''Cí'' (pronounced ; zh, t=詞), also known as ''chángduǎnjù'' ( zh, t=長短句, s=长短句, l=lines of irregular lengths, first=t, labels=no) and ''shīyú'' ( zh, t=詩餘, s=诗馀, l=the poetry besides
Shi, first=t, labels=no), is a type of
lyric poetry
Modern lyric poetry is a formal type of poetry which expresses personal emotions or feelings, typically spoken in the first person.
The term for both modern lyric poetry and modern song lyrics derives from a form of Ancient Greek literature, t ...
in the tradition of
Classical Chinese poetry
Classical Chinese poetry is traditional Chinese poetry written in Classical Chinese and typified by certain traditional forms, or modes; traditional genres; and connections with particular historical periods, such as the poetry of the Tang dy ...
that also draws upon folk traditions. ''Cí,'' also known as "song lyrics," use various
poetic meter
In poetry, metre ( Commonwealth spelling) or meter (American spelling; see spelling differences) is the basic rhythmic structure of a verse or lines in verse. Many traditional verse forms prescribe a specific verse metre, or a certain set of ...
s derived from a base set of fixed pattern forms, using fixed-rhythm, fixed-tone, and line-lengths varying according that of the model examples. The rhythmic and tonal pattern of the ''cí'' are based upon certain, definitive musical song tunes (''cípái''), and in many cases the name of the musical tune is given in the title of a ''cí'' piece, in a form such as "after (the tune of)...."
Typically, the number of
characters in each line and the arrangement of
tone
Tone may refer to:
Visual arts and color-related
* Tone (color theory), a mix of tint and shade, in painting and color theory
* Tone (color), the lightness or brightness (as well as darkness) of a color
* Toning (coin), color change in coins
* ...
s were determined by one of around 800 set patterns, each associated with a particular title, called ''cípái'' (). Originally, they were written to be sung to a tune of that title, with a set rhythm,
rhyme
A rhyme is a repetition of similar sounds (usually the exact same phonemes) in the final Stress (linguistics), stressed syllables and any following syllables of two or more words. Most often, this kind of rhyming (''perfect rhyming'') is consciou ...
, and tempo. Therefore, the title may have nothing to do with its content. Indeed, several ''cí'' often shared the same title. The titles did not refer to the content, but rather their shared rhythmic and tonal patterns. Some ''cí'' have a "subtitle" or a commentary, sometimes as long as a paragraph, indicating the content. Sometimes, for the sake of clarity, a ''cí'' is listed under its title, followed by its first line.
History
Although the oldest surviving textual examples of ''cí'' are from 8th century CE
Dunhuang manuscripts
The Dunhuang manuscripts are a wide variety of religious and secular documents (mostly manuscripts, including Hemp paper, hemp, silk, paper and Woodblock printing, woodblock-printed texts) in Old Tibetan, Tibetan, Chinese, and other languages tha ...
, beginning in the
poetry
Poetry (from the Greek language, Greek word ''poiesis'', "making") is a form of literature, literary art that uses aesthetics, aesthetic and often rhythmic qualities of language to evoke meaning (linguistics), meanings in addition to, or in ...
of the
Liang dynasty
The Liang dynasty (), alternatively known as the Southern Liang () or Xiao Liang () in historiography, was an imperial dynasty of China and the third of the four Southern dynasties during the Northern and Southern dynasties period. It was pre ...
, the ''ci'' followed the tradition of the ''
Shi Jing
The ''Classic of Poetry'', also ''Shijing'' or ''Shih-ching'', translated variously as the ''Book of Songs'', ''Book of Odes'', or simply known as the ''Odes'' or ''Poetry'' (; ''Shī''), is the oldest existing collection of Chinese poetry, co ...
'' and the ''
yuefu
''Yuefu'' are Chinese poems composed in a folk song style. The term originally literally meant " Music Bureau", a reference to the imperial Chinese governmental organization(s) originally charged with collecting or writing the lyrics, later the ...
'': they were lyrics which developed from anonymous popular songs into a sophisticated literary genre. In the case of the ''cí'' form, some of its fixed-rhythm patterns have been influenced by music and poetry of
Central Asia
Central Asia is a region of Asia consisting of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan. The countries as a group are also colloquially referred to as the "-stans" as all have names ending with the Persian language, Pers ...
and elsewhere.
The ''ci'' form developed during the late
Tang dynasty
The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, c=唐朝), or the Tang Empire, was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907, with an Wu Zhou, interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dynasty and followed ...
. Although the contributions of
Li Bai
Li Bai (, 701–762), Literary and colloquial readings, also pronounced Li Bo, courtesy name Taibai (), was a Chinese poet acclaimed as one of the greatest and most important poets of the Tang dynasty and in Chinese history as a whole. He and hi ...
(701–762) are fraught with historical doubt, certainly the Tang poet
Wen Tingyun (812–870) was a great master of the ''ci'', writing it in its distinct and mature form. One of the more notable practitioners and developers of this form was
Li Yu of the
Southern Tang
Southern Tang ( zh, c=南唐, p=Nán Táng) was a Dynasties in Chinese history, dynastic state of China that existed during Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. Located in southern China, the Southern Tang proclaimed itself to be the successor ...
dynasty, during the
Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, subsequent to Tang. Before the ''ci'' form was formalized by the scholarly, it's antecedents had grown up in a setting of popular music. Serindian influences were particularly important in this regard; with the influence of Kucha drum dance tunes being the most important. Much of the process of importing Serindian influence into Classical Chinese poetry was mediated through the short-lived state of
Western Liang (555–587)
Liang, known in historiography as the Western Liang () or the Later Liang (), was an imperial dynasty of China during the Northern and Southern dynasties era of Chinese history. Throughout its existence, it remained a puppet state of the Wester ...
. Western Liang was basically a city-state centered on the city known in Tang times as Liangzhou. In Western Liang a musical hybrid of Chinese and Kuchean traditions developed, and became popularized throughout the Tang culture, from the people to even the emperor
Xuanzong (reigned 713–756). This was part of a larger movement: "...of all the specialists of ambiguous social status who were sent to China by a foreign government, the most popular and influential were the musicians―instrumentalists, singers, and dancers―and the instruments and musical modes that they brought with them....For many centuries, the music of the West had had its admirers in China, but under the
Sui 81–618emperors there was a great vogue for it, which continued into T'ang times." Foreign music (in terms of performers, instruments, musical modes, and songs) was brought to China, often as a result of wars of conquest or as a type of "tribute" and this music found a place in informal settings at the imperial court to other less reputable settings. ''Ci'' poetry largely developed during the late Tang from the music made in popular settings such as houses of pleasure and from the inclusion of romantic and erotic themes of late Tang poets such as
Li Shangyin.
However, the ''ci'' form of Classical Chinese poetry is especially associated with the
poetry of the Song dynasty, during which it was indeed a popular poetic form. A revival of the ''cí'' poetry form occurred during the end of the
Ming dynasty
The Ming dynasty, officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming was the last imperial dynasty of ...
and the beginning of the
Qing dynasty
The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing, was a Manchu-led Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China and an early modern empire in East Asia. The last imperial dynasty in Chinese history, the Qing dynasty was preceded by the ...
which was characterized by an exploration of the emotions connected with romantic love together with its secularization, often in a context of a brief poetic story narrative within a ''cí'' poem or a linked group of ''cí'' poems in an application of the ''
chuanqi'' form of short story tales to poetry.
Classification
Song
During the
Song dynasty
The Song dynasty ( ) was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 960 to 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song, who usurped the throne of the Later Zhou dynasty and went on to conquer the rest of the Fiv ...
(960–1279), two main categories of ''cí'' employed were ''xiǎolìng'' (小令; the original form since pre-Song) and ''màncí'' (慢詞; starting with
Liu Yong), depending on the song being either short and in fast tempo or long and in slow tempo. Most ''xiǎolìng'' were written in the pre-Song era.
Ming and Qing
Later, during the
Ming (1368–1644) and
Qing
The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing, was a Manchu-led Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China and an early modern empire in East Asia. The last imperial dynasty in Chinese history, the Qing dynasty was preceded by the ...
(1644–1912) dynasties, the ''cí'', or rather the ''cípái'', became classified for the number of characters it dictates. It is called
# ''xiǎolìng'' 小令 if it is no more than 58 characters,
# ''zhōngdiào'' 中調 for 59–90 characters, and
# ''chángdiào'' 長調 for over 90 characters.
If the ''ci'' appears in one stanza, it is called ''dāndiào'' (單調). The largest majority is ''shuāngdiào'' (雙調) with two stanzas or ''què'' (闋) in identical or nearly identical patterns. There also are rare cases of ''sāndié'' (三疊) and ''sìdié'' (四疊), for three and four ''qüè'', respectively. In terms of style, ''cí'' can also be classified as either ''wǎnyuē'' (婉約; grace) or ''háofàng'' (豪放; bold).
Formation
There are four main tones in Mandarin Chinese, though a fifth ("neutral") tone may be considered. The
tonal systems of past centuries were different. The term "tonal contour" is used to indicate that these tones are not tones in the sense of absolute musical pitches, but rather in terms of the overall relative "shape" of the tones as spoken or chanted.
The four tones of
Middle Chinese
Middle Chinese (formerly known as Ancient Chinese) or the Qieyun system (QYS) is the historical variety of Chinese language, Chinese recorded in the ''Qieyun'', a rime dictionary first published in 601 and followed by several revised and expande ...
were first described by Shen Yue around AD 500. They were the "level" (平 píng), "rising" (上 shǎng), "departing" (去 qù), and "entering" (入 rù) tones." The level is classified in 平 ping; and the rising, departing and entering are classified in 仄 ze. So, in any cipai, the formation of Ci, each Chinese character in Ci will be required in detailed tones with 平 or 仄.
Cipai
Cipai ( zh, s=词牌), also called Cige and Cidiao, is the name of various formations of Ci. Most ''cípái'' consist of three characters. The literal meaning of a ''cípái'' can be rather obscure, making it difficult to translate. Some are taken straight from earlier poems, and some are clearly of Non-Han origin—mostly songs introduced from Central Asia. Some ''cípái'' have alternative names, usually taken from a famous piece of that very ''cípái''. There also are variants of certain ''cípái'', indicated by a prefix or a suffix. The formations of Ci are complicated, in different names of cipai, the number of characters, syntactical structure, tones and rhyme are also different.
Example
For example, choosing the ''cipai'' Jiang Chengzi or "Riverside City" (江城子), the
tone requirements of each character in this cipai is following:
仄平平仄仄平平。仄平平,仄平平。仄仄平平,仄仄仄平平。仄仄平平平仄仄,平仄仄,仄平平。
平平仄仄仄平平。仄平平,仄平平。仄仄平平,仄仄仄平平。仄仄平平平仄仄,平仄仄,仄平平。
The following is a ''cí'' poem based on 江城子.
:十年生死兩茫茫,
:不思量,自難忘。
:千里孤墳,無處話淒涼。
:縱使相逢應不識,
:塵滿面,鬢如霜。
:夜來幽夢忽還鄉,
:小軒窗,正梳妝。
:相顧無言,唯有淚千行。
:料得年年斷腸處,
:明月夜,短松岡。
General translation:
:Ten boundless years now separate the living and the dead.
:I have not often thought of her, but neither can I forget.
:Her lonely grave is a thousand ''li'' distant, I can't say where my wife lies cold.
:We could not recognise each other even if we met again,
:My face is all but covered with dust, my temples glazed with frost.
:In deepest night, a sudden dream returns me to my homeland.
:She sits before a little window, and sorts her dress and make-up.
:We look at each other without a word, a thousand lines of tears.
:Must it be that every year I'll think of that heart-breaking place,
:Where the moon shines brightly in the night, and bare pines guard the tomb.
:——
Su Shi
Su Shi ( zh, t=, s=苏轼, p=Sū Shì; 8 January 1037 – 24 August 1101), courtesy name Zizhan (), art name Dongpo (), was a Chinese poet, essayist, calligrapher, painter, scholar-official, literatus, artist, pharmacologist, and gastronome wh ...
, 蘇軾,《江城子·十年生死兩茫茫》
In the title of this ''cí'', "Riverside City" is the name of ''cípái.'' Su Shi was married when he was 19, and his wife was 16. His wife died when she was only 27. Because of his government duties, Su Shi moved to many different places in China, all far away from his hometown. One night in early 1075, about 10 years after her death, Su Shi dreamed of his wife, then composed this famous ''cí''.
Famous ''cí'' poets
Tang, Five Dynasties, Ten Kingdoms
*
Wen Tingyun (812–870)
*
Wei Zhuang (836–910)
*
Li Cunxu
Emperor Zhuangzong of Later Tang (), personal name Li Cunxu (), nickname Yazi (), stage name Li Tianxia (), was the second ruling prince of the Former Jin dynasty (r. 908–923) who later became the founding emperor of the Later Tang dynasty ...
(885–926)
*
Gu Xiong (fl. 928)
* Lu Qianyi (fl. 931)
* Yan Xuan (fl. 932)
* Mao Xizhen (fl. 947)
* Xue Zhaoyun (10th century)
*
Sun Guangxian (d. 968)
*
Li Yu (937–978)
Song
*
Liu Yong (987–1053)
*
Ouyang Xiu
Ouyang Xiu (; 1007 – 1072 CE), courtesy name Yongshu, also known by his art names Zuiweng () and Liu Yi Jushi (), was a Chinese historian, calligrapher, epigrapher, essayist, poet, and politician of the Song dynasty. He was a renowned writer a ...
(1007–1072)
*
Su Shi
Su Shi ( zh, t=, s=苏轼, p=Sū Shì; 8 January 1037 – 24 August 1101), courtesy name Zizhan (), art name Dongpo (), was a Chinese poet, essayist, calligrapher, painter, scholar-official, literatus, artist, pharmacologist, and gastronome wh ...
(1037–1101)
*
Song Ci
Song Ci (; 1186–1249) was a Chinese physician, judge, forensic medical scientist, anthropologist, and writer of the Southern Song dynasty. He is most well known for being the world's first forensic entomologist, having recorded his experi ...
(1186–1249)
*
Huang Tingjian
Huang Tingjian (; 1045, Jiangxi province, China–1105, Yizhou ow Yishan Guangxi) was a Chinese calligrapher, painter, and poet of the Song dynasty. He is predominantly known as a calligrapher, and is also admired for his painting and poetry. H ...
(1045–1105)
*
Qin Guan
Qin Guan (; 1049 – ) was a Chinese poet of the Song Dynasty. His courtesy name was Shaoyou (). Taixu was also his courtesy name. His pseudonym was Huaihai Jushi () and Hangou Jushi (). He was honored as one of the "Four Scholars of Sumen" (), ...
(1049–1100)
*
Zhou Bangyan (1056–1121)
*
Li Qingzhao
Li Qingzhao (; 1084 – ca. 1155), art name Yi'an Jushi (), was a Chinese poet and essayist of the Song dynasty. She is considered one of the greatest poets in Chinese history.
Biography
Early life
Li Qingzhao was born in 1084 in Jinan, S ...
(1081–1149?)
*
Lu You
Lu You ( zh, s=陆游, t=陸游, first=t; 1125–1210) was a Chinese historian and List of Chinese language poets, poet of the Southern Song Dynasty (南宋).
Career Early life and marriage
Lu You was born on a boat floating in the Wei River e ...
(1125–1209)
*
Xin Qiji
Xin Qiji (28 May 1140 – 3 Oct 1207) was a Chinese poet, calligrapher, and military general during the Southern Song dynasty (1127–1279).
Life
During Xin's lifetime, northern China was occupied during the Jin–Song Wars by the Jurchen peopl ...
(1140–1207)
*
Jiang Kui (1155–1221)
*
Wang Yisun (1240?–1290?)
Post-Song
*
Gao Bing (1350–1423)
*
Qian Qianyi
Qian Qianyi (; Suzhou dialect: ; 1582–1664) was a Chinese historian, poet, and politician during the late Ming dynasty.Cihai: Page 1704. Qian was a famous author and poet; and along with Gong Dingzi and Wu Weiye was known as one of the Three M ...
(1582–1664)
*
Wu Weiye (1609–1671)
*
Gong Dingzi (1615–1673)
*
Chen Weisong (陈维崧 1626–1682)
*
Zhu Yizun (1629–1709)
*
Nalan Xingde (1655–1685)
*
Mao Zedong
Mao Zedong pronounced ; traditionally Romanization of Chinese, romanised as Mao Tse-tung. (26December 18939September 1976) was a Chinese politician, revolutionary, and political theorist who founded the People's Republic of China (PRC) in ...
(1893–1976)
See also
*
Classical Chinese poetry forms
Classical Chinese poetry forms are poetry forms or modes which typify the traditional Chinese poems written in Literary Chinese or Classical Chinese. Classical Chinese poetry has various characteristic forms, some attested to as early as the ...
* ''
Dan dan you qing''
*
Shui diao ge tou
*
Song poetry
Song poetry is poetry typical of the Song dynasty of China, established by the Zhao (surname), Zhao family in China in 960 and lasted until 1279.
Many of the best known Classical Chinese poems, popular also in translation, are from the Song dyna ...
Further reading
Fuller, Michael A. (2018-02-12). ''An Introduction to Chinese Poetry: From the Canon of Poetry to the Lyrics of the Song Dynasty''. Harvard East Asian Monographs. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. .
References
References
* Davis, A. R. (Albert Richard), Editor and Introduction,(1970), ''The Penguin Book of Chinese Verse''. (Baltimore: Penguin Books).
*
Graham, A. C. (1977). Poems of the Late T'ang. New York, New York: The New York Review of Books.
*
Hinton, David (2008). ''Classical Chinese Poetry: An Anthology''. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux.
* Frankel, Hans H. (1978). ''The Flowering Plum and the Palace Lady''. (New Haven and London: Yale University Press)
*
Schafer, Edward H. (1963) ''The Golden Peaches of Samarkand''. Berkeley: University of California Press. .
*
Sun Chang, Kang-i. ''The evolution of Chinese tz'u poetry from late T'ang to Northern Sung''. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1980.
* Wagner, Marsha ''The lotus boat: origins of Chinese tz'u poetry in T'ang popular culture'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 1984).
* Zhang, Hongsheng (2002). "Gong Dingzi and the Courtesan Gu Mei: Their Romance and the Revival of the Song Lyric in the Ming-Qing Transition", in ''Hsiang Lectures on Chinese Poetry, Volume 2'', Grace S. Fong, editor. (Montreal: Center for East Asian Research, McGill University).
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Chinese poetry forms