Dharmakīrti (fl. ;
), was an influential
Indian Buddhist philosopher who worked at
Nālandā.
[Tom Tillemans (2011)]
Dharmakirti
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy He was one of the key scholars of
epistemology
Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that examines the nature, origin, and limits of knowledge. Also called "the theory of knowledge", it explores different types of knowledge, such as propositional knowledge about facts, practical knowle ...
(
pramāṇa
''Pramana'' (; IAST: Pramāṇa) literally means "proof" and "means of knowledge". ) in
Buddhist philosophy
Buddhist philosophy is the ancient Indian Indian philosophy, philosophical system that developed within the religio-philosophical tradition of Buddhism. It comprises all the Philosophy, philosophical investigations and Buddhist logico-episte ...
, and is associated with the
Yogācāra
Yogachara (, IAST: ') is an influential tradition of Buddhist philosophy and psychology emphasizing the study of cognition, perception, and consciousness through the interior lens of meditation, as well as philosophical reasoning (hetuvidyā). ...
and
Sautrāntika
The Sautrāntika or Sutravadin (, Suttavāda in Pali; ; ; ) were an early Buddhist school generally believed to be descended from the Sthavira nikāya by way of their immediate parent school, the Sarvāstivādins.Westerhoff, Jan, The Golden Ag ...
schools. He was also one of the primary theorists of
Buddhist atomism.
His works influenced the scholars of
Mīmāṃsā
''Mīmāṁsā'' (Sanskrit: मीमांसा; IAST: Mīmāṃsā) is a Sanskrit word that means "reflection" or "critical investigation" and thus refers to a tradition of contemplation which reflected on the meanings of certain Vedic tex ...
,
Nyaya
Nyāya (Sanskrit: न्यायः, IAST: nyāyaḥ), literally meaning "justice", "rules", "method" or "judgment", is one of the six orthodox (Āstika) schools of Hindu philosophy. Nyāya's most significant contributions to Indian philosophy ...
and
Shaivism
Shaivism (, , ) is one of the major Hindu denominations, Hindu traditions, which worships Shiva as the Para Brahman, supreme being. It is the Hinduism#Demographics, second-largest Hindu sect after Vaishnavism, constituting about 385 million H ...
schools of
Hindu philosophy
Hindu philosophy or Vedic philosophy is the set of philosophical systems that developed in tandem with the first Hinduism, Hindu religious traditions during the Iron Age in India, iron and Classical India, classical ages of India. In Indian ...
as well as scholars of
Jainism
Jainism ( ), also known as Jain Dharma, is an Indian religions, Indian religion whose three main pillars are nonviolence (), asceticism (), and a rejection of all simplistic and one-sided views of truth and reality (). Jainism traces its s ...
.
Dharmakīrti's ''
Pramāṇavārttika'', his largest and most important work, was very influential in India and Tibet as a central text on pramana ('valid knowledge instruments') and was widely commented on by various Indian and Tibetan scholars. His texts remain part of studies in the
monasteries
A monastery is a building or complex of buildings comprising the domestic quarters and workplaces of monastics, monks or nuns, whether living in communities or alone ( hermits). A monastery generally includes a place reserved for prayer which m ...
of
Tibetan Buddhism
Tibetan Buddhism is a form of Buddhism practiced in Tibet, Bhutan and Mongolia. It also has a sizable number of adherents in the areas surrounding the Himalayas, including the Indian regions of Ladakh, Gorkhaland Territorial Administration, D ...
.
[
]
History
Little is known for certain about the life of Dharmakirti.[ As per John Taber, the only reliable information that we have about his life was that he was a teacher at ]Nalanda
Nalanda (International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration, IAST: , ) was a renowned Buddhism, Buddhist ''mahavihara'' (great monastery) in medieval Magadha (Mahajanapada), Magadha (modern-day Bihar), eastern India. Widely considered to be am ...
. The Chinese monk, Yijing
The ''I Ching'' or ''Yijing'' ( ), usually translated ''Book of Changes'' or ''Classic of Changes'', is an ancient Chinese divination text that is among the oldest of the Chinese classics. The ''I Ching'' was originally a divination manual in ...
, who was a resident at Nalanda between the years of 675 and 685 CE, refers to Dharmakirti as a “recent” teacher. Yijing
The ''I Ching'' or ''Yijing'' ( ), usually translated ''Book of Changes'' or ''Classic of Changes'', is an ancient Chinese divination text that is among the oldest of the Chinese classics. The ''I Ching'' was originally a divination manual in ...
also mentioned that a Chinese traveller called Wuxing, was studying Dharmakirti's teachings at the Telhara monastery which is just a short distance away from Nalanda which indicates that Dharmakīrti had attained fame as a logician in Magadha
Magadha was a region and kingdom in ancient India, based in the eastern Ganges Plain. It was one of the sixteen Mahajanapadas during the Second Urbanization period. The region was ruled by several dynasties, which overshadowed, conquered, and ...
around 650–660 CE.
Tibetan hagiographies suggest that Dharmakirti ( Tibetan: ཆོས་ཀྱི་གྲགས་པ་; Wylie: ''chos kyi grags pa'') was born into a Brahmin
Brahmin (; ) is a ''Varna (Hinduism), varna'' (theoretical social classes) within Hindu society. The other three varnas are the ''Kshatriya'' (rulers and warriors), ''Vaishya'' (traders, merchants, and farmers), and ''Shudra'' (labourers). Th ...
family born in South India[ and was the nephew of the ]Mīmāṃsā
''Mīmāṁsā'' (Sanskrit: मीमांसा; IAST: Mīmāṃsā) is a Sanskrit word that means "reflection" or "critical investigation" and thus refers to a tradition of contemplation which reflected on the meanings of certain Vedic tex ...
scholar Kumārila Bhaṭṭa
Kumarila Bhatta (IAST: Kumārila Bhaṭṭa; fl. roughly 7th century CE) was a Hindu philosopher and a scholar of Mimamsa school of philosophy from early medieval India. He is famous for many of his various theses on Mimamsa, such as ''Mimamsa ...
. When he was young, Kumārila spoke abusively towards Dharmakirti as he was taking his Brahminical garments. This led Dharmakirti to take the robes of the Buddhist order instead, resolving to "vanquish all the heretics." As a student of Buddhism, he first studied under Isvarasena, and later moved to Nalanda
Nalanda (International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration, IAST: , ) was a renowned Buddhism, Buddhist ''mahavihara'' (great monastery) in medieval Magadha (Mahajanapada), Magadha (modern-day Bihar), eastern India. Widely considered to be am ...
where he interacted with 6th century Dharmapala.
However, the accuracy of the Tibetan hagiographies is uncertain, and scholars place him in the 7th century instead. This is because of inconsistencies in different Tibetan and Chinese texts, and because it is around the middle of 7th-century, and thereafter, that Indian texts begin discussing his ideas, such as the citation of Dharmakirti verses in the works of Adi Shankara
Adi Shankara (8th c. CE), also called Adi Shankaracharya (, ), was an Indian Vedanga, Vedic scholar, Hindu philosophy, philosopher and teacher (''acharya'') of Advaita Vedanta. Reliable information on Shankara's actual life is scant, and h ...
. Dharmakīrti is placed by most scholars to have lived between 600 and 660 CE, but a few place him earlier.
Dharmakirti is credited with building upon the work of Dignāga
Dignāga (also known as ''Diṅnāga'', ) was an Indian Buddhist philosopher and logician. He is credited as one of the Buddhism, Buddhist founders of Indian logic (''hetu vidyā'') and Buddhist atomism, atomism. Dignāga's work laid the grou ...
, the pioneer of Buddhist logic
Buddhist logico-epistemology is a term used in Western scholarship to describe Buddhism, Buddhist systems of ' (Epistemology, epistemic tool, valid cognition) and ' (reasoning, logic).
While the term may refer to various Buddhist systems and vi ...
, and Dharmakirti has ever since been seen as influential in the Buddhist tradition.[ His theories became normative in Tibet and are studied to this day as a part of the basic monastic curriculum.][
The Tibetan tradition considers that Dharmakīrti was ordained as a Buddhist monk at Nālandā by Dharmapāla.] In his writings, we find the statement that no one will understand the value of his work and that his efforts would soon be forgotten, but history proved his fears wrong.[
]
Philosophy
Historical context
The Buddhist works such as the '' Yogacarabhumi-sastra'' and the ''Mahāyānasūtrālaṅkāra'' composed before the 6th century, on ''hetuvidyā'' (logic, dialectics) are unsystematic, whose approach and structure are heresiological, proselytical and apologetic. They aimed were to defeat non-Buddhist opponents (Hinduism
Hinduism () is an Hypernymy and hyponymy, umbrella term for a range of Indian religions, Indian List of religions and spiritual traditions#Indian religions, religious and spiritual traditions (Sampradaya, ''sampradaya''s) that are unified ...
, Jainism
Jainism ( ), also known as Jain Dharma, is an Indian religions, Indian religion whose three main pillars are nonviolence (), asceticism (), and a rejection of all simplistic and one-sided views of truth and reality (). Jainism traces its s ...
, Ājīvikism, Charvaka
Charvaka (; IAST: ''Cārvāka''), also known as ''Lokāyata'', is an ancient school of Indian philosophy, Indian materialism. It's an example of the Hindu Atheism, atheistic schools in the Ancient Indian philosophies. Charvaka holds direct per ...
(materialists
Materialism is a form of philosophical monism according to which matter is the fundamental substance in nature, and all things, including mental states and consciousness, are results of material interactions. According to philosophical materia ...
), and others), defend the ideas of Buddhism, develop a line of arguments that monks can use to convert those who doubt Buddhism and to strengthen the faith of Buddhists who begin to develop doubts. Around the middle of the 6th century, possibly to address the polemics of non-Buddhist traditions with their pramana
''Pramana'' (; IAST: Pramāṇa) literally means " proof" and "means of knowledge". foundations, the Buddhist scholar Dignāga
Dignāga (also known as ''Diṅnāga'', ) was an Indian Buddhist philosopher and logician. He is credited as one of the Buddhism, Buddhist founders of Indian logic (''hetu vidyā'') and Buddhist atomism, atomism. Dignāga's work laid the grou ...
shifted the emphasis from dialectics to more systematic epistemology
Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that examines the nature, origin, and limits of knowledge. Also called "the theory of knowledge", it explores different types of knowledge, such as propositional knowledge about facts, practical knowle ...
and logic, retaining the heresiological and apologetic focus. Dharmakīrti followed in Dignāga footsteps, and is credited with systematic philosophical doctrines on Buddhist epistemology, which Vincent Eltschinger states, has "a full-fledged positive/direct apologetic commitment". Dharmakīrti lived during the collapse of the Gupta Empire
The Gupta Empire was an Indian empire during the classical period of the Indian subcontinent which existed from the mid 3rd century to mid 6th century CE. At its zenith, the dynasty ruled over an empire that spanned much of the northern Indian ...
, a time of great insecurity for Buddhist institutions. The role of Buddhist logic was seen as an intellectual defense against Hindu philosophical arguments formulated by epistemically sophisticated traditions like the Nyaya
Nyāya (Sanskrit: न्यायः, IAST: nyāyaḥ), literally meaning "justice", "rules", "method" or "judgment", is one of the six orthodox (Āstika) schools of Hindu philosophy. Nyāya's most significant contributions to Indian philosophy ...
school. However, Dharmakīrti and his followers also held that the study of reasoning and its application was an important tool for soteriological
Soteriology (; ' "salvation" from σωτήρ ' "savior, preserver" and λόγος ' "study" or "word") is the study of religious doctrines of salvation. Salvation theory occupies a place of special significance in many religions. In the academic ...
ends.
Epistemology
Dharmakīrti's philosophy is based on the need to establish a theory of logical validity and certainty grounded in causality. Following Dignāga
Dignāga (also known as ''Diṅnāga'', ) was an Indian Buddhist philosopher and logician. He is credited as one of the Buddhism, Buddhist founders of Indian logic (''hetu vidyā'') and Buddhist atomism, atomism. Dignāga's work laid the grou ...
's ''Pramāṇasamuccaya'', Dharmakīrti also holds that there are only two instruments of knowledge or 'valid cognition' (''pramāṇa
''Pramana'' (; IAST: Pramāṇa) literally means "proof" and "means of knowledge". ''); "perception" ( pratyaksa) and "inference" ( anumāṇa). Perception is a non-conceptual knowing of particulars that is bound by causality, while inference is reasonable, linguistic, and conceptual.[ In the ''Pramāṇavārttika'' Dharmakīrti defines a pramana as a "reliable cognition". What it means for cognition to be reliable has been interpreted in different ways. Following commentators like Dharmottara, who define it as meaning that cognition can lead to the obtaining of one's desired object, some modern scholars such as Jose I. Cabezon have interpreted Dharmakīrti as defending a form of ]Pragmatism
Pragmatism is a philosophical tradition that views language and thought as tools for prediction, problem solving, and action, rather than describing, representing, or mirroring reality. Pragmatists contend that most philosophical topics� ...
. Tillemans sees him as holding to a weak form of correspondence theory, which holds that to "confirm causal efficacy" (''arthakriyāsthiti'') is to have a justification that an object of cognition has the causal powers we expected.[ That justification comes through a certain kind of non-conceptual perception (''pratyakṣa'') which is said to be an "intrinsical source of knowledge" (''svataḥ prāmāṇya'') which is ultimately reliable. Dharmakīrti sees a cognition as being valid if it has a causal connection with the object of cognition through an intrinsically valid, un-conceptual perception of the object which does not err regarding its functionality. As Dharmakirti says: "A pramāṇa is a reliable cognition. s forreliability, it consists in his cognition'scompliance with he object's capacity toperform a function" (''Pramāṇavārttika'' 2.1ac).
Dharmakīrti also holds that there were certain extraordinary epistemic warrants, such as the words of the Buddha, who was said to be an authoritative/reliable person (''pramāṇapuruṣa'') as well as the 'inconceivable' perception of a yogi (''yogipratyakṣa''). On the role of scriptural authority, Dharmakīrti has a moderate and nuanced position. For Dharmakīrti, scripture (Buddhist or otherwise) is not a genuine and independent means of valid cognition. He held that one should not use scripture to guide one on matters that can be decided by factual and rational means and that one is not to be faulted for rejecting unreasonable parts of the scriptures of one's school. However, scripture is to be relied upon when dealing with "radically inaccessible things", such as the laws of karma and ]soteriology
Soteriology (; ' "salvation" from wikt:σωτήρ, σωτήρ ' "savior, preserver" and wikt:λόγος, λόγος ' "study" or "word") is the study of Doctrine, religious doctrines of salvation. Salvation theory occupies a place of special sign ...
. However, according to Dharmakīrti scripture is a fallible source of knowledge and has no claim to certainty.[
Dharmakīrti made significant contributions to Buddhist epistemology by refining the theory of inference, which addresses a central problem left unresolved by his predecessor, Dignāga. Dharmakīrti's approach ensures that the evidence (e.g. smoke) must always be present when the predicate (e.g. fire) is present, thereby providing a stronger foundation for inferential reasoning.
]
Metaphysics
According to Buddhologist Tom Tillemans, Dharmakīrti's ideas constitute a nominalist
In metaphysics, nominalism is the view that universals and abstract objects do not actually exist other than being merely names or labels. There are two main versions of nominalism. One denies the existence of universals—that which can be inst ...
philosophy which disagrees with the Madhyamaka
Madhyamaka ("middle way" or "centrism"; ; ; Tibetic languages, Tibetan: དབུ་མ་པ་ ; ''dbu ma pa''), otherwise known as Śūnyavāda ("the Śūnyatā, emptiness doctrine") and Niḥsvabhāvavāda ("the no Svabhava, ''svabhāva'' d ...
philosophy, by asserting that some entities are real. Dharmakīrti states that the real is only the momentarily existing particulars (''svalakṣaṇa''), and any universal (''sāmānyalakṣaṇa'') is unreal and fiction. He criticized the Nyaya theory of universals
In metaphysics, a universal is what particular things have in common, namely characteristics or qualities. In other words, universals are repeatable or recurrent entities that can be instantiated or exemplified by many particular things. For exa ...
by arguing that since they have no causal efficacy, there is no rational reason to posit them. What is real must have powers (''śakti''), fitness (''yogyatā''), or causal properties which is what individuates a real particular as an object of perception. Dharmakīrti writes "whatever has causal powers (''arthakriyāsamartha''), that exists (''paramārthasat'')."[ This theory of causal properties has been interpreted as a form of ]trope theory
Trope denotes figurative language, figurative and metaphorical language and one which has been used in various technical senses. The term ''trope'' derives from the Greek language, Greek τρόπος (''tropos''), "a turn, a change", related to th ...
.[ ''Svalakṣaṇa'' are said to be part-less, undivided, and property-less, and yet they impart a causal force which give rise to perceptual cognitions, which are direct reflections of the particulars.
Dharmakīrti's ultimately real (''paramārthasat'') particulars are contrasted with conventionally real entities (''saṃvṛtisat'') as part of his presentation of the Buddhist ]Two truths doctrine
The Buddhism, Buddhist doctrine of the two truths (Sanskrit: '','' ) differentiates between two levels of ''satya'' (Sanskrit; Pāli: ''sacca''; meaning "truth" or "reality") in the teaching of Gautama Buddha, Śākyamuni Buddha: the "conventiona ...
. The conventionally real for him are based on linguistic categories, intellectual constructs, and erroneous superimpositions on the flow of reality, such as the idea that universals exist. According to Dharmakīrti, cognitive distortion of the direct perception of particulars occurs during the process of recognition (''pratyabhijñāna'') and perceptual judgment (''niścaya'') which arises due to latent tendencies (''vāsanā'') in the mind left over from past impressions of similar perceptions. These latent dispositions come together into constructed representations of the previously experienced object at the moment of perception, and hence it is an imposed error on the real, a pseudo-perception (''pratyakṣābhāsa'') which conceals (''saṃvṛti'') reality while at the same time being practically useful for navigating it. Ignorance ('' avidyā'') for Dharmakīrti is conceptuality, pseudo-perception and superimposition overlaid on the naturally radiant (''prabhāsvara'') nature of pure perception. By correcting these defilements of perception through mental cultivation as well as using inference to gain "insight born of (rational) reflection" (''cintāmayī prajñā'') a Buddhist yogi is able to better see the true nature of reality until his perception is fully perfected.
Dharmakīrti, again following Dignāga
Dignāga (also known as ''Diṅnāga'', ) was an Indian Buddhist philosopher and logician. He is credited as one of the Buddhism, Buddhist founders of Indian logic (''hetu vidyā'') and Buddhist atomism, atomism. Dignāga's work laid the grou ...
, also holds that that things as they are in themselves are "ineffable" (''avyapadeśya''). Language is never about the things in themselves, only about conceptual fiction, hence they are nominalists
In metaphysics, nominalism is the view that universals and abstract objects do not actually exist other than being merely names or labels. There are two main versions of nominalism. One denies the existence of universals—that which can be inst ...
.[ Due to this theory, the main issue for Dharmakirti becomes how to explain that it is possible for our arbitrary and conventional linguistic schemas to refer to perceptual particulars that are ineffable and non-conceptual. To explain this gap between conceptual schema and perceptual content, Dharmakirti takes up Dignaga's theory of "exclusion" (''apoha''). Dignāga's view is that "a word talks about entities only as they are qualified by the negation of other things."][ Dharmakīrti's unique take on this nominalist theory, which underlies his entire system, is to reinterpret it in terms of causal efficacy—''arthakriyā'' (which can also be translated as 'telic function', 'functionality', and 'fulfillment of purpose').
Dharmakīrti developed his philosophical system to defend Buddhist doctrines, so it is no surprise that he developed many of arguments for ]rebirth
Rebirth may refer to:
Arts, entertainment, and media
Film
* ''Rebirth'' (2011 film), a 2011 Japanese drama film
* ''Rebirth'' (2016 film), a 2016 American thriller film
* ''Rebirth'', a 2011 documentary film produced by Project Rebirth
* '' ...
, the Four Noble Truths
In Buddhism, the Four Noble Truths (; ; "The Four Arya (Buddhism), arya satya") are "the truths of the noble one (the Buddha)," a statement of how things really are (Three marks of existence, the three marks of existence) when they are seen co ...
, the authority of the Buddha, karma
Karma (, from , ; ) is an ancient Indian concept that refers to an action, work, or deed, and its effect or consequences. In Indian religions, the term more specifically refers to a principle of cause and effect, often descriptively called ...
, anatta, and compassion as well as attacking Brahminical views such as the authority of the Vedas
FIle:Atharva-Veda samhita page 471 illustration.png, upright=1.2, The Vedas are ancient Sanskrit texts of Hinduism. Above: A page from the ''Atharvaveda''.
The Vedas ( or ; ), sometimes collectively called the Veda, are a large body of relig ...
.
Dharmakīrti also defended the Buddhist theory of momentariness (''kṣaṇikatva''), which held that dharmas spontaneously perish the moment they arise. Dharmakīrti came up with an argument for the theory which stated that since anything that exists has a causal power, the fact that its causal power is in effect proves it is always changing. For Dharmakīrti, nothing could be a cause while remaining the same, and any permanent thing would be causally inert.[
]
Philosophy of mind
Dharmakīrti defends Dignāga's theory of consciousness being non-conceptually reflexive (''svasamvitti'' or ''svasaṃvedana
In Buddhist philosophy, svasaṃvedana (also ''svasaṃvitti'') is a term which refers to the self-reflexive nature of consciousness, that is, the awareness of being aware. It was initially a theory of cognition held by the Mahasamghika and Sau ...
''). This is the idea that an act of intentional consciousness is also aware of itself as aware.[ Consciousness is said to illuminate itself like a lamp that illuminates objects in a room as well as itself. Dharmakīrti also defends the Yogācāra theory of "awareness-only" ('' vijñaptimātratā''), which holds that 'external objects' of perception do not exist.][ According to Dharmakīrti, an object of cognition is not external or separate from the act of cognition itself. This is because the object is "necessarily experienced simultaneously with the cognition tself (''Pramāṇavārttika'' 3.387). The view that there is a duality (''dvaya'') between an object (''grāhya'') and a subjective cognition (''grāhaka'') arises out of ignorance.
Dharmakīrti's ''Substantiation of Other Mindstreams'' (''Saṃtānāntarasiddhi'') is a treatise on the nature of the ]mindstream
Mindstream (Pali: ''citta-santāna'', Sanskrit: ''citta-saṃtāna;'' Ch: ''xin xiangxu'' 心相續) in Buddhist philosophy is the moment-to-moment continuum of sense impressions and mental phenomena ( citta), which is also described as continui ...
and Buddhist response to the problem of other minds
The problem of other minds is a Philosophy, philosophical problem traditionally stated as the following Epistemology, epistemological question: "Given that I can only observe the behavior of others, how can I know that others have minds?" The pr ...
Dharmakirti held the mindstream to be a beginning-less yet also described the mindstream as a temporal sequence, and that as there are no true beginnings, there are no true endings, hence, the "beginningless time" motif that is frequently used to describe the concept of mindstream.
Affiliation
There is disagreement among Indian and Tibetan doxographers as to how to categorise Dharmakīrti's thoughts. The Gelug
file:DalaiLama0054 tiny.jpg, 240px, 14th Dalai Lama, The 14th Dalai Lama (center), the most influential figure of the contemporary Gelug tradition, at the 2003 Kalachakra ceremony, Bodh Gaya, Bodhgaya (India)
The Gelug (, also Geluk; 'virtuous' ...
school asserts that he expressed Yogācāra views, most non-Gelug Tibetan commentators assert that he expressed Sautrāntika views and, according to one Tibetan source, several of renowned later Indian Madhyamikas asserted that he expressed Madhyamaka
Madhyamaka ("middle way" or "centrism"; ; ; Tibetic languages, Tibetan: དབུ་མ་པ་ ; ''dbu ma pa''), otherwise known as Śūnyavāda ("the Śūnyatā, emptiness doctrine") and Niḥsvabhāvavāda ("the no Svabhava, ''svabhāva'' d ...
views.
Among modern scholars, some like Tillemans argue that Dharmakīrti represented the Yogācāra school, while Amar Singh argues that he was a Sautrāntika. For Christine Mullikin Keyt, Dharmakīrti represents a "synthesis of two schools of Indian Buddhism, the Sautrantika and the Yogacara." Likewise, Dan Arnold argues that Dharmakīrti's alternating philosophical perspectives of Sautrāntika and Yogācāra views are ultimately compatible and are applied at different levels of his 'sliding scale of analysis.'
There is also a tendency to see Dignāga and Dharmakīrti as founding a new type of Buddhist school or tradition, which is known in Tibetan as "those who follow reasoning" () and sometimes is known in modern literature as ''pramāṇavāda''.
Writings and commentaries
Dharmakīrti is credited with the following major works:
*''Sambandhaparīkṣā'' and ''Sambandhaparīkṣāvṛtti'' (''Analysis of Relations'')
*''Sambandhaparīkṣāvṛtti'' (''Analysis of Relations'' ''auto-commentary'')
*''Pramāṇaviniścaya'' (''Ascertainment of Valid Cognition'')
*'' Pramāṇavārttika-kārika'' (Commentary on Dignāga's '' Pramāṇasamuccaya'')
*''Pramāṇavārttikasvavrtti'' (auto-commentary on the above text)
*''Nyāyabinduprakaraṇa'' (''Drop of Logic'')
*''Hetubindunāmaprakaraṇa'' (''Drop of Reason'')
*''Saṃtānāntarasiddhināmaprakaraṇa'' (''Proof of Others' Mindstreams'')
*''Vādanyāyanāmaprakaraṇa'' (''Reasoning for Debate'')
There are various commentaries by later thinkers on Dharmakīrti, the earliest commentators are the Indian scholars Devendrabuddhi (ca. 675 CE.) and Sakyabuddhi (ca. 700 C.E.). Other Indian commentators include Karṇakagomin, Prajñākaragupta, Manorathanandin, Ravigupta and Śaṅkaranandana
Śaṅkaranandana (fl. c. 9th or 10th century), (Tibetan: ''Bde byed dga’ ba)'' was a Mahayana Buddhist philosopher, and a brahmin lay devotee (upāsaka) active in Kashmir in the Buddhist logico-epistemology, epistemological (''pramana'') traditi ...
.
He was extremely influential in Tibet, where Phya pa Chos kyi Seng ge (1182-1251) wrote the first summary of his works, called "Clearing of Mental Obscuration with Respect to the Seven Treatises on Valid Cognition" (''tshad ma sde bdun yid gi mun sel''). Sakya Pandita wrote the "Treasure on the Science of Valid Cognition" (''tshad ma rigs gter'') and interpreted Dharmakirti as an anti-realist against Phya pa's realism.[Recognizing Reality: Dharmakirti's Philosophy and its Tibetan Interpretations, (Suny: 1997), page 23-24] These two main interpretations of Dharmakīrti became the foundation for most debates in Tibetan epistemology.
See also
* Dignāga
Dignāga (also known as ''Diṅnāga'', ) was an Indian Buddhist philosopher and logician. He is credited as one of the Buddhism, Buddhist founders of Indian logic (''hetu vidyā'') and Buddhist atomism, atomism. Dignāga's work laid the grou ...
* Hetucakra
''Hetucakra'' or ''Wheel of Reasons'' is a Sanskrit text on logic written by Dignaga (c 480–540 CE). It concerns the application of his 'three modes’ (trairūpya), conditions or aspects of the middle term called ''hetu'' ("reason" for a conc ...
* Trairūpya ''Trairūpya (''Sanskrit; English: "the triple-character of inferential sign") is a conceptual tool of Buddhist logic. The Trairūpya, ‘three conditions’, is often accredited to Dignaga (c. 480-540 CE) though is now understood to have originated ...
* Buddhist logic
Buddhist logico-epistemology is a term used in Western scholarship to describe Buddhism, Buddhist systems of ' (Epistemology, epistemic tool, valid cognition) and ' (reasoning, logic).
While the term may refer to various Buddhist systems and vi ...
* Pramana
''Pramana'' (; IAST: Pramāṇa) literally means " proof" and "means of knowledge".
* Buddhist atomism
* Epistemology
Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that examines the nature, origin, and limits of knowledge. Also called "the theory of knowledge", it explores different types of knowledge, such as propositional knowledge about facts, practical knowle ...
* William of Ockham
William of Ockham or Occam ( ; ; 9/10 April 1347) was an English Franciscan friar, scholastic philosopher, apologist, and theologian, who was born in Ockham, a small village in Surrey. He is considered to be one of the major figures of medie ...
References
Bibliography
* extensive discussion of the Dharmakirti's Tibetan reception
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* Pecchia, C. (ed., with the assistance of Pierce P.). (2015). ''Dharmakīrti on the Cessation of Suffering. A Critical Edition with Translation and Comments of Manorathanandin's Vṛtti and Vibhūticandraʼs Glosses on Pramāṇavārttika II.190-216''. Leiden, Brill.
* Shcherbatskoy, Fyodor (1932) ''Buddhist Logic'', introduced the West to Buddhist logic, and more specifically to Dignaga. Although pioneering, this work is now regarded as outdated by some Buddhist scholars. — David Loy complains about viewing Buddhist philosophy "through the categories of another system – Stcherbatsky's Kant, Murti's Vedānta
''Vedanta'' (; , ), also known as ''Uttara Mīmāṃsā'', is one of the six orthodox ( ''āstika'') traditions of Hindu philosophy and textual exegesis. The word ''Vedanta'' means 'conclusion of the Vedas', and encompasses the ideas that e ...
, Gudmundsen's Wittgenstein
Ludwig Josef Johann Wittgenstein ( ; ; 26 April 1889 – 29 April 1951) was an Austrian philosopher who worked primarily in logic, the philosophy of mathematics, the philosophy of mind, and the philosophy of language.
From 1929 to 1947, Witt ...
– which (as with earlier interpretations of nirvāṇa) reveals more about the interpreter than the interpreted." ().
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