEI policies often include certain training efforts, such as diversity training. DEI efforts and policies have generated criticism and controversy, some directed at the specific effectiveness of its tools, such as diversity training; its effect on free speech and academic freedom, as well as more broadly attracting criticism on political or philosophical grounds. In addition, the term "DEI" has gained traction as an
ethnic slur The following is a list of ethnic slurs, ethnophaulisms, or ethnic epithets that are, or have been, used as insinuations or allegations about members of a given ethnic, national, or racial group or to refer to them in a derogatory, pej ...
towards minority groups in the United States.


History in the United States


Early history

Early DEI efforts included preferential hiring to veterans of the US Civil War and their widows in 1865. In 1876, this was amended to give preference to veterans during a Reduction in Force. In 1921 and 1929, executive orders by Presidents Coolidge and Harding established ten-point preference for veterans towards exams and hiring criteria for federal employment. In 1944, the Veterans' Preference Act codified the previous executive orders, clarified criteria, and included special hiring provisions for disabled veterans. Later amendments added veterans from conflicts after World War II, special provisions for the mothers of disabled or deceased veterans, and job-specific training for veterans entering the federal or private workforce. In 1936, President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed the Randolph-Sheppard Act, which mandated the federal government to give preference to purchase products made by the blind, and established the Committee on Purchases of Blind Made Products. The 1971 Javits–Wagner–O'Day Act expanded the Randolph-Sheppard act and changed the name to The Committee for Purchase from People Who Are Blind or Severely Disabled (now AbilityOne). Blind-made products are used throughout the federal government, and include brands such as Skillcraft, ARC Diversified, Austin Lighthouse, and Ability One. Other DEI policies include
Affirmative Action Affirmative action (also sometimes called reservations, alternative access, positive discrimination or positive action in various countries' laws and policies) refers to a set of policies and practices within a government or organization seeking ...
. The legal term "affirmative action" was first used in " Executive Order No. 10925", signed by President John F. Kennedy on 6 March 1961, which included a provision that government contractors "take ''affirmative action'' to ensure that applicants are employed, and employees are treated airlyduring employment, without regard to their race, creed, color, or national origin".A Brief History of Affirmative Action
, University of California, Irvine (access date 16 May 2015)
It was used to promote actions that achieve non-discrimination. In September 1965, President
Lyndon Johnson Lyndon Baines Johnson (; August 27, 1908January 22, 1973), also known as LBJ, was the 36th president of the United States, serving from 1963 to 1969. He became president after assassination of John F. Kennedy, the assassination of John F. Ken ...
issued Executive Order 11246 which required government employers to "hire without regard to race, religion and national origin" and "take affirmative action to ensure that applicants are employed and that employees are treated during employment, without regard to their race, color, religion, sex or national origin." The Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibited discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex or national origin. Neither executive order nor The Civil Rights Act authorized group preferences. The Senate floor manager of the bill, Senator Hubert Humphrey, declared that the bill “would prohibit preferential treatment for any particular group” adding “I will eat my hat if this leads to racial quotas.” More recently, concepts have moved beyond discrimination to include diversity, equity, and inclusion as motives for preferring historically underrepresented groups. In the famous ''Bakke decision'' of 1978, '' Regents of the University of California v. Bakke'', diversity became a constitutional law factor. The Supreme Court ruled that quotas were illegal, but it was allowable to consider race as a plus factor when trying to foster "diversity" in their classes.


1980s

Diversity themes gained momentum in the mid-1980s. At a time when President
Ronald Reagan Ronald Wilson Reagan (February 6, 1911 – June 5, 2004) was an American politician and actor who served as the 40th president of the United States from 1981 to 1989. He was a member of the Republican Party (United States), Republican Party a ...
discussed dismantling equality and affirmative action laws in the 1980s, equality and affirmative action professionals employed by American firms along with equality consultants, engaged in establishing the argument that a diverse workforce should be seen as a competitive advantage rather than just as a legal constraint. Their message was not to promote diversity because it is a legal mandate but because it is good for business. From then on, researchers started to test a number of hypotheses on the business benefits of diversity and diversity management, known as the business case of diversity.


1990s

In 1990, President George H.W. Bush signed the Americans with Disabilities Act, which requires employers to provide reasonable accommodations to employees with disabilities, and imposes accessibility requirements on public accommodations. President Clinton signed the Veterans Employment Opportunities Act in 1998. It helps eligible veterans access federal job opportunities by allowing them to compete for positions typically open only to current federal employees and by reinforcing veterans' preference in hiring. It also protects veterans from discrimination in federal employment and provides a process for addressing violations of their rights.


Since the 2000s

By 2003, corporations spent $8 billion annually on diversity. In 2009, in response to calls for the US government to do more for disabled veterans returning from the conflicts in Iraq and Afghanistan President
Barack Obama Barack Hussein Obama II (born August 4, 1961) is an American politician who was the 44th president of the United States from 2009 to 2017. A member of the Democratic Party, he was the first African American president in American history. O ...
signed executive order 13518, which established the Veterans Employment Initiative to enhance recruitment and retention of veterans in the federal workforce by creating a comprehensive framework to support their transition into civilian employment. It directed federal agencies to increase veteran hiring (especially disabled veterans), set goals for improvement, and establish the Veterans Employment Program Office to provide assistance and resources for veterans in civilian employment. In 2011,
Barack Obama Barack Hussein Obama II (born August 4, 1961) is an American politician who was the 44th president of the United States from 2009 to 2017. A member of the Democratic Party, he was the first African American president in American history. O ...
signed Executive Order 13583 concerning diversity and inclusion. After the election of Donald Trump in 2016 and the ascent of the #MeToo and
Black Lives Matter Black Lives Matter (BLM) is a Decentralization, decentralized political and social movement that aims to highlight racism, discrimination and Racial inequality in the United States, racial inequality experienced by black people, and to pro ...
movements, ''
Time Time is the continuous progression of existence that occurs in an apparently irreversible process, irreversible succession from the past, through the present, and into the future. It is a component quantity of various measurements used to sequ ...
'' magazine stated in 2019 that the DEI industry had "exploded" in size. Within academia, a 2019 survey found that spending on DEI efforts had increased 27 percent over the five preceding academic years. In support of DEI hiring during the first term of
Donald Trump Donald John Trump (born June 14, 1946) is an American politician, media personality, and businessman who is the 47th president of the United States. A member of the Republican Party (United States), Republican Party, he served as the 45 ...
, the Office of Civil Rights of the Federal Aviation Authority FAA on Thursday, April 11, 2019, announced a pilot program to help prepare people with disabilities for careers in air traffic operations, which identifies specific opportunities for people with targeted disabilities, to facilitate their entry into a more "diverse and inclusive" workforce in a standard public opening for air traffic controller jobs at the Air Route Traffic Control Center (ARTCC) with the potential to be appointed to a temporary ATCS position at the FAA Academy. One 2020 estimate placed the size of the global diversity and inclusion market at $7.5 billion, of which $3.4 billion was in the United States, projecting it to reach $17.2 billion by 2027. In 2021,
Joe Biden Joseph Robinette Biden Jr. (born November 20, 1942) is an American politician who was the 46th president of the United States from 2021 to 2025. A member of the Democratic Party (United States), Democratic Party, he served as the 47th vice p ...
signed several
executive order In the United States, an executive order is a directive by the president of the United States that manages operations of the federal government. The legal or constitutional basis for executive orders has multiple sources. Article Two of the ...
s concerning DEI, including Executive Order 13985 and Executive Order 14035. In 2021, ''New York'' magazine stated that "the business became astronomically larger than ever" after the murder of George Floyd in May 2020. ''
The Economist ''The Economist'' is a British newspaper published weekly in printed magazine format and daily on Electronic publishing, digital platforms. It publishes stories on topics that include economics, business, geopolitics, technology and culture. M ...
'' has also stated that surveys of international companies indicate that the number of people hired for jobs with "diversity" or "inclusion" in the title more than quadrupled since 2010. In 2023, The Supreme Court explicitly rejected affirmative action regarding race in college admissions in '' Students for Fair Admissions v. Harvard''. The Court held that affirmative action programs "lack sufficiently focused and measurable objectives warranting the use of race, unavoidably employ race in a negative manner, involve racial stereotyping, and lack meaningful endpoints. We have never permitted admissions programs to work in that way, and we will not do so today". As of 2024,
affirmative action in the United States In the United States, affirmative action consists of government-mandated, government-approved, and voluntary private programs granting special consideration to groups considered or classified as historically excluded, specifically racial minor ...
had been increasingly replaced by emphasis on diversity, equity, and inclusion, while nine states explicitly banned affirmative action use in the employment process. In 2024 and 2025, several large American companies scaled back or ended their DEI programs, owing to pressure from President Trump and his administration and, in some cases, related policies, such as participation in the Corporate Equality Index. These included
Google Google LLC (, ) is an American multinational corporation and technology company focusing on online advertising, search engine technology, cloud computing, computer software, quantum computing, e-commerce, consumer electronics, and artificial ...
,
Boeing The Boeing Company, or simply Boeing (), is an American multinational corporation that designs, manufactures, and sells airplanes, rotorcraft, rockets, satellites, and missiles worldwide. The company also provides leasing and product support s ...
,
Disney The Walt Disney Company, commonly referred to as simply Disney, is an American multinational mass media and entertainment industry, entertainment conglomerate (company), conglomerate headquartered at the Walt Disney Studios (Burbank), Walt Di ...
,
Walmart Walmart Inc. (; formerly Wal-Mart Stores, Inc.) is an American multinational retail corporation that operates a chain of hypermarkets (also called supercenters), discount department stores, and grocery stores in the United States and 23 other ...
, Meta,
Amazon Amazon most often refers to: * Amazon River, in South America * Amazon rainforest, a rainforest covering most of the Amazon basin * Amazon (company), an American multinational technology company * Amazons, a tribe of female warriors in Greek myth ...
,
McDonald's McDonald's Corporation, doing business as McDonald's, is an American Multinational corporation, multinational fast food chain store, chain. As of 2024, it is the second largest by number of locations in the world, behind only the Chinese ch ...
, Ford,
Lowe's Lowe's Companies, Inc. ( ) is an American retail company specializing in home improvement. Headquartered in Mooresville, North Carolina, the company operates a chain of retail stores in the United States. As of October 28, 2022, Lowe's and i ...
,
Harley-Davidson Harley-Davidson, Inc. (H-D, or simply Harley) is an American motorcycle manufacturer headquartered in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Founded in 1903, it is one of two major American motorcycle manufacturers to survive the Great Depression along with i ...
,
John Deere Deere & Company, Trade name, doing business as John Deere (), is an American corporation that manufactures agricultural machinery, heavy equipment, forestry machinery, diesel engines, drivetrains (axles, Transmission (mechanical device), transmi ...
, Tractor Supply, Target,
Toyota is a Japanese Multinational corporation, multinational Automotive industry, automotive manufacturer headquartered in Toyota City, Aichi, Japan. It was founded by Kiichiro Toyoda and incorporated on August 28, 1937. Toyota is the List of manuf ...
, and PBS. Generally, these companies said they will continue to foster a safe and inclusive workplace, while ending or reducing policies, initiatives, or programs that specifically take note of protected status. In this period, other companies reaffirmed their commitment to DEI, including
Apple An apple is a round, edible fruit produced by an apple tree (''Malus'' spp.). Fruit trees of the orchard or domestic apple (''Malus domestica''), the most widely grown in the genus, are agriculture, cultivated worldwide. The tree originated ...
, Ben & Jerry's,
Delta Air Lines Delta Air Lines, Inc. is a Major airlines of the United States, major airline in the United States headquartered in Atlanta, Georgia (U.S. state), Georgia, operating nine hubs, with Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport being its ...
,
Deutsche Bank Deutsche Bank AG (, ) is a Germany, German multinational Investment banking, investment bank and financial services company headquartered in Frankfurt, Germany, and dual-listed on the Frankfurt Stock Exchange and the New York Stock Exchange. ...
,
Microsoft Microsoft Corporation is an American multinational corporation and technology company, technology conglomerate headquartered in Redmond, Washington. Founded in 1975, the company became influential in the History of personal computers#The ear ...
,
JPMorgan Chase JPMorgan Chase & Co. (stylized as JPMorganChase) is an American multinational financial services, finance corporation headquartered in New York City and incorporated in Delaware. It is List of largest banks in the United States, the largest ba ...
,
Goldman Sachs The Goldman Sachs Group, Inc. ( ) is an American multinational investment bank and financial services company. Founded in 1869, Goldman Sachs is headquartered in Lower Manhattan in New York City, with regional headquarters in many internationa ...
,
Costco Costco Wholesale Corporation is an American multinational corporation which operates a chain of membership-only big-box warehouse club retail stores. As of 2021, Costco is the third-largest retailer in the world, and as of August 2024, Cos ...
and the
National Football League The National Football League (NFL) is a Professional gridiron football, professional American football league in the United States. Composed of 32 teams, it is divided equally between the American Football Conference (AFC) and the National ...
.


United States government purge

In January 2025, President
Donald Trump Donald John Trump (born June 14, 1946) is an American politician, media personality, and businessman who is the 47th president of the United States. A member of the Republican Party (United States), Republican Party, he served as the 45 ...
called DEI efforts "illegal and immoral discrimination programs" and "public waste" in his January 20 executive order, rescinded Executive Order 11246 on January 21, demanding that all governmental DEI programs be shut down by January 23, and placed employees on administrative leave and eventual layoff. Early February 2025, a lawsuit was filed against Trump's executive orders, arguing that they were unconstitutional. In March, the
United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit The United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit (in case citations, 4th Cir.) is a United States federal court, federal court located in Richmond, Virginia, with appellate jurisdiction over the United States district court, district cou ...
paused the lower court's nationwide
preliminary injunction An injunction is an equitable remedy in the form of a special court order compelling a party to do or refrain from doing certain acts. It was developed by the English courts of equity but its origins go back to Roman law and the equitable reme ...
and permitted the enforcement of the executive orders pending the outcome of the appeal. References to women, people of color, and LGBTQ individuals have been scrubbed from federal websites, image archives, and physical installations. As described by Brenda Sue Fulton, " hisadministration has hung a sign outside the armed forces saying if you're not a white male, you are no longer welcome." U.S. government departments have ordered probes of organizations that practice DEI, including hospitals, universities, federal contractors, and media companies. They have also pressured foreign companies with U.S. government contracts to comply with the order, drawing ire from foreign officials.


Rationale

Affirmative action Affirmative action (also sometimes called reservations, alternative access, positive discrimination or positive action in various countries' laws and policies) refers to a set of policies and practices within a government or organization seeking ...
is intended to promote the opportunities of defined minority groups within a society to give them equal access to that of the majority population. The philosophical basis of the policy has various rationales, including but not limited to compensation for past discrimination, correction of current discrimination, and the diversification of society. It is often implemented in governmental and educational settings to ensure that designated groups within a society can participate in all promotional, educational, and training opportunities. The stated justification for affirmative action by its proponents is to help compensate for past discrimination, persecution or exploitation by the ruling class of a culture,Sowell, Thomas (2004). ''Affirmative Action Around the World: An Empirical Study'', Yale University Press, and to address existing discrimination. In a business environment, increased workforce diversity has been found to be associated with increased performance.


Methods and arguments

In a 2018 article, proponents of DEI argued that because businesses and corporations exist within a larger world, they cannot be completely separated from the issues that exist in society. Therefore, the authors argue the need for DEI to improve coworker relations and teamwork. As of 2022, many academic institutions in the US have also started making commitments to DEI in different ways, including creating documents, programs and appointing dedicated staff members especially in the US. Many accreditation agencies now require supporting DEI. As of 2014, information on DEI for both students and professors was widespread in colleges and universities, with many schools requiring training and meetings on the topic. Many scholarships and opportunities at universities even have a secondary purpose of encouraging diversity. Diversity in higher education can be difficult, with diverse students often feeling reduced to fulfilling a "diversity quota", which can carry a high emotional tax. Within healthcare, DEI reflective groups have been used to enhance the cultural sensitivity within mental health professionals. Such reflective spaces help improve mental health professionals' reflexivity and awareness of DEI-related issues both within direct clinical work with clients, their families, and wider systems, as well as within professional supervision and teams.


Corporate

Diversity management as a concept appeared and gained momentum in the US in the mid-1980s. Equality and affirmative action professionals employed by US firms along with equality consultants, engaged in establishing the argument that a diverse workforce should be seen as a
competitive advantage In business, a competitive advantage is an attribute that allows an organization to outperform its competitors. A competitive advantage may include access to natural resources, such as high-grade ores or a low-cost power source, highly skille ...
rather than just as a legal constraint. Their message was: do not promote diversity because it is a legal mandate, but because it is good for business. Following the murder of George Floyd in 2020, some companies made substantial commitments to racial equity by establishing dedicated diversity, equity, and inclusion teams. In early 2024, the ''
Washington Post ''The Washington Post'', locally known as ''The'' ''Post'' and, informally, ''WaPo'' or ''WP'', is an American daily newspaper published in Washington, D.C., the national capital. It is the most widely circulated newspaper in the Washington m ...
'' reported that there is a trend in corporate America to reduce DEI positions and delegate the work to external consultants. The number of DEI jobs reached its highest point in early 2023, but subsequently decreased by 5 percent that year and has further shrunk by 8 percent in 2024. The attrition rate for DEI roles has been approximately twice as high as that of non-DEI positions. Companies that rolled back their DEI initiatives cited the 2023 Supreme Court's decision in '' Students for Fair Admissions v. Harvard'' and similar actions of other companies. The scaling back of DEI initiatives has aligned with a rise in legal challenges and political opposition to systematic endeavors aimed at enhancing racial equity. Diversity management can be seen to "leverage organisational diversity to enhance organisational justice and achieve better business outcomes". Several reports and academic studies have found a correlation between financial benefits and DEI. At an aggregate level, a 2013 study found that birth country diversity of the labor force positively impacts a nation's long term productivity and income. Firm-level research has provided conditional support to the proposal that workforce diversity per se brings business benefits with it. In short, whether diversity pays off or not depends on environmental factors, internal or external to the firm. Recent work published in 2024 showed that there is a plausibly causal link (not only a correlation) between workforce gender diversity and financial performance in major firms. Research suggests that attempts to promote diversity can provoke defensive responses: One study suggested that even incidental allusions to diversity during interviews promoted defensive reactions in White male applicants. Indeed, after diversity was mentioned, their performance during the interview deteriorated and their physiological arousal increased. In August 2021, the
US Securities and Exchange Commission The United States Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) is an independent agency of the United States federal government, created in the aftermath of the Wall Street crash of 1929. Its primary purpose is to enforce laws against market ma ...
(SEC) approved Nasdaq's proposed rules requiring listed companies to ensure women and minority directors were on their boards or provide an explanation of why they were not. In December 2024, the US Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit held in ''Alliance for Fair Board Recruitment v. SEC'' that the SEC lacked the authority to approve these rules. A California judge held in 2022 that a similar board diversity law violated the California Constitution.


Political and public reaction in the U.S.


Higher education

Since 2023, Republican-dominated US state legislatures have considered bills against DEI efforts, primarily at state colleges and universities. That change has been taking place amid heavy legal pressures. The Supreme Court in June 2023 upended equal protection law with its decision in Students for Fair Admissions v. Harvard, eliminating the use of affirmative action in college admissions but did not directly affect employers. Since then conservative activists organized in the states to dismantle race-conscious policies in various aspects of the economy. The ''Chronicle of Higher Education'' has tracked over 80 bills introduced in state legislatures since 2023. Of these eight have become law, 25 failed to pass, and the rest are pending. Two bills became law in Florida and Texas; and one each in North Carolina, North Dakota, Tennessee, and Utah. Florida now prohibits public colleges from requiring “political loyalty tests” as a condition of employment, admission, or promotion. The other Florida law prohibits public colleges from spending state or federal funds on DEI unless required by federal law. One Texas law prohibits DEI practices or programs, including training, that are not in compliance with the state Constitution regarding equality. The other law bans DEI offices and staff, as well as mandatory diversity training. It also bans identity-based diversity statements that give preference regarding race or sex.Chronicle Staff, "DEI Legislation Tracker: Explore where college diversity, equity, and inclusion efforts are under attack" ''Chronicle of Higher Education'' February 16, 2024.


Entertainment and media

In 2020, several prominent actors and directors criticized diversity standards, such as at the
Academy Awards The Academy Awards, commonly known as the Oscars, are awards for artistic and technical merit in film. They are presented annually by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS) in the United States in recognition of excellence in ...
. Beginning in 2024, to be eligible for a best-picture nomination at the Academy Awards, a film must meet two of four diversity standards in order to qualify. In 2023, Actor Richard Dreyfuss stated the Academy Award's diversity and inclusion standards "make me vomit", arguing that art should not be morally legislated. Several major film directors, who are voting members of the Academy Awards, anonymously expressed their opposition to the new diversity standards to ''
The New York Post The ''New York Post'' (''NY Post'') is an American Conservatism in the United States, conservative daily Tabloid (newspaper format), tabloid newspaper published in New York City. The ''Post'' also operates three online sites: NYPost. ...
'', with one describing them as "contrived". Film critic Armond White attacked the new standards as "progressive fascism", comparing them to the Hays Code. In 2021,
Conservative Conservatism is a cultural, social, and political philosophy and ideology that seeks to promote and preserve traditional institutions, customs, and values. The central tenets of conservatism may vary in relation to the culture and civiliza ...
media sources, such as ''
National Review ''National Review'' is an American conservative editorial magazine, focusing on news and commentary pieces on political, social, and cultural affairs. The magazine was founded by William F. Buckley Jr. in 1955. Its editor-in-chief is Rich L ...
'', have been frequent critics of DEI, with contributor George Leff arguing it is authoritarian and anti-
meritocratic Meritocracy (''merit'', from Latin , and ''-cracy'', from Ancient Greek 'strength, power') is the notion of a political system in which economic goods or political power are vested in individual people based on ability and talent, rather than ...
.


Politics

In the 2020s, DEI came into the spotlight in American politics, especially in state legislatures in Texas and other Republican-controlled states. Several states are considering or have passed legislation targeting DEI in public institutions. In March 2023, the
Texas House of Representatives The Texas House of Representatives is the lower house of the bicameral Texas Legislature. It consists of 150 members who are elected from single-member districts for two-year terms. There are no Term limits in the United States, term limits. The ...
passed a bill with a rider banning the use of state funds for DEI programs in universities and colleges. In May 2023,
Texas Texas ( , ; or ) is the most populous U.S. state, state in the South Central United States, South Central region of the United States. It borders Louisiana to the east, Arkansas to the northeast, Oklahoma to the north, New Mexico to the we ...
passed legislation banning offices and programs promoting DEI at publicly funded colleges and universities. In
Iowa Iowa ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the upper Midwestern United States, Midwestern region of the United States. It borders the Mississippi River to the east and the Missouri River and Big Sioux River to the west; Wisconsin to the northeast, Ill ...
, a bill to ban spending on DEI in public universities was also advanced in March 2023. Several prominent Republicans positioned themselves as critics, including Florida Governor
Ron DeSantis Ronald Dion DeSantis (; born September 14, 1978) is an American politician, attorney, and former United States Navy, naval officer serving as the 46th List of governors of Florida, governor of Florida since 2019. A member of the Republican Pa ...
, Texas Governor
Greg Abbott Gregory Wayne Abbott ( ; born November 13, 1957) is an American politician, attorney, and jurist who has served since 2015 as the 48th governor of Texas. A member of the Republican Party (United States), Republican Party, he served from 2002 to ...
, and 2024 presidential candidate
Vivek Ramaswamy Vivek Ganapathy Ramaswamy (born August 9, 1985) is an American entrepreneur and politician. He founded Roivant Sciences, a Biotechnology, biotech Pharmaceutical industry, pharmaceutical company in 2014 and was its Chief executive officer, CEO ...
. In January 2024, the Florida Board of Education banned federal or state money being used toward DEI programs in universities.


Military

Another significant point of political controversy has been the implementation of DEI frameworks in the military, with Republican politicians frequently criticizing the efforts as "divisive" and as harming military efficiency and recruiting, while Democrats have defended it as beneficial and strengthening. In July 2023, the
House of Representatives House of Representatives is the name of legislative bodies in many countries and sub-national entities. In many countries, the House of Representatives is the lower house of a bicameral legislature, with the corresponding upper house often ...
voted to ban all DEI offices and initiatives within the
Pentagon In geometry, a pentagon () is any five-sided polygon or 5-gon. The sum of the internal angles in a simple polygon, simple pentagon is 540°. A pentagon may be simple or list of self-intersecting polygons, self-intersecting. A self-intersecting ...
and military along partisan lines, with all Democrats and four Republican members also opposing. The Senate, under Democratic control, has not acted. Students for Fair Admissions, which successfully challenged race-based admissions in public universities in a 2023 Supreme Court case, sued the military academies after the Court excluded those institutions from its ruling. In April 2025, U.S. military academies ended affirmative action in admissions.


Public boycotts

Political opposition to corporate DEI efforts in the United States, particularly marketing criticized as " woke", have led to calls for boycotts of certain companies by activists and politicians; with notable examples being
Disney The Walt Disney Company, commonly referred to as simply Disney, is an American multinational mass media and entertainment industry, entertainment conglomerate (company), conglomerate headquartered at the Walt Disney Studios (Burbank), Walt Di ...
, Target,
Anheuser-Busch Anheuser-Busch Companies, LLC ( ) is an American brewing company headquartered in St. Louis, Missouri. Since 2008, it has been wholly owned by Anheuser-Busch InBev SA/NV (AB InBev), now the world's largest brewing company, which owns multiple ...
, and
Chick-fil-A Chick-fil-A, Inc. ( , a Word play, play on the American English pronunciation of "wikt:filet#Pronunciation, filet") is an American fast food restaurant chain and the largest chain specializing in Chicken burger, chicken sandwiches. Headquarter ...
. Commentator Jonathan Turley of '' The Hill'' described such boycotts as resulting "some success". Some of these companies' responses to the controversies have, in turn, sparked criticism from progressives of walking back or failing DEI commitments.


Public opinion

A June 2024 poll by ''
The Washington Post ''The Washington Post'', locally known as ''The'' ''Post'' and, informally, ''WaPo'' or ''WP'', is an American daily newspaper published in Washington, D.C., the national capital. It is the most widely circulated newspaper in the Washington m ...
'' and
Ipsos Ipsos Group S.A. (; derived from the Latin expression, ) is a multinational market research and consulting firm with headquarters in Paris, France. The company was founded in 1975 by Didier Truchot, Chairman of the company, and has been publ ...
found that 6 in 10 Americans believed that diversity, equity, and inclusion programs are "a good thing". A September 2024 poll by the Human Rights Campaign found that 80% of
LGBTQ LGBTQ people are individuals who are lesbian, Gay men, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, or questioning (sexuality and gender), questioning. Many variants of the initialism are used; LGBTQIA+ people incorporates intersex, Asexuality, asexual, ...
Americans would boycott a company that repealed its DEI programs and 19% would quit their job if their place of employment did. A 2025 poll by Axios found that more than 50% of Americans across all demographics surveyed said that DEI initiatives had made "no impact" on their jobs. Of those who said it did have an impact, a majority in almost all demographics said DEI had "benefited" their job rather than "hindered" it.


Criticism and controversy in the United States

According to ''
The Chronicle of Higher Education ''The Chronicle of Higher Education'' is an American newspaper and website that presents news, information, and jobs for college and university faculty and student affairs professionals, including staff members and administrators. A subscription ...
'', institutions are making defensive adjustments to the criticism. Some schools are removing the word "diversity" from titles of offices and jobs; some are closing campus spaces set up for students according to identity; some are ending diversity training; and some have stopped asking all faculty and staff members for written affirmations of their commitment to diversity.


Diversity training

Diversity training, a common tool used in DEI efforts, has repeatedly come under criticism as being ineffective or even counterproductive. ''
The Economist ''The Economist'' is a British newspaper published weekly in printed magazine format and daily on Electronic publishing, digital platforms. It publishes stories on topics that include economics, business, geopolitics, technology and culture. M ...
'' has stated that "the consensus now emerging among academics is that many anti-discrimination policies have no effect. What is worse, they often backfire." A regular claim is that these efforts mainly work to protect against
litigation A lawsuit is a proceeding by one or more parties (the plaintiff or claimant) against one or more parties (the defendant) in a civil court of law. The archaic term "suit in law" is found in only a small number of laws still in effect today. ...
. A 2007 study of 829 companies over 31 years showed "no positive effects in the average workplace" from diversity training, while the effect was negative where it was mandatory. According to
Harvard University Harvard University is a Private university, private Ivy League research university in Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States. Founded in 1636 and named for its first benefactor, the History of the Puritans in North America, Puritan clergyma ...
professor in sociology and diversity researcher Frank Dobbin, " average, the typical all-hands-on-deck, 'everybody has to have diversity training'that typical format in big companies doesn't have any positive effects on any historically underrepresented groups like black men or women, Hispanic men or women, Asian-American men or women or white women." Contrary arguments for training are that, "implicit bias training is crucial for addressing racism, and bypassing it cannot be justified under the First Amendment. While free speech is a fundamental right, it is not absolute and must be balanced against public health needs, including combating systemic racism."


Mandatory diversity statements within academia

The use of mandatory "diversity statements" within academia, wherein an applicant or faculty member outlines their "past contributions" and plans "for advancing diversity, equity and inclusion" if hired, has become controversial and sparked criticism. Diversity statements have been a part of some academic hiring processes since at least 2001. According to a 2022 survey conducted by the
American Association of University Professors The American Association of University Professors (AAUP) is an organization of professors and other academics in the United States that was founded in 1915 in New York City and is currently headquartered in Washington, D.C. AAUP membership inc ...
, one in five American colleges and universities include DEI criteria in
tenure Tenure is a type of academic appointment that protects its holder from being fired or laid off except for cause, or under extraordinary circumstances such as financial exigency or program discontinuation. Academic tenure originated in the United ...
standards, including 45.6% of institutions with more than 5000 students. Some universities have begun to weigh diversity statements heavily in hiring processes. For example,
University of California, Berkeley The University of California, Berkeley (UC Berkeley, Berkeley, Cal, or California), is a Public university, public Land-grant university, land-grant research university in Berkeley, California, United States. Founded in 1868 and named after t ...
eliminated three-quarters of applicants for five faculty positions in the
life sciences This list of life sciences comprises the branches of science that involve the scientific study of life – such as microorganisms, plants, and animals including human beings. This science is one of the two major branches of natural science, ...
on the basis of their diversity statements in the hiring cycle of 2018–2019. A 1,500-person survey conducted by Foundation for Individual Rights in Education (FIRE) reported that the issue is highly polarizing for faculty members, with half saying their view more closely aligns with the description of diversity statements as "a justifiable requirement for a job at a university", while the other half saw it as "an ideological litmus test that violates academic freedom". According to Professor Randall L. Kennedy at
Harvard University Harvard University is a Private university, private Ivy League research university in Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States. Founded in 1636 and named for its first benefactor, the History of the Puritans in North America, Puritan clergyma ...
, "It would be hard to overstate the degree to which many academics at Harvard and beyond feel intense and growing resentment against the DEI enterprise because of features that are perhaps most evident in the demand for DEI statements", adding "I am a scholar on the left committed to struggles for social justice. The realities surrounding mandatory DEI statements, however, make me wince". Several U.S. states have implemented legislation to ban mandatory diversity statements. In 2024, MIT announced that diversity statements "will no longer be part of applications for any faculty positions" at the university, becoming the first major university to abandon the practice.


Equity versus equality

According to the University of Iowa DEI framework, "equity is different than equality in that equality implies treating everyone as if their experiences are exactly the same." A common identification, especially among critics, is of ''equality'' as meaning " equality of opportunities" and ''equity'' as "
equality of outcome Equality of outcome, equality of condition, or equality of results is a political concept which is central to some political ideologies and is used in some political discourse, often in contrast to the term equality of opportunity. It describes ...
". This difference between equity and equality is also called ''Dilemma of Difference''.


Effects on free speech and academic freedom

In the 2020s, high-profile incidents of campus conflict have sparked debate about the effect of DEI on the campus environment, academic freedom, and
free speech Freedom of speech is a principle that supports the freedom of an individual or a community to articulate their opinions and ideas without fear of retaliation, censorship, or legal sanction. The right to freedom of expression has been recognise ...
. The 2021 cancelling of a
Massachusetts Institute of Technology The Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) is a Private university, private research university in Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States. Established in 1861, MIT has played a significant role in the development of many areas of moder ...
(MIT) guest lecture by
University of Chicago The University of Chicago (UChicago, Chicago, or UChi) is a Private university, private research university in Chicago, Illinois, United States. Its main campus is in the Hyde Park, Chicago, Hyde Park neighborhood on Chicago's South Side, Chic ...
astrophysicist Dorian Abbot after he criticized DEI programs led to media attention and controversy. As a result, MIT empaneled a committee to investigate the state of academic freedom at the university. The 2023 suicide of former
Toronto Toronto ( , locally pronounced or ) is the List of the largest municipalities in Canada by population, most populous city in Canada. It is the capital city of the Provinces and territories of Canada, Canadian province of Ontario. With a p ...
principal Richard Bilkszto led to a new wave of controversy surrounding DEI in the workplace and its impact on freedom of expression. Bilkszto had earlier filed a lawsuit against the
Toronto District School Board The Toronto District School Board (TDSB), formerly known as English-language Public District School Board No. 12 prior to 1999, is the English-language public-secular school board for Toronto, Ontario, Canada. The minority public-secular franco ...
in the wake of a 2021 incident at a DEI training seminar; Bilkszto was later diagnosed with "anxiety secondary to a workplace event", and claimed the session and its aftermath had destroyed his reputation. Bilkszto's lawyer has publicly linked this incident and its aftermath with his death. In the wake of Bilkszto's death,
Ontario Ontario is the southernmost Provinces and territories of Canada, province of Canada. Located in Central Canada, Ontario is the Population of Canada by province and territory, country's most populous province. As of the 2021 Canadian census, it ...
Minister of Education Stephen Lecce stated he had asked for a review and "options to reform professional training and strengthen accountability on school boards so this never happens again", calling Bilkszto's allegations before his death "serious and disturbing". Bilkszto's death generated international attention and renewed debate on DEI and freedom of speech. According to ''
The Globe and Mail ''The Globe and Mail'' is a Newspapers in Canada, Canadian newspaper printed in five cities in Western Canada, western and central Canada. With a weekly readership of more than 6 million in 2024, it is Canada's most widely read newspaper on week ...
'', the incident has also been " seized on by a number of prominent
right-wing Right-wing politics is the range of political ideologies that view certain social orders and hierarchies as inevitable, natural, normal, or desirable, typically supporting this position based on natural law, economics, authority, property ...
commentators looking to roll-back EIinitiatives." The anti-racism trainer involved in the incident has stated they welcome the review by Lecce, and stated that the incident has been "weaponized to discredit and suppress the work of people committed o DEI.


Antisemitism

DEI has been criticized for not focusing on
antisemitism Antisemitism or Jew-hatred is hostility to, prejudice towards, or discrimination against Jews. A person who harbours it is called an antisemite. Whether antisemitism is considered a form of racism depends on the school of thought. Antisemi ...
. According to Andria Spindel of the Canadian Antisemitism Education Foundation, antisemitism has been largely ignored in the DEI curriculum. Tabia Lee, a former DEI director at De Anza College in
California California () is a U.S. state, state in the Western United States that lies on the West Coast of the United States, Pacific Coast. It borders Oregon to the north, Nevada and Arizona to the east, and shares Mexico–United States border, an ...
and DEI critic, has criticized DEI for what she says is fostering antisemitism. According to the Brandeis Center, the DEI committee at
Stanford University Leland Stanford Junior University, commonly referred to as Stanford University, is a Private university, private research university in Stanford, California, United States. It was founded in 1885 by railroad magnate Leland Stanford (the eighth ...
said that "Jews, unlike other minority group possess privilege and power, Jews and victims of Jew-hatred do not merit or necessitate the attention of the DEI committee" after two students complained about antisemitic incidents on campus.


Disability community

According to some critics, DEI initiatives inadvertently sideline disabled people. Writing for ''The Conversation'' in 2017, college professor Stephen Friedman said that, "Organizations who are serious about DEI must adopt the frame of producing shared value where business and social goods exist side-by-side". According to a ''Time'' article in 2023, "People with disabilities are being neglected". This view has been echoed by a number of DEI leaders and activists. Sara Hart Weir, the former president and CEO of the National Down Syndrome Society and co-founder of the Commission for Disability Employment, argues that when deliberating on the vision of DEI success in the United States, policymakers, and employers need to take proactive measures to engaging with people with disabilities who they historically ignored. Corinne Gray has argued that, "If you embrace diversity, but ignore disability, you're doing it wrong."


"Diversity hire" label

"Diversity hire", "equity hire", or "DEI hire", are disparaging and controversial labels for persons from underrepresented groups, which are, according to this label, assumed to be less qualified and have supposedly received preferential treatment due to DEI policies. Wording of some DEI initiatives can backfire and contribute to the self-perception of the hired person that they would not have been hired solely based on formal merit and have only been hired due to a combination of their underrepresented identity and formal merit. The term "diversity hire" can refer to problematic hiring strategies such as tokenism. The term "DEI", when used as a term to disparage people (particularly Black Americans), has been described as an
ethnic slur The following is a list of ethnic slurs, ethnophaulisms, or ethnic epithets that are, or have been, used as insinuations or allegations about members of a given ethnic, national, or racial group or to refer to them in a derogatory, pej ...
.


Diversity issues in other countries

DEI issues, sometimes with different terminology, are of concern in numerous countries around the world in the 21st century. In Japan and Iceland, DEI efforts often concentrate on gender and age equality. India prioritizes addressing workplace biases stemming from the patriarchal system, caste system, and religion.Luthra, 2022. Many African countries focus on workplace inequality arising from the
intersectionality Intersectionality is an analytical framework for understanding how groups' and individuals' social and political identities result in unique combinations of discrimination and privilege. Examples of these intersecting and overlapping factor ...
of gender, ethnicity, and socio-economic backgrounds. Nordic countries face challenges due to cultural norms like the Law of Jante, which can create a positivity bias and hinder acknowledgment of inequality.


DE&I criteria

EDGE had examined following 19 key DE&I criteria across 20 major countries:"EquiNations: How do DE&I regulations differ across countries?" ''EDGE Standards and Certification'' (July 6, 2023.
online
*Paid maternity leave * Paid paternity leave * Childcare costs * Hiring quotas for people with disabilities * Accessibility regulations in employment * Disability non-discrimination in employment * Same-sex marriage legalization * Non-binary gender identity legal recognition * LGBTQ+ non-discrimination in employment * Gender quotas on boards * % of women in paid workforce * Sexual harassment protection in employment * Law on pay equity * Pay gap reporting legal requirement * Age non-discrimination in employment * % of employment rate for 55-64 age bracket * Race/ethnicity non-discrimination in employment * Nationality non-discrimination in employment * Race/ethnicity data collection allowed/prohibited


See also

* Corporate Equality Index *
Corporate social responsibility Corporate social responsibility (CSR) or corporate social impact is a form of international private business industry self-regulation, self-regulation which aims to contribute to societal goals of a philanthropy, philanthropic, activist, or chari ...
*
Critical Race Theory Critical race theory (CRT) is an academic field focused on the relationships between Social constructionism, social conceptions of Race and ethnicity in the United States census, race and ethnicity, Law in the United States, social and political ...
* Environmental, social, and governance * Executive Order 14151 * Fair-chance employer – employer that does not automatically disqualify all people with any criminal background * Health equity *
Human resources Human resources (HR) is the set of people who make up the workforce of an organization, business sector, industry, or economy. A narrower concept is human capital, the knowledge and skills which the individuals command. Similar terms include ' ...
* Merit, excellence, and intelligence (MEI) – framework that emphasizes selecting candidates based solely on their merit, achievements, skills, abilities, intelligence and contributions * Rainbow capitalism * Sensitivity reader * '' Students for Fair Admissions v. Harvard'' *
Sustainable Development Goals The ''2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development'', adopted by all United Nations (UN) members in 2015, created 17 world Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The aim of these global goals is "peace and prosperity for people and the planet" – wh ...
*
Title IX Title IX is a landmark federal civil rights law in the United States that was enacted as part (Title IX) of the Education Amendments of 1972. It prohibits sex-based discrimination in any school or any other education program that receiv ...
, regarding sex discrimination * Woke


References


Further reading


Equity, Diversity, and Inclusion in Software Engineering: Best Practices and Insights
* Abu-Laban, Yasmeen, and Christina Gabriel. ''Selling diversity: Immigration, multiculturalism, employment equity, and globalization'' (U of Toronto Press, 2002), DEI in Canad
online
see symposium on the book at ''Canadian Ethnic Studies'' 55.1 (2023): 125–145. * Anand, Rohini. ''Leading Global Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion'' (2021), for multinational companies * Anderson, Terry H. ''The pursuit of fairness: a history of affirmative action'' (Oxford University Press, 2004), a standard scholarly history. * April, Kurt. "The new diversity, equity and inclusion (DEI) realities and challenges." ''HR: The new agenda'' (2021): 119–132
online
* Arsel, Zeynep, David Crockett, and Maura L. Scott. "Diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) in the Journal of Consumer Research: A curation and research agenda." ''Journal of Consumer Research'' 48.5 (2022): 920–933
online
* Barnett, Rachel. "Leading with meaning: Why diversity, equity, and inclusion matters in US higher education." ''Perspectives in Education'' 38.2 (2020): 20–35
online
* Bendl, Regina, et al. eds. ''The Oxford handbook of diversity in organizations'' (Oxford UP, 2015
online
* Byrd, Marilyn Y., and Chaunda L. Scott, eds. ''Diversity in the workforce: Current issues and emerging trends.'' (2024
online
*Davis, Dr. Shirley. ''Diversity, Equity & Inclusion For Dummies'' (2022), wide-ranging manual to help new DEI officials in corporations. * Dobbin, Frank. ''Inventing equal opportunity'' (Princeton UP, 2009), scholarly history argues that Congress and the courts followed the lead of programs created by corporations. * Duarte, Melina et al. eds. ''Gender Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion in Academia: A Conceptual Framework for Sustainable Transformations'' (2024
online
* "Elkins, Caroline, Frances Frei, and Anne Morriss. "Critics of D.E.I. Forget That It Works: Guest Essay," ''New York Times'' Jan 21, 2024. * Ferraro, Carla, Alicia Hemsley, and Sean Sands. "Embracing diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI): Considerations and opportunities for brand managers." ''Business Horizons'' 66.4 (2023): 463–47

* Fleming, Robert S. "Diversity, equity, and inclusion." in ''Preparing for a Successful Faculty Career: Achieving Career Excellence as a Faculty Member'' (Cham: Springer Nature Switzerland, 2024). 157–159. * * Harrison, David A., et al. "Understanding attitudes toward affirmative action programs in employment: Summary and meta-analysis of 35 years of research." ''Journal of Applied Psychology'' 91#5 (2006): 1013
online
* Holzer, Harry, and David Neumark. "Assessing affirmative action." ''Journal of Economic Literature'' 38.3 (2000): 483–568; summary of 200 studies on the actual effects
online
* Iyer, Aarti. "Understanding advantaged groups' opposition to diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) policies: The role of perceived threat." ''Social and Personality Psychology Compass'' 16.5 (2022): e12666
online
* King, Eden B. , Quinetta M. Roberson, and Mikki R. Hebl, eds. ''Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion Insights in Practice'' (Oxford University Press, 2024) * Kraus, Michael W., Brittany Torrez, and LaStarr Hollie. "How narratives of racial progress create barriers to diversity, equity, and inclusion in organizations." ''Current opinion in psychology'' 43 (2022): 108–113
online
* Monea, Nino. "Next on the Chopping Block: The Litigation Campaign against Race-Conscious Policies Beyond Affirmative Action in University Admissions." (SSRN 4440549, 2023
online
* Nakamura, Brent K., and Lauren B. Edelman. "Bakke at 40: How diversity matters in the employment context." ''UC Davis Law Review'' 52 (2018): 2627–2679
online
* Pierce, Jennifer. ''Racing for innocence: Whiteness, gender, and the backlash against affirmative action'' (Stanford University Press, 2012
online
* Portocarrero, Sandra, and James T. Carter. "Diversity initiatives in the US workplace: A brief history, their intended and unintended consequences." ''Sociology Compass'' 16.7 (2022): e13001
online
* Reza, Fawzia. ''Diversity and Inclusion in Educational Institutions'' (Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2022) * Roberson, Quinetta M. ed. ''The Oxford Handbook of Diversity and Work'' (2013
online
* Rubio, Philip F. ''A History of Affirmative Action, 1619–2000'' (University Press of Mississippi, 2001), a Black perspective * Russell, Princess M. "From Affirmative Action to Diversity and Inclusion: Exploring Diversification Efforts among African American Faculty at Ivy League Universities in a State of Anti-affirmative Action Regulatory Environment" (EdD dissertation,  Northcentral University; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing,  2022.  28964683). * Russen, Michelle, and Mary Dawson. "Which should come first? Examining diversity, equity and inclusion." ''International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management'' 36.1 (2024): 25–40
online
* Sanger, Catherine Shea et al. eds. ''International Diversity and Inclusion: Innovative Higher Education in Asia'' (Palgrave MacMillan. 2020) * Schwarzschild, Maimon and Heriot, Gail L. "Race Preferences, Diversity, and Students for Fair Admissions: A New Day, a New Clarity" (January 16, 2024). SMU Law Review, Forthcoming (2024), San Diego Legal Studies Paper No. 24-003
online
* Sherry, Suzanna. "DEI and Antisemitism: Bred in the Bone" ''Vanderbilt University Law School Legal Studies Research Paper Series Working Paper Number 24-4'' (January 23, 2024)
online
* Smithsimon, Gregory. ''Liberty Road: Black Middle-Class Suburbs and the Battle Between Civil Rights and Neoliberalism'' (NYU Press, 2022
online
* Soucek, Brian. "Diversity Statements." ''UC Davis Law Review'' 55#4 (2021): 1989–2062. Controversy regarding statements required of university faculty
online
* Stephenson, Jacqueline H. et al. eds. ''Diversity, Equality, and Inclusion in Caribbean Organisations and Society: An Exploration of Work, Employment, Education, and the Law'' (Springer International, 2020) * Tatli, Ahu. "A multi‐layered exploration of the diversity management field: diversity discourses, practices and practitioners in the UK." ''British Journal of Management'' 22.2 (2011): 238–253. * Tavares, Vander, et al. eds. ''Critical and Creative Engagements with Diversity in Nordic Education'' (Lexington, 2023) * Taylor, Alecia. "3 Ways That Anti-DEI Efforts Are Changing How Colleges Operate" ''Chronicle of Higher Education'' (January 18, 2024) * Thurber, Timothy M. "Racial Liberalism, Affirmative Action, and the Troubled History of the President's Committee on Government Contracts." ''Journal of Policy History'' 18.4 (2006): 446–476. * Urofsky, Melvin I. ''The Affirmative Action Puzzle: A Living History From Reconstruction to Today'' (2020)
online book
also se

* Weiss, Robert J. "Affirmative Action: A Brief History" ''Journal of intergroup relations'' (1987), 15#2 pp. 40–53; * Peter W. Wood, Wood, Peter W. ''Diversity: The Invention of a Concept'' (2003) an attack by a conservative anthropologist
online
* Zamani-Gallaher, Eboni M. ''The case for affirmative action on campus: Concepts of equity, considerations for practice'' (Stylus Publishing, 2009), with timeline
online


External links

{{DEFAULTSORT:Diversity, equity, and inclusion Affirmative action Anti-African and anti-black slurs Anti-racism Corporate social responsibility Definition of antisemitism controversy Definition of racism controversy Diversity (business) Ecofeminism Environmentalism Feminism Human resource management Identity politics Intersectionality Left-wing politics Liberalism Multiculturalism Progressivism Social justice