Colonial Architecture Of Brazil

The colonial architecture of Brazil is defined as the architecture carried out in the current Brazilian territory from 1500, the year of the Portuguese arrival, until its Independence, in 1822.

During the colonial period, the colonizers imported European stylistic currents to the colony, adapting them to the local material and socioeconomic conditions. Colonial buildings with Renaissance, Mannerism, Baroque, Rococo and Neoclassical architectural traits can be found in Brazil, but the transition between styles took place progressively over the centuries, and the classification of the periods and artistic styles of colonial Brazil is a matter of debate among specialists.

The importance of the colonial architectural and artistic legacy in Brazil is attested by the ensembles and monuments of this origin that have been declared World Heritage Sites by UNESCO. These are the historic centers of Ouro Preto, Olinda, Salvador, São Luís do Maranhão, Diamantina, Goiás Velho, the Ruins of the Guarani Jesuit Missions in São Miguel das Missões, the Bom Jesus de Matosinhos Sanctuary in Congonhas, and São Francisco Square in São Cristóvão. There are also the historical centers that, although they have not been recognized as World Heritage Sites, still have important monuments from that period, such as Recife, Rio de Janeiro, and Mariana. Especially in the case of Recife, the demolition and decharacterization of most of the historic buildings and the colonial urban layout were decisive for the non-recognition.

Colonial settlements and urbanism

Architectural activity in colonial Brazil begins in the 1530s, when colonization gains momentum with the creation of the Captaincies of Brazil (1534) and the foundation of the first villages, such as Igarassu and Olinda, founded by Duarte Coelho around 1535, and São Vicente founded by Martim Afonso de Sousa in 1532. Later, in 1549, the city of Salvador was founded by Tomé de Sousa as the seat of the General-Government. The architect brought in by Tomé de Sousa, Luís Dias, then designs the capital of the colony, including the governor's palace, churches and the first streets, squares and houses, in addition to the indispensable fortification around the settlement.

The noblest part of the city of Salvador, which included rammed earth buildings such as the governor's palace, residences and most of the churches and convents, was built on high ground, 70 meters above the beach level; while, by the bay, the infrastructure dedicated to commercial activities was built. Other cities founded in the 16th century, such as Olinda (1535) and Rio de Janeiro (1565), are characterized by having been founded near the sea but on land elevations, dividing the settlement into a high town and a low town. In general, the upper town was home to the residential and administrative areas and the lower part to the commercial and port areas, resembling the organization of the main Portuguese cities, such as Lisbon, Porto, and Coimbra, from ancient and medieval times. This arrangement obeyed defense considerations, since in the early days the colonial settlements were at constant risk of attacks from indigenous peoples and Europeans from other nations. In fact, almost all the first settlements founded by the Portuguese had walls, palisades, bastions, and gates that controlled access to the interior.

Colonial urbanism in Brazil was often characterized by the adaptation of the layout of streets, squares and walls to the relief of the terrain and position of important buildings such as convents and churches. Although they did not follow the rigid checkerboard pattern of Spanish foundations in the New World, many colonial cities, starting with Olinda and Salvador, are now considered to have had their streets laid out with relative regularity. During the period of the Iberian Union (1580–1640), cities founded in Brazil had greater regularity, as is the case of Felipeia da Paraíba (now João Pessoa), founded in 1585, and São Luís do Maranhão, laid out in 1615 by Francisco Frias de Mesquita, with the trend towards regularity of urban center layouts increasing throughout the 17th century. Also noteworthy are the great urbanistic works carried out in Recife during the government of Count John Maurice of Nassau (1637–1643), who, with the embankment and construction of bridges, canals, and forts, transformed the old port of Olinda into a city.

A determining aspect of colonial urbanism was the establishment of churches and convents. Often the construction of religious buildings was accompanied by the creation of a churchyard or a square next to the building, as well as a network of access streets, organizing the urban space. In Salvador, for example, the construction of the Jesuit College in the 16th century, outside the city walls, gave rise to the Terreiro de Jesus Square and made the area a pole of expansion of the city. Another notable example of colonial urban space is the Pátio de São Pedro, which arose from the construction of the São Pedro dos Clérigos Co-Cathedral in Recife (after 1728). In Rio de Janeiro, the main colonial street, Direita Street (currently Primeiro de Março Street), arose as a connection between the Morro do Castelo, where the city was founded, and the São Bento Monastery, located on the hill of the same name. Another important aspect was the establishment of religious monuments in high places, sometimes preceded by staircases, which created scenographic landscapes with a strong baroque character. In Rio, for example, many monasteries and churches were built on hills, with their facades facing the sea, offering a magnificent setting for travelers entering Guanabara Bay. The privileged relationship between topography and churches is also striking in the cities of Minas Gerais, especially Ouro Preto and the Congonhas Sanctuary. In the latter, the pilgrimage church is located on top of a hill, preceded by a set of chapels with the Via Sacra and a staircase decorated with statues of prophets.

In the 18th century, reforms carried out by the government of the Marquis of Pombal, linked in part to the need to occupy the limits with Spanish America, led to a greater presence of military engineers in the colony and to the foundation of several planned vilas, in which the places for administrative buildings, churches, and symbols of public power were planned. Thus, during the 18th century, many villages were created with planned urbanism in the current states of Rio Grande do Sul, Mato Grosso, Goiás, Roraima, Amazonas and others. Moreover, in some places common facade patterns for buildings were adopted with the aim of creating a harmonious urban ensemble, as observed in the lower city of Salvador in the mid-eighteenth century. In Minas Gerais, where the gold rush favored the rapid growth of villages in hilly terrain without any planning, there were also some important urbanistic interventions. The layout of the city of Mariana, located on relatively flat terrain, was regularly remodeled in 1745 by José Fernandes Pinto Alpoim. At the same time, several houses were demolished in downtown Ouro Preto for the creation of a monumental square, today known as Tiradentes Square, where the City Council House and the Governor's Palace were built. Urban improvements were more frequent as colonization advanced. In Salvador, major landfills in the 18th century allowed the development of the lower city, previously restricted to a narrow strip of land. In Rio de Janeiro, lagoons and swamps were filled in to allow expansion and improve the salubrity of the city.

Also in Rio was built perhaps the largest infrastructure work in colonial Brazil: the Carioca Aqueduct, definitively inaugurated in 1750. The aqueduct brought water from the river of the same name to the city center, feeding several fountains, some of which still exist. One of them was located in Paço Square (now 15 November Square), urbanized in the early 1740s by José Fernandes Pinto Alpoim in the image of Lisbon's Ribeira Square. The square's pier would later gain a monumental fountain, designed by Mestre Valentim and completed in 1789.

Rio de Janeiro, capital of the colony since 1767, was the main focus of urban interventions between the 18th and 19th centuries. The most important was the creation of the Passeio Público between 1789 and 1793. The design of the park, executed according to a project by Mestre Valentim, included geometric tree-lined boulevards, fountains and statues. To build the park required a major urban intervention, with the destruction of a hill and the embankment of a pond. Later, with the arrival of the Portuguese royal family in 1808, Rio also gained the Botanical Garden, the first in Colonial Brazil.

Architects

Those responsible for the architectural designs (''riscos'') of the colony remained largely anonymous, even in the case of some large convents and churches. Among the known authors, there are religious and many military engineers, the latter with solid theoretical knowledge of architecture. Others had more practical knowledge, such as master builders, master stonemasons and carpenters.

Religious orders such as the Jesuits, Benedictines, Franciscans and Carmelites, among the first to settle in Brazil, had notable architects and builders in their ranks, and with them began a great tradition of increasingly rich and imposing religious buildings. For example, the Jesuit architect Francisco Dias, who had worked on the construction of the Jesuit church in Lisbon, arrived in Brazil in 1577. He worked on the Graça Church in Olinda (his only design still standing), and built the Jesuit colleges in Rio de Janeiro, Santos, and others. Another important religious architect was Friar Macário de São João, a Benedictine to whom are attributed the 17th century designs of the churches of the São Bento Monastery and the Misericórdia of Salvador, among others.

The military engineers were mostly Portuguese, with some of other nationalities, especially Italians in the service of Portugal. These engineers not only built forts, but were also responsible for delineating settlements and designing administrative buildings and even religious constructions. A prominent example in the 17th century was Francisco Frias de Mesquita, who was in Brazil between 1603 and 1635 and built several forts, delineated the city of São Luís do Maranhão (after 1615) and designed the church of the São Bento Monastery of Rio de Janeiro (1617).

Throughout the 18th century, Portuguese military engineers designed some of the most important works of colonial architecture. José Fernandes Pinto Alpoim, for example, designed in Rio de Janeiro the Imperial Palace, the Convent of Santa Teresa, urbanized the Paço Square and finished the work of the Carioca Aqueduct. In Minas Gerais, he designed the Governor's Palace in Ouro Preto and delineated the city of Mariana. In Rio, the Candelária Church was designed by Francisco João Roscio, another Portuguese military engineer. In Ouro Preto, Pedro Gomes Chaves designed the Nossa Senhora do Pilar Parish Church, while in Bahia, Manuel Cardoso de Saldanha designed the remarkable Nossa Senhora da Conceição da Praia Basilica, with an innovative plan and facade. Of course, Portuguese military engineers also built fortresses. In the south, for example, José da Silva Pais built an elaborate system of forts to defend the Santa Catarina Island.

The growing need for skilled professionals in the colonies led the colonial government to create the so-called Military Fortification and Architecture Classes (''Aulas de Fortificação e Arquitetura Militar''), which represent the first schools dedicated to teaching architecture in Brazil. The first one was created in Salvador in 1699, along with the one in Recife at the same time. In 1735, a Class was created in Rio de Janeiro, in which the aforementioned Pinto Alpoim was the first teacher. From these classes the first military engineers graduated in Brazil began to emerge. One outstanding example was José António Caldas (1725–1767), born in Bahia and a student of Manuel Cardoso de Saldanha at the Class of Salvador. He worked on several engineering and architectural projects in the northeast, including the renovations of the Salvador Cathedral (already demolished). He was also sent to the west coast of Africa to perform engineering tasks. From 1761, he was a professor at the Class of Salvador, in which he had graduated.

Other important groups were the master builders and master stonemasons, who in principle were responsible for the execution of the works, also often designed architectural projects. These professionals had no theoretical training in architecture but had much practical knowledge, acquired on the construction sites. Among these professionals who created notable architectural designs is Manuel Ferreira Jácome, master stonemason, author of the São Pedro dos Clérigos Co-Cathedral. In Minas Gerais the presence of these masters was very striking and included names such as José Pereira dos Santos, José Pereira Arouca and Francisco de Lima Cerqueira, the latter responsible for the Saint Francis of Assisi Church in São João del-Rei.

There were also designers who were not builders. An important example was Antônio Pereira de Sousa Calheiros, who was a doctor in law but designed the Rosary Churches in Ouro Preto and in Mariana. Luís da Cunha Meneses, colonial governor, designed the monumental City Council House and Jail of Ouro Preto. It is also important to mention Antônio Francisco Lisboa, Aleijadinho, who was primarily a sculptor but also author of important architectural projects.

Techniques and materials

Walls

Initially, the colonial architecture used the techniques of rammed earth and wattle and daub, of quick construction and using abundant materials in the colony: clay and wood. Soon stonemasonry or adobe bricks were also adopted to raise walls, which allowed the construction of larger structures and the inclusion of woodwork for floors and ceilings.Colin, Sílvio (2010). ''Técnicas construtivas do período colonial
I – Vedações e DivisóriasII – Coberturas e forrosIII – EsquadriasIV – Pisos e pavimentos, Pinturas, Alicerces
'' and ''Tipos e padrões da arquitetura civil colonial
III

Coisas da Arquitetura
' (in Portuguese).

Wattle and daub, also called "''taipa de sebe''", "''taipa de mão''", "''taipa de sopapo''", or "''barro armado''", was one of the most used building systems in the colonial period. This was due to its low cost, since all of its required materials are natural, as well as its good resistance and durability. It was well known by the indigenous and African people, and its greatest incidence was in the areas that correspond to the current Northeast and Southeast regions. Its purest version has as its main structure wooden pieces composed of upper horizontal pieces (''frechais''), lower horizontal pieces (''baldrames''), and vertical pieces (''esteios''). The pieces are joined to form a weft, tied by silk, linen, hemp, or buriti cords. Finally, the clay is thrown on top.

One system, similar to wattle and daub is the timber framing, common in the southern region, which, however, uses masonry for the fence.

Another widely used system, especially for internal partitions is the ''tabique'', which consists of a structure of wooden beams covered by boards. It is a system of great ease and simplicity in its execution. For the systems, the most commonly used woods at the time were aroeira, braúna, ipê, peroba, jatobá, among others.

In Brazil the use of rammed earth also became popular, basically because it responded positively to the challenges of the time, because when well used it has a low energy consumption in the manufacturing process. The raw materials used in the production of rammed earth blocks are easily accessible and most of the time no transportation is required. In addition to this characteristic, rammed earth has a great thermal inertia, ideal for the climate of the Brazilian coast, and allows moisture exchange with the external environment.

Stonework was used in the noblest buildings, usually as reinforcement in the corners (''cunhais'') of large buildings and in the lintels of portals and windows. Very few buildings were built exclusively in stonework, a preserved example being the Garcia d'Ávila Tower House in Bahia, mostly built in the early 1600s. Even in the following centuries few churches were built with stone facades.

In the beginning, stonemasonry was mainly used to build fortifications on dry stones, without leveling, to provide more solidity to the buildings to resist the constant indigenous attacks, like the ancient Reis Magos Fortress in Natal. With the arrival of the Jesuit company in Brazil, the use of stone and lime – stonemasonry fitted with lime and sand mortar – was encouraged as a construction method, in the manner of the Portuguese architecture.

In the construction of the new Jesuit monuments on the coast, it was common to use the stone of the realm, the lioz, a kind of semi-marble, imported from Portugal already cut, which was brought as ballast in Portuguese ships, and was fully employed in the Nossa Senhora da Conceição da Lapa Convent. As coastal cities and of greatest importance for the colony, Rio de Janeiro, Salvador and Recife enjoyed this luxury, while in more inland regions it was necessary to exploit the raw material of local abundance, so that sandstone is widely seen applied in masonry with clay mortar, not only in public or religious buildings, but also in housing.

Roofs

In the early days, the roofs of the houses were simply made with straw (''sapé''), like the indigenous huts ('' ocas'') or certain African-influenced dwellings, still existing today in rural areas. The clay (ceramic) roof tile was initially used in the wealthier buildings before becoming popular.

Among the types of tile used in the period are:
* canal tiles, also called colonial tiles, cape and canal, cape and spout, "made on the thighs"; outside Brazil, they are known as Arab or Moorish tiles;
* French tiles, or marselha;
* Roman tiles.

There were various types of roof truss, made of wood, sometimes supplemented by rafters. An important element of the roofs were the eaves, which protected the mud walls from rainwater. It was common for the rafters under the eaves to be carved as ornamentation, and called modillions. There were also elements that complemented or worked as an extension to the main roofs: the balconies and porches. Finally, the ceiling linings in general were flat.

Frames

Doors and windows (leaves) were made of wood, similar to contemporary ones. There were leaves made of rulers (straight lintels), of cushions, of lattices (''urupemas''), of wooden lace, with wickets, etc. More recently, pine leaves (with spaces for glass) appeared, which replaced blind leaves.

The leaves had several modes of operation:
* horizontal opening, or French-style, now called tilt-and-turn;
* vertical opening, called ''gelosias'' or ''rótulas'';
* guillotine or English-style opening.

In the case of thick walls, it was common to chamfer (cut) the wall around the window. The larger opening space obtained increased the room's luminosity, and could be used for seating (conversation chairs). Among additional elements were parapets, balconies, ''muxarabis'', arrowslit, door knockers, etc.

Floors

Internal floors could be dirt floors, clay tile floors, plank floors (floorboards, especially on raised floors), or slab floors (of marble, in the case of noble buildings).

Among the external ones were:
* slabs: stone slabs (sandstone, gneiss, or limestone), laid with clay mortar;
* ''pés-de-moleque'': laying of pebbles (river stones) on the beaten earth;
* ''capistranas'': the laying of a continuous strip of large slabs in the middle of a public road, flanked by pebbles or small slabs.

Others

The paintings on the walls were usually whitewashed, made with lime obtained from shellfish, stone or ''tabatinga'' (a white clay). The wood, on the other hand, was painted with glue, tempera, or oil. Among the dyes used were indigo (blue), dragon's blood and urucum (red), safflower (yellow), braúna (black), ipê and cochineal (pink).

The foundations were generally direct (shallow), made of stonemasonry. However, in the wattle and daub and timber framing buildings, there were fire-treated wooden struts buried 2 to 4 m deep.

Religious architecture: Mannerism and Portuguese Plain Style (XVI-XVII centuries)