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Charles Martin (10 November 1433 – 5 January 1477), called the Bold, was the last
duke of Burgundy Duke of Burgundy () was a title used by the rulers of the Duchy of Burgundy, from its establishment in 843 to its annexation by the Crown lands of France, French crown in 1477, and later by members of the House of Habsburg, including Holy Roman E ...
from the
House of Valois-Burgundy The House of Valois-Burgundy (, ), or the Younger House of Burgundy, was a noble Kingdom of France, French family deriving from the royal House of Valois. (It is distinct from the Capetian House of Burgundy, descendants of King Robert II of France ...
, ruling from 1467 to 1477. He was the only surviving legitimate son of
Philip the Good Philip III the Good (; ; 31 July 1396 – 15 June 1467) ruled as Duke of Burgundy from 1419 until his death in 1467. He was a member of a cadet line of the Valois dynasty, to which all 15th-century kings of France belonged. During his reign, ...
and his third wife,
Isabella of Portugal Isabella of Portugal (; 24 October 1503 – 1 May 1539) was the empress consort of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, King of Spain, Archduke of Austria, and Duke of Burgundy. She was Queen of Spain and Germany, and Lady of the Netherlands fr ...
. As heir and as ruler, Charles vied for power and influence with rivals such as his overlord, King Louis XI of
France France, officially the French Republic, is a country located primarily in Western Europe. Overseas France, Its overseas regions and territories include French Guiana in South America, Saint Pierre and Miquelon in the Atlantic Ocean#North Atlan ...
. In 1465 Charles led a successful revolt of Louis's vassals in the
War of the Public Weal The War of the Public Weal (French: ''La guerre du Bien public'') was a conflict between the king of France and an alliance of feudal nobles, organized in 1465 in defiance of the centralized authority of King Louis XI of France. It was masterminde ...
. After becoming the Duke of Burgundy in 1467, Charles pursued his ambitions for a kingdom, independent from France, that would stretch contiguously from the
North Sea The North Sea lies between Great Britain, Denmark, Norway, Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium, and France. A sea on the European continental shelf, it connects to the Atlantic Ocean through the English Channel in the south and the Norwegian Se ...
in the north to the borders of
Savoy Savoy (; )  is a cultural-historical region in the Western Alps. Situated on the cultural boundary between Occitania and Piedmont, the area extends from Lake Geneva in the north to the Dauphiné in the south and west and to the Aosta Vall ...
in the south. For this purpose, he acquired
Guelders The Duchy of Guelders (; ; ) is a historical duchy, previously county, of the Holy Roman Empire, located in the Low Countries. Geography The duchy was named after the town of Geldern (''Gelder'') in present-day Germany. Though the present pr ...
and
Upper Alsace Upper Alsace (southern Alsace) was a landgraviate of the Holy Roman Empire centred on Ensisheim and Landser, north of the County of Ferrette (Pfirt). The counts of Habsburg ruled the territory from the 1130s down to its cession to France in ...
; sought the title
King of the Romans King of the Romans (; ) was the title used by the king of East Francia following his election by the princes from the reign of Henry II (1002–1024) onward. The title originally referred to any German king between his election and coronatio ...
; and gradually became an enemy of the
Germans Germans (, ) are the natives or inhabitants of Germany, or sometimes more broadly any people who are of German descent or native speakers of the German language. The Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany, constitution of Germany, imple ...
. Charles married
Margaret of York Margaret of York (3 May 1446 – 23 November 1503), also known as Margaret of Burgundy, was Duchess of Burgundy from 1468 to 1477 as the third wife of Charles the Bold, and after his death (1477) acted as a protector of the Burgundian State. ...
for an English alliance. He arranged the betrothal between his sole child, Mary, with Maximilian of Austria. A passionate musician and patron of the arts, Charles supported the production of
illuminated manuscript An illuminated manuscript is a formally prepared manuscript, document where the text is decorated with flourishes such as marginalia, borders and Miniature (illuminated manuscript), miniature illustrations. Often used in the Roman Catholic Churc ...
s and music. His court was famously known as a centre of arts, chivalry, and etiquette. He was obsessed with order and regulation and issued many ordinances throughout his rule, dictating military matters, legislation, and diplomacy in the minutest detail. Charles was religious and his patron saint was
Saint George Saint George (;Geʽez: ጊዮርጊስ, , ka, გიორგი, , , died 23 April 303), also George of Lydda, was an early Christian martyr who is venerated as a saint in Christianity. According to holy tradition, he was a soldier in the ...
. He turned down multiple requests from the
pope The pope is the bishop of Rome and the Head of the Church#Catholic Church, visible head of the worldwide Catholic Church. He is also known as the supreme pontiff, Roman pontiff, or sovereign pontiff. From the 8th century until 1870, the po ...
and the Venetians to undertake a crusade against the
Ottoman Turks The Ottoman Turks () were a Turkic peoples, Turkic ethnic group in Anatolia. Originally from Central Asia, they migrated to Anatolia in the 13th century and founded the Ottoman Empire, in which they remained socio-politically dominant for the e ...
. Towards the end of his life, Charles became engaged in a multi-national conflict called the
Burgundian Wars The Burgundian Wars (1474–1477) were a conflict between the Burgundian State and the Old Swiss Confederacy and its allies. Open war broke out in 1474, and the Duke of Burgundy, Charles the Bold, was defeated three times on the battlefield in th ...
(1474–1477), where he fought to retain ownership of Upper Alsace against an alliance of Swiss, German, and Alsatian polities called the Lower League. After his unsuccessful siege of Neuss, he was defeated by the Swiss at the battles of Grandson and Morat. Charles was killed during the
Battle of Nancy The Battle of Nancy was the final and decisive battle of the Burgundian Wars, fought outside the walls of Nancy on 5 January 1477 by Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, against René II, Duke of Lorraine, and the Swiss Confederacy. René's ...
on 5 January 1477, fighting against Duke René II of Lorraine and his Swiss army. His death triggered the War of the Burgundian Succession and led to the end of the
Burgundian State The Burgundian StateB. Schnerb, ''L'État bourguignon'', 1999 ( ; ) was a composite monarchy ruled by the Dukes of Burgundy from the late 14th to the late 15th centuries, and which ultimately comprised not only the Duchy of Burgundy, Duchy and ...
. Charles's daughter, Mary, was the last of Charles's dynasty. Mary's son, Philip of Austria, inherited the
Burgundian Netherlands The Burgundian Netherlands were those parts of the Low Countries ruled by the Dukes of Burgundy during the Burgundian Age between 1384 and 1482. Within their Burgundian State, which itself belonged partly to the Holy Roman Empire and partly t ...
.


Background

The
House of Valois-Burgundy The House of Valois-Burgundy (, ), or the Younger House of Burgundy, was a noble Kingdom of France, French family deriving from the royal House of Valois. (It is distinct from the Capetian House of Burgundy, descendants of King Robert II of France ...
began with
Philip the Bold Philip II the Bold (; ; 17 January 1342 – 27 April 1404) was Duke of Burgundy and ''jure uxoris'' Count of Flanders, Artois and Burgundy. He was the fourth and youngest son of King John II of France and Bonne of Luxembourg. Philip was th ...
, the fourth son of John II,
King of France France was ruled by monarchs from the establishment of the kingdom of West Francia in 843 until the end of the Second French Empire in 1870, with several interruptions. Classical French historiography usually regards Clovis I, king of the Fra ...
. Philip became the
Duke of Burgundy Duke of Burgundy () was a title used by the rulers of the Duchy of Burgundy, from its establishment in 843 to its annexation by the Crown lands of France, French crown in 1477, and later by members of the House of Habsburg, including Holy Roman E ...
in 1363. In 1369, Philip married Margaret of Male, the heiress of
Louis II, Count of Flanders Louis II (; ) (25 October 1330, Male, Belgium, Male – 30 January 1384, Lille), also known as Louis of Male, a member of the House of Dampierre, was Count of Flanders, Count of Nevers, and Count of Rethel from 1346 to 1384, and also Count o ...
, who would inherit the wealthy lands of
Flanders Flanders ( or ; ) is the Dutch language, Dutch-speaking northern portion of Belgium and one of the communities, regions and language areas of Belgium. However, there are several overlapping definitions, including ones related to culture, la ...
, Rethel,
Antwerp Antwerp (; ; ) is a City status in Belgium, city and a Municipalities of Belgium, municipality in the Flemish Region of Belgium. It is the capital and largest city of Antwerp Province, and the third-largest city in Belgium by area at , after ...
, and
Mechelen Mechelen (; ; historically known as ''Mechlin'' in EnglishMechelen has been known in English as ''Mechlin'', from where the adjective ''Mechlinian'' is derived. This name may still be used, especially in a traditional or historical context. T ...
, along with the territories bordering Flanders and Burgundy: the counties of
Artois Artois ( , ; ; Picard: ''Artoé;'' English adjective: ''Artesian'') is a region of northern France. Its territory covers an area of about 4,000 km2 and it has a population of about one million. Its principal cities include Arras (Dutch: ...
,
Franche-Comté Franche-Comté (, ; ; Frainc-Comtou dialect, Frainc-Comtou: ''Fraintche-Comtè''; ; also ; ; all ) is a cultural and Provinces of France, historical region of eastern France. It is composed of the modern departments of France, departments of Doub ...
, and
Nevers Nevers ( , ; , later ''Nevirnum'' and ''Nebirnum'') is a city and the Prefectures in France, prefecture of the Nièvre Departments of France, department in the Bourgogne-Franche-Comté Regions of France, region in central France. It was the pr ...
. Philip expanded his influence in the
Low Countries The Low Countries (; ), historically also known as the Netherlands (), is a coastal lowland region in Northwestern Europe forming the lower Drainage basin, basin of the Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt delta and consisting today of the three modern "Bene ...
further by contracting marriage alliances. He was heavily involved in the royal court of France, especially after the death of his brother,
Charles V Charles V may refer to: Kings and Emperors * Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor (1500–1558) * Charles V of Naples (1661–1700), better known as Charles II of Spain * Charles V of France (1338–1380), called the Wise Others * Charles V, Duke ...
, and during the troublesome reign of his successor, Charles VI. When Philip died in 1404, his lands were divided between his three sons,
John John is a common English name and surname: * John (given name) * John (surname) John may also refer to: New Testament Works * Gospel of John, a title often shortened to John * First Epistle of John, often shortened to 1 John * Second E ...
,
Anthony Anthony, also spelled Antony, is a masculine given name derived from the '' Antonii'', a '' gens'' ( Roman family name) to which Mark Antony (''Marcus Antonius'') belonged. According to Plutarch, the Antonii gens were Heracleidae, being descenda ...
, and
Philip Philip, also Phillip, is a male name derived from the Macedonian Old Koine language, Greek (''Philippos'', lit. "horse-loving" or "fond of horses"), from a compound of (''philos'', "dear", "loved", "loving") and (''hippos'', "horse"). Prominen ...
. John the Fearless, Philip the Bold's eldest son, inherited the Duchy of Burgundy and the major part of his maternal inheritance the following year. The division of Philips's lands reduced John's income severely and by 1407, his treasury was nearly empty. John was forced to borrow money. To restore his influence, John turned to French politics and bitterly vied for power in the French court against the king's brother, Louis of Orleans. In 1407, John ordered the assassination of Louis and sparked the
Armagnac–Burgundian Civil War The Armagnac–Burgundian Civil War was a conflict between two cadet branches of the French royal family: the House of Orléans ( Armagnac faction) and the House of Burgundy ( Burgundian faction) from 1407 to 1435. It began during a lull in t ...
. John himself was assassinated in the conflict in 1419. John was succeeded by his only son,
Philip the Good Philip III the Good (; ; 31 July 1396 – 15 June 1467) ruled as Duke of Burgundy from 1419 until his death in 1467. He was a member of a cadet line of the Valois dynasty, to which all 15th-century kings of France belonged. During his reign, ...
. Unlike his father and grandfather, Philip distanced himself from French politics. He forged alliances elsewhere, marrying
Isabella of Portugal Isabella of Portugal (; 24 October 1503 – 1 May 1539) was the empress consort of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, King of Spain, Archduke of Austria, and Duke of Burgundy. She was Queen of Spain and Germany, and Lady of the Netherlands fr ...
in 1430. Isabella was Philip's third wife after
Michelle of Valois Michelle of France (11 January 1395 – 8 July 1422), also called Michelle of Valois, was Duchess consort of Burgundy as the first wife of Philip III, Duke of Burgundy, called "Philip the Good". She was born a princess of France as the daughter of ...
and Bonne of Artois, who both died without producing any children. Philip the Good desired a strong, centralised duchy ruled by a prestigious dynasty with a new, non-French cultural heritage. Philip then began his territorial expansion in France; bringing
Arras Arras ( , ; ; historical ) is the prefecture of the Pas-de-Calais department, which forms part of the region of Hauts-de-France; before the reorganization of 2014 it was in Nord-Pas-de-Calais. The historic centre of the Artois region, with a ...
, Péronne, Roye, and
Picardy Picardy (; Picard language, Picard and , , ) is a historical and cultural territory and a former regions of France, administrative region located in northern France. The first mentions of this province date back to the Middle Ages: it gained it ...
into his realm. In 1420, he purchased the county of
Namur Namur (; ; ) is a city and municipality in Wallonia, Belgium. It is the capital both of the province of Namur and of Wallonia, hosting the Parliament of Wallonia, the Government of Wallonia and its administration. Namur stands at the confl ...
, a town located in the
Holy Roman Empire The Holy Roman Empire, also known as the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation after 1512, was a polity in Central and Western Europe, usually headed by the Holy Roman Emperor. It developed in the Early Middle Ages, and lasted for a millennium ...
, from Jean III. He used warfare to seize the counties of Hainaut,
Holland Holland is a geographical regionG. Geerts & H. Heestermans, 1981, ''Groot Woordenboek der Nederlandse Taal. Deel I'', Van Dale Lexicografie, Utrecht, p 1105 and former provinces of the Netherlands, province on the western coast of the Netherland ...
,
Friesland Friesland ( ; ; official ), historically and traditionally known as Frisia (), named after the Frisians, is a Provinces of the Netherlands, province of the Netherlands located in the country's northern part. It is situated west of Groningen (p ...
, and
Zeeland Zeeland (; ), historically known in English by the Endonym and exonym, exonym Zealand, is the westernmost and least populous province of the Netherlands. The province, located in the southwest of the country, borders North Brabant to the east ...
from his cousin,
Jacqueline, Countess of Hainaut Jacqueline (; ; ; 15 July 1401 – 8 October 1436), of the House of Wittelsbach, was a noblewoman who ruled the counties of Holland, Zeeland and Hainaut in the Low Countries from 1417 to 1433. She was also Dauphine of France for a short time ...
, and won them completely by 1433. When Philip of Saint Pol died suddenly and unexpectedly in 1430, Philip inherited the
Duchy of Brabant The Duchy of Brabant, a Imperial State, state of the Holy Roman Empire, was established in 1183. It developed from the Landgraviate of Brabant of 1085–1183, and formed the heart of the historic Low Countries. The Duchy comprised part of the Bu ...
and three
principalities A principality (or sometimes princedom) is a type of monarchical state or feudal territory ruled by a prince or princess. It can be either a sovereign state or a constituent part of a larger political entity. The term "principality" is often ...
: Brabant, Limburg, and
Lotharingia Lotharingia was a historical region and an early medieval polity that existed during the late Carolingian and early Ottonian era, from the middle of the 9th to the middle of the 10th century. It was established in 855 by the Treaty of Prüm, a ...
. The Holy Roman Emperor,
Sigismund Sigismund (variants: Sigmund, Siegmund) is a German proper name, meaning "protection through victory", from Old High German ''sigu'' "victory" + ''munt'' "hand, protection". Tacitus latinises it ''Segimundus''. There appears to be an older form of ...
, unsuccessfully sought to curb the expansions until his death in 1437. The French and Burgundians reconciled in 1435 at the Congress of Arras.


Early life


Childhood

Charles Martin (second forename) was born on 10 November 1433 in
Dijon Dijon (, ; ; in Burgundian language (Oïl), Burgundian: ''Digion'') is a city in and the Prefectures in France, prefecture of the Côte-d'Or Departments of France, department and of the Bourgogne-Franche-Comté Regions of France, region in eas ...
, capital of the
Duchy of Burgundy The Duchy of Burgundy (; ; ) was a medieval and early modern feudal polity in north-western regions of historical Burgundy. It was a duchy, ruled by dukes of Burgundy. The Duchy belonged to the Kingdom of France, and was initially bordering th ...
. He was the third child of
Philip the Good Philip III the Good (; ; 31 July 1396 – 15 June 1467) ruled as Duke of Burgundy from 1419 until his death in 1467. He was a member of a cadet line of the Valois dynasty, to which all 15th-century kings of France belonged. During his reign, ...
with his third wife
Isabella of Portugal Isabella of Portugal (; 24 October 1503 – 1 May 1539) was the empress consort of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, King of Spain, Archduke of Austria, and Duke of Burgundy. She was Queen of Spain and Germany, and Lady of the Netherlands fr ...
and the only one to survive past infancy. His mother, fearing that she would lose another child, consecrated the infant to the
Blessed Sacrament The Eucharist ( ; from , ), also called Holy Communion, the Blessed Sacrament or the Lord's Supper, is a Christian rite, considered a sacrament in most churches and an ordinance in others. Christians believe that the rite was instituted by J ...
. Philip the Good arrived in Dijon in late November to celebrate the birth. He made his son a
knight of the Golden Fleece This article contains a list of knights of the Order of the Golden Fleece. Burgundian Golden Fleece 15th century !Year of induction!!Name!!Born!!Died!!Notes , - , rowspan=25, 1430, , Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, , 1396, , 1467, , Founde ...
and the count of Charolais in France. The Golden Fleece was a knightly order created by Philip in 1430, and Charolais was a title given to the heirs of the dukes of Burgundy. Charles was baptised on 20 November, with Count Charles of Nevers and
Antoine Antoine is a French language, French given name (from the Latin ''Antonius'' meaning 'highly praise-worthy') that is a variant of Danton (name), Danton, Titouan, D'Anton and Antonin. The name is most common in France, Switzerland, Belgium, Canada ...
from the influential de Croÿ family as his sponsors; he was named after the count of Nevers, Philip the Good's stepson through his second wife, Bonne of Artois. In early spring 1434, Isabella and her son moved to the mountain fortress of Talant, in fear of multiple outbreaks of plague in Burgundy. In winter, the Duchess and her son travelled to Paris to join Philip the Good. En route, they stayed in
Bruges Bruges ( , ; ; ) is the capital and largest city of the province of West Flanders, in the Flemish Region of Belgium. It is in the northwest of the country, and is the sixth most populous city in the country. The area of the whole city amoun ...
, where a rebellion against Philip the Good was brewing. In 1436, when Isabella and her entourage were to leave the city, rebels forcefully arrested them near the city gate. The rebellion was suppressed in 1438, when Philip the Good blockaded the city and forced the rebels to surrender. During infancy, Charles was described as a robust child. Philip the Good assigned many tutors for the young Charles, the most important among them being Antoine Haneron, professor of rhetoric in the University of Louvain. Like his father, Charles developed a fondness for reading histories, chronicles, and historical romances. Charles aspired to become a conqueror like
Alexander the Great Alexander III of Macedon (; 20/21 July 356 BC – 10/11 June 323 BC), most commonly known as Alexander the Great, was a king of the Ancient Greece, ancient Greek kingdom of Macedonia (ancient kingdom), Macedon. He succeeded his father Philip ...
. The fact that both he and Alexander had fathers named Philip stimulated his imagination and further encouraged his ambition. Until the age of six, Charles was brought up by his cousins,
John John is a common English name and surname: * John (given name) * John (surname) John may also refer to: New Testament Works * Gospel of John, a title often shortened to John * First Epistle of John, often shortened to 1 John * Second E ...
and Agnes of Cleves, who both were the children of
Mary of Burgundy Mary of Burgundy (; ; 13 February 1457 – 27 March 1482), nicknamed the Rich, was a member of the House of Valois-Burgundy who ruled the Burgundian lands, comprising the Duchy of Burgundy, Duchy and Free County of Burgundy, County of Burgundy a ...
, the daughter of
John the Fearless John I (; ; 28 May 1371 – 10 September 1419) was a scion of the French royal family who ruled the Burgundian State from 1404 until his assassination in 1419. He played a key role in French national affairs during the early 15th century, part ...
. Of the two, Agnes was more prominent in Charles's early education. Agnes and Charles were constantly in his mother's company. In 1435, with the Treaty of Arras, Philip the Good reconciled with Charles VII, King of France, marking the end of the Armagnac–Burgundian Civil War. As a sign of good faith in his new ally, Charles VII also allowed a marriage between one of his daughters and Philip's heir and sent his daughters to Burgundy. Philip chose
Catherine Katherine (), also spelled Catherine and Catherina, other variations, is a feminine given name. The name and its variants are popular in countries where large Christian populations exist, because of its associations with one of the earliest Ch ...
, the king's ten-year-old daughter, to marry the six-year-old Charles. The two were married on 11 June 1439, during a ceremony accompanied by concerts, jousts, and banquets in the city of
Saint-Omer Saint-Omer (; ; Picard: ''Saint-Onmé'') is a commune and sub-prefecture of the Pas-de-Calais department in France. It is west-northwest of Lille on the railway to Calais, and is located in the Artois province. The town is named after Sa ...
. The two were put under the care of a
governess A governess is a woman employed as a private tutor, who teaches and trains a child or children in their home. A governess often lives in the same residence as the children she is teaching; depending on terms of their employment, they may or ma ...
, but were often separated from each other to spend their time with hobbies in line with their ages. Catherine died on 30 July 1446, and her death was deeply mourned at the Burgundian court. In 1441, Philip the Good appointed Jean d'Auxy, of Auxi-le-Château, as the eight-year-old Charles's guardian. D'Auxy later served as Charles's chamberlain, from 1456 to 1468. At the age of 12, Charles began to participate in the public affairs of his father's realm. In 1445, he accompanied his father on a rare state visit to Holland and Zealand.


Youth

In 1449, the wealthy city of Ghent rebelled against Burgundian rule in response to new taxes on salt. Charles took part in the fighting; however, to keep him out of danger, Philip the Good falsely told Charles that his mother Isabella was seriously ill in
Lille Lille (, ; ; ; ; ) is a city in the northern part of France, within French Flanders. Positioned along the Deûle river, near France's border with Belgium, it is the capital of the Hauts-de-France Regions of France, region, the Prefectures in F ...
. Charles left shortly before the decisive Battle of Gavere in 1453. In Lille, his mother honoured him with a feast, and to everyone's surprise, encouraged him to return to the battlefield and fight for his inheritance. By that time, Philip the Good had won the battle and defeated the rebellious burghers. Charles remained a widower for eight years until he married Isabella of Bourbon in 1454. Isabella was the daughter of Agnes of Burgundy, and was Philip the Good's niece. Her father, Charles I, Duke of Bourbon, sent her as a child to the Burgundian court as a ward of Isabella of Portugal. A shy and pliant young woman, Isabella was adored by Philip the Good, who saw an opportunity to renew the Treaty of Arras (which had been debased by Charles VII's threatening actions towards Burgundy) by marrying a Bourbon to his son. Charles was not aware of his father's intention until the night before his marriage on 31 October; he did not resist the match. With his marriage, the town of
Chinon Chinon () is a Communes of France, commune in the Indre-et-Loire Departments of France, department, Centre-Val de Loire, France. The traditional province around Chinon, Touraine, became a favorite resort of French kings and their nobles beginn ...
was incorporated into Philip the Good's realm, as part of Isabella's dowry.


Struggle for power


Disputes with Philip the Good

From 1454 to 1464, Charles was excluded from power—the ducal council and the Burgundian court—by his father, Philip the Good. In 1454, Philip appointed Charles "governor and lieutenant-general in absence" while he attended the Imperial Diet in
Regensburg Regensburg (historically known in English as Ratisbon) is a city in eastern Bavaria, at the confluence of the rivers Danube, Naab and Regen (river), Regen, Danube's northernmost point. It is the capital of the Upper Palatinate subregion of the ...
. Philip hoped to meet Emperor Frederick III and attach him to his aspirations for a crusade to retake
Constantinople Constantinople (#Names of Constantinople, see other names) was a historical city located on the Bosporus that served as the capital of the Roman Empire, Roman, Byzantine Empire, Byzantine, Latin Empire, Latin, and Ottoman Empire, Ottoman empire ...
from the
Ottomans Ottoman may refer to: * Osman I, historically known in English as "Ottoman I", founder of the Ottoman Empire * Osman II, historically known in English as "Ottoman II" * Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire (), also called the Turkish Empir ...
. However, the emperor did not show up. Even as regent, Charles held little to no power compared to his mother, the duchess, and his father. Nevertheless, Charles still was able to issue documents in his own name. His regency was short-lived, for Philip returned to Burgundy on 7 or 9 August, and Charles returned to his former powerless position. Charles was on bad terms with his father due to his exclusion from power, and their bad relations climaxed in 1457, when Charles wanted to appoint Antoin Rolin, the of Aymeries, as his chamberlain. Antoin was the son of Nicolas Rolin, Philip the Good's chancellor. The Duke, wary of the power his chancellor might get with this appointment, refused his son's request and instead proposed Philip I of Porcéan, high bailiff of Hainault and a member of the influential
House of Croÿ The House of Croÿ () is an old European noble family of princely and historically sovereignty, sovereign rank, which held a seat in the Reichstag (Holy Roman Empire), Imperial Diet from 1486, and was elevated to the rank of Princes of the Holy Ro ...
. Charles distrusted Philip, because he suspected that the Croÿ family accepted money from Charles VII to undermine Philip the Good, and refused his father's proposal. Philip was so furious that Charles's mother feared for Charles's life and had him removed from court. Charles fled to
Dendermonde Dendermonde (; , ) is a city in the Flemish Region, Flemish Provinces of Belgium, province of East Flanders in Belgium. The Municipalities of Belgium, municipality comprises the city of Dendermonde and the towns of Appels, Baasrode, Grembergen, M ...
(today in northern Belgium) and Philip got lost in the forests of
Soignies Soignies (; , ; ; ) is a municipality of Wallonia located in the province of Hainaut, Belgium. It consists of the following districts: Casteau, Chaussée-Notre-Dame-Louvignies, Horrues, Naast, Neufvilles, Soignies and Thieusies. Casteau is k ...
trying to find his son. Through the mediation of Isabella of Bourbon, who was pregnant with Charles's child, Philip and his son reached a truce. When Charles's daughter, Mary, was born on 13 February 1457, neither Charles nor his father attended her baptism, for both wanted to avoid each other. Nicolas Rolin was removed from the chancellery, and Rolin's close ally,
Jean Chevrot Jean Chevrot (c. 1395, Poligny, Jura - 23 September 1460, Lille) was a French bishop who served as president of the council of Burgundy for Philip the Good and Isabella of Portugal (1397-1471), Isabella of Portugal. He was a multi-talented ministe ...
, was removed from the ducal council. Consequently, de Croÿ became more powerful. Charles left the court for his personal estate at
Le Quesnoy Le Quesnoy (; ) is a commune and small town in the east of the Nord department of northern France. It was part of the historical province of French Hainaut. It is known for its fortifications, dating from the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries. ...
in Hainaut. There, he was entrusted with minor tasks regarding the Flemish subjects of his father. He also constructed the Blue Tower castle in
Gorinchem Gorinchem ( ), pronunciation respelling, also spelled Gorkum, is a city and municipality in the western Netherlands, in the province of South Holland. The municipality covers an area of of which is water. It had a population of in . The munici ...
as his personal seat in 1461. He attempted to formalise his status as the heir to the
Burgundian State The Burgundian StateB. Schnerb, ''L'État bourguignon'', 1999 ( ; ) was a composite monarchy ruled by the Dukes of Burgundy from the late 14th to the late 15th centuries, and which ultimately comprised not only the Duchy of Burgundy, Duchy and ...
, which in turn prompted his father to cut off his allowance. Charles was deprived of any money to pay his staff or otherwise maintain his estate. According to Burgundian court chronicler
Georges Chastellain Georges Chastellain (c. 1405 or c. 1415 – 20 March 1475), Burgundian chronicler and poet, was a native of Aalst in Flanders. Chastellain's historical works are valuable for the accurate information they contain. As a poet he was famous am ...
, in 1463, Charles dismissed his staff because he could not pay their salaries, however, his staff were adamant to serve him and even offered him a share of their money. According to German historian Werner Paravicini, such acts of
altruism Altruism is the concern for the well-being of others, independently of personal benefit or reciprocity. The word ''altruism'' was popularised (and possibly coined) by the French philosopher Auguste Comte in French, as , for an antonym of egoi ...
were typical of that time, rendring the account more plausible. In 1462, Charles survived a poisoning attempt on his life by Jehan Coustain, . Coustain was executed in Rupelmonde. Charles blamed de Croÿ for the assassination attempt, while de Croÿ came to believe that Charles had staged this attempt. By the end of 1463, the disputes between Charles and his father caused the States General of the Burgundian Netherlands to intervene. In 5 February 1464, Charles made a speech, attacking de Croÿ's family, to the deputies assembled at Ghent. Charles and Philip the Good reconciled in June 1464, after they met in Lille, although de Croÿ maintained his hold on power. Later that year, Charles assumed full power by arguing that Philip was becoming senile. Charles put pressure on de Croÿ, but Philip protected de Croÿ by threatening Charles. Ten days later, the States General gave Charles full power by appointing him . His first act was to confiscate de Croÿ's estates; de Croÿ and his family were banished to France, where their French patron, Louis XI, gave them no support.


Rivalry with Louis XI

In 1457,
Louis Louis may refer to: People * Louis (given name), origin and several individuals with this name * Louis (surname) * Louis (singer), Serbian singer Other uses * Louis (coin), a French coin * HMS ''Louis'', two ships of the Royal Navy See also ...
, Dauphin of France and the heir to Charles VII, suddenly arrived at Philip the Good's court at Brussels. Philip saw his guest as an opportunity to mend his relations with the crown and took the dauphin in, indulging him with kindness, showing humility, and refusing all the king's requests to send the dauphin back. At Philip's expense, Louis lived in
Genappe Genappe (; , ; ) is a municipality and city of Wallonia located in the Belgian province of Walloon Brabant. Demographics As of 2023, the municipality of Genappe boasted a population of 14,266 residents. Spanning a total area of 89.57 km2 , th ...
, where he led a comfortable life. Charles VII attempts to regain his son failed. He reportedly said: "My cousin Burgundy is feeding a fox who will eat up all his chickens". Louis would go on to become Philip's
favourite A favourite was the intimate companion of a ruler or other important person. In Post-classical Europe, post-classical and Early modern Europe, early-modern Europe, among other times and places, the term was used of individuals delegated signifi ...
, in consequence of Philip's quarrel with his son. In contrast to Louis's friendship with Philip the Good, Louis and Charles disliked each other. However, Charles asked the dauphin to be godfather to his daughter, Mary. Charles's hatred for Louis increased when the latter ascended to the French throne after the death of his father on 22 July 1461. Louis was crowned king on 31 August in
Reims Reims ( ; ; also spelled Rheims in English) is the most populous city in the French Departments of France, department of Marne (department), Marne, and the List of communes in France with over 20,000 inhabitants, 12th most populous city in Fran ...
under the
regnal name A regnal name, regnant name, or reign name is the name used by monarchs and popes during their reigns and subsequently, historically. Since ancient times, some monarchs have chosen to use a different name from their original name when they accede ...
Louis XI, with Philip the Good personally placing the crown on his head. While the duke thought that the hostilities between France and Burgundy were at an end, the new king at his coronation ceremony refused to participate in the feast sponsored by Philip in his honour. The latter thus returned to his realm disappointed. Charles feared Louis's intention was to demolish the Burgundian defensive system in Picardy, and he was furious when a crisis occurred in autumn 1463 regarding the Somme towns, land belonging to his father. De Croÿ persuaded Philip to agree to amend the Treaty of Arras, which had given him cities such as Saint-Quentin,
Abbeville Abbeville (; ; ) is a commune in the Somme department and in Hauts-de-France region in northern France. It is the of one of the arrondissements of Somme. Located on the river Somme, it was the capital of Ponthieu. Geography Location A ...
,
Amiens Amiens (English: or ; ; , or ) is a city and Communes of France, commune in northern France, located north of Paris and south-west of Lille. It is the capital of the Somme (department), Somme Departments of France, department in the region ...
, Péronne, and Montdidier. Philip agreed to accept 400,000 gold ''
écu The term ''écu'' () may refer to one of several France, French coins. The first ''écu'' was a gold coin (the ''écu d'or'') minted during the reign of Louis IX of France, in 1266. The value of the ''écu'' varied considerably over time, and si ...
s'' from Louis to return those cities to the crown domains. When Charles was chosen as in 1464, he provoked a war against Louis by forming the
League of the Public Weal The War of the Public Weal (French: ''La guerre du Bien public'') was a conflict between the king of France and an alliance of feudal nobles, organized in 1465 in defiance of the centralized authority of King Louis XI of France. It was masterminde ...
. The League of the Public Weal was a confederation of prominent French princes — Charles of Berry (the king's brother), Francis II, Duke of Brittany,
John II, Duke of Bourbon Jean (John) de Bourbon, Duke of Bourbon (1426 – 1 April 1488), sometimes referred to as John the Good and The Scourge of the English, was a son of Charles I, Duke of Bourbon, Charles I of Bourbon and Agnes of Burgundy, Duchess of Bourbon, Ag ...
, and
Jacques Jacques or Jacq are believed to originate from the Middle Ages in the historic northwest Brittany region in France, and have since spread around the world over the centuries. To date, there are over one hundred identified noble families related t ...
and John d'Armagnac — which was formed to undermine Louis XI's authority. They declared Charles of Berry the regent of France and appointed Francis II as the captain general of the army. With the threat of rebellion looming, Louis offered to pardon all the dukes and lords. Minor lords accepted the pardon, but the dukes persisted with their demands. The members of the league chose Charles as their leader and began amassing an army. The League became the most dangerous in a series of princely revolts against the French crown; one chronicle recorded the number of the participants against Louis XI to be seven dukes, twelve counts, two lords, one marshal, and 51,000 men-at-arms. To counteract the rebels, Louis XI amassed an army and sent it southwards to central France to defeat John II of Bourbon. Charles soon mustered an army of 25,000 men and marched towards Paris. Louis and his army hastily returned to Paris to defend the city against Charles's army. On 15 July, Charles reached the village of
Montlhéry Montlhéry () is a Communes of France, commune in the Essonne Departments of France, department in Île-de-France in northern France. It is located from Paris. History Montlhéry lay on the strategically important road from Paris to Orléans. U ...
; in search of his allies' armies, he discovered that the royal army was camped in
Arpajon Arpajon () is a commune in the Essonne department in the Île-de-France region of northern France. The commune has been awarded three flowers by the ''National Council of Towns and Villages in Bloom'' in the ''Competition of cities and village ...
, a few miles south. On learning of Charles's position, Louis moved to fight him. On 16 July 1465, the two armies met and fought the
Battle of Montlhéry The Battle of Montlhéry was fought between Louis XI and the League of the Public Weal on 16 July 1465 in the vicinity of Longpont-sur-Orge. It had no clear winner and therefore did not decide the war. Insurgency of the Vassal countries Philip t ...
. Charles placed himself next to the defensively positioned Burgundian vanguard, led by Louis of Saint-Pol. He attacked into the French left flank led by Charles IV, Count of Maine. Charles was pursuing the fleeing count and his army, when the French vanguard counterattacked, and Charles was wounded in the throat. He evaded capture and returned to his lines. After his return, he ordered his gunners to shoot at the king's army; by his account, 1,200–1,400 men and a large number of horses were killed. In the late evening, Louis XI retreated eastwards to Paris. While each side claimed victory in the battle, neither side achieved all their objectives. Charles could not capture Louis on the battlefield, and Louis could not prevent Charles from joining his allies. In spite of his ability to form his battle troops in a cohesive battle order, Charles had yet to become an able tactician. The rebel armies joined in the town of
Étampes Étampes () is a Communes of France, commune in the functional area (France), metropolitan area of Paris, France. It is located south-southwest from the Kilometre zero#France, center of Paris (as the crow flies). Étampes is a Subprefectures in ...
and began marching towards Paris on 31 July. The rebels laid siege to Paris, during which Charles directed his gunfire at the city's walls. The rebels successfully entered the city when a nobleman named Charles de Melun opened the Saint-Antoine gate for them. Louis XI was then forced to negotiate. The parties signed the Treaty of Conflans, which ceded the rule of
Normandy Normandy (; or ) is a geographical and cultural region in northwestern Europe, roughly coextensive with the historical Duchy of Normandy. Normandy comprises Normandy (administrative region), mainland Normandy (a part of France) and insular N ...
to Charles, Duke of Berry, and returned the Somme lands to Burgundy.


Duke of Burgundy


Ascension

On 12 June 1467, Philip the Good suddenly fell ill. For the next few days, he could hardly breathe and constantly vomited. Charles was summoned from Ghent to immediately come to his father. By the time he arrived, Philip had fallen unconscious and was struggling to breathe; he died on 15 June. Charles arranged for his father's funeral to be held in St. Donatian's Cathedral; the funeral was attended by 1200 persons from both Charles's and Philip's households. The cathedral was lit by 1400 candles which heated the inside of the church so much that holes had to be made in the windows to cool the air. Charles showed extreme emotions during the funeral: he shook, trembled, pulled his hair, and kept shouting and crying. The Court Chronicler, Georges Chastellain, doubted the sincerity of Charles's distress, expressing astonishment that he could show such emotion. Fourteen days later, Charles officially became the Duke of Burgundy. In celebration, he paraded through the city of Ghent on 28 June 1467, emulating Caesar. This
Joyous Entry A Joyous Entry (; ) is a ceremonial event marking the entry into a city by a monarch, prince, duke, or governor in parts of modern-day Belgium. Originating in the Middle Ages, it generally coincided with the affirmation or extension of the city' ...
caused an uproar in the city. The people demanded an end to the humiliating penalties imposed on them after the revolt of 1449. Charles left the city with his daughter, the ten-year-old Mary, and the treasure kept by Philip the Good in the Prinsenhof of Ghent. The following January, Charles coerced the mayors of Ghent into asking for his pardon. Then, he abolished their governmental rights and announced that only he could appoint the town government, in contravention of Philip IV's constitution of 1301.


The third marriage

On 26 September 1465, Charles's wife, Isabella of Bourbon, died of
tuberculosis Tuberculosis (TB), also known colloquially as the "white death", or historically as consumption, is a contagious disease usually caused by ''Mycobacterium tuberculosis'' (MTB) bacteria. Tuberculosis generally affects the lungs, but it can al ...
at the age of 31. Court chronicles briefly recorded the long months of her illness. The most important part of her life for these chronicles was her marriage to Charles—during which she had only brought him one daughter and no male heirs—and the fact that she and Charles purportedly fell in love during what was initially merely a political marriage. Charles, busy with the political negotiations after the War of the Public Weal, could not attend her funeral. Within weeks of Isabella of Bourbon's death, Charles's mother sought an English marriage for her son. She sent Guillaume de Clugny, one of Charles's close advisors, to
London London is the Capital city, capital and List of urban areas in the United Kingdom, largest city of both England and the United Kingdom, with a population of in . London metropolitan area, Its wider metropolitan area is the largest in Wester ...
to negotiate with
Edward IV Edward IV (28 April 1442 – 9 April 1483) was King of England from 4 March 1461 to 3 October 1470, then again from 11 April 1471 until his death in 1483. He was a central figure in the Wars of the Roses, a series of civil wars in England ...
for a marriage between his sister,
Margaret of York Margaret of York (3 May 1446 – 23 November 1503), also known as Margaret of Burgundy, was Duchess of Burgundy from 1468 to 1477 as the third wife of Charles the Bold, and after his death (1477) acted as a protector of the Burgundian State. ...
, and Charles. To prevent an English-Burgundian alliance, Louis XI proposed the hand of his daughter, the four-year-old
Anne Anne, alternatively spelled Ann, is a form of the Latin female name Anna (name), Anna. This in turn is a representation of the Hebrew Hannah (given name), Hannah, which means 'favour' or 'grace'. Related names include Annie (given name), Annie a ...
, to Charles in marriage. Charles refused this proposal. In the Spring of 1466, an embassy led by Edward Woodville, Edward IV's brother-in-law, arrived in Burgundy to propose two marriages between the English royal family and the Burgundians: one between Margaret of York and Charles, and the other between Mary, Charles's daughter, and George Plantagenet, Duke of Clarence, Edward IV's younger brother. Woodville's visit failed in its purpose, as Charles was not interested in marrying his young daughter to the Duke of Clarence. In October 1467, Edward IV publicly ratified the marriage between Charles and his sister, and Margaret of York appeared before the ''
Magnum Concilium In the Kingdom of England, the (Latin for "Great Council") was an assembly historically convened at certain times of the year when the English nobles and church leaders outside the '' Curia regis'' were summoned to discuss the affairs of the c ...
'' of
Kingston upon Thames Kingston upon Thames, colloquially known as Kingston, is a town in the Royal Borough of Kingston upon Thames, south-west London, England. It is situated on the River Thames, south-west of Charing Cross. It is an ancient market town, notable as ...
and formally gave her consent to the marriage. Charles welcomed the English delegation—led by Edward and Anthony Woodville—to Burgundy, and then had her mother accompany him to negotiate the final marriage treaty. The marriage treaty and the alliance was signed and ratified in February 1468, while the marriage ceremony was delayed to eight months later. Since Charles and Margaret were fourth-degree cousins, they needed a
Papal dispensation In the jurisprudence of the canon law of the Catholic Church, a dispensation is the exemption from the immediate obligation of the law in certain cases.The Law of Christ Vol. I, pg. 284 Its object is to modify the hardship often caused by rigor ...
to legitimise their marriage. As the dispensation was the groom's duty, Charles sent a delegation to Rome. The delegation took until May 1469 to win the dispensation. Edward IV announced the marriage of his sister to Charles and dubbed him as "a mighty Prince who bears no crown". Charles and Margaret were married on 3 July at
Damme Damme () is a municipality and city located in the Belgian province of West Flanders, six kilometres northeast of Brugge (Bruges). The municipality comprises the city of Damme proper and the villages of Hoeke, Lapscheure, Moerkerke, Oostkerk ...
, a town three miles from Bruges. For their wedding ceremony, Charles prepared nine receptions, each ending with a jousting match. He wished to outdo his father's famous Feast of the Pheasant. The wedding displayed the power and wealth of the dukedom. At the end of the ceremonies, Charles left his wife alone to catch up on sleep; the two did not spend their wedding night together. Charles and Margaret never had children. They spent little time together: only three weeks during the first six months after their marriage, one-quarter of the time during the years 1469 and 1470, and only three weeks throughout 1473. According to contemporary jurist, Filips Wielant, Charles housed Margaret far away from him because he did not want women to hamper his court life.


Territorial expansion

Like his father, Charles pursued territorial expansion; however, whereas Philip the Good pursued this policy by peaceful means, Charles vied for territory through conflict. In the Netherlands, he sought to expand his realm to the north-east: the
Duchy of Guelders The Duchy of Guelders (; ; ) is a historical duchy, previously county, of the Holy Roman Empire, located in the Low Countries. Geography The duchy was named after the town of Geldern (''Gelder'') in present-day Germany. Though the present pr ...
. Although it was never a part of the Burgundian lands, the duchy was dependent on Burgundian trade. In 1463, Adolf of Egmond rebelled against his father, the ruling duke, Arnold. With Philip the Good's support, Adolf usurped the duchy and imprisoned his father in 1465. Adolf's treatment of his father caused a scandal that resonated as far as
Rome Rome (Italian language, Italian and , ) is the capital city and most populated (municipality) of Italy. It is also the administrative centre of the Lazio Regions of Italy, region and of the Metropolitan City of Rome. A special named with 2, ...
, where the Pope sought a mediator to end the conflict in Guelders. In 1471, Charles was appointed as the mediator; he marched into Guelders and restored Arnold to power. Adolf was placed under house arrest, and then to prison after a failed escape attempt. To retain Burgundian assistance, Arnold made Charles the Regent of Guelders; when Arnold died in February 1473, having left no heirs but his imprisoned son, he bequeathed the duchy to Charles. However, Charles's inheritance met with opposition. The Estates of Guelders, and the towns of
Nijmegen Nijmegen ( , ; Nijmeegs: ) is the largest city in the Dutch province of Gelderland and the ninth largest of the Netherlands as a whole. Located on the Waal River close to the German border, Nijmegen is one of the oldest cities in the ...
,
Arnhem Arnhem ( ; ; Central Dutch dialects, Ernems: ''Èrnem'') is a Cities of the Netherlands, city and List of municipalities of the Netherlands, municipality situated in the eastern part of the Netherlands, near the German border. It is the capita ...
, and
Zutphen Zutphen () is a city and municipality located in the province of Gelderland, Netherlands. It lies some northeast of Arnhem, on the eastern bank of the river IJssel at the point where it is joined by the Berkel. First mentioned in the 11th centur ...
rejected Arnold's will, and Louis XI asked Frederick III, the Holy Roman Empire, to confiscate the duchy. Frederick III was diplomatically close to Charles and did not intervene. Charles subdued the rebelling cities and the nobles of Guelders by force. On 9 June 1473, with a sizeable army, he entered the city of
Maastricht Maastricht ( , , ; ; ; ) is a city and a Municipalities of the Netherlands, municipality in the southeastern Netherlands. It is the capital city, capital and largest city of the province of Limburg (Netherlands), Limburg. Maastricht is loca ...
without resistance.
Roermond Roermond (; or ) is a city, municipality, and diocese in the Limburg (Netherlands), Limburg province of the Netherlands. Roermond is a historically important town on the lower Roer on the east bank of the river Meuse. It received City rights i ...
and
Venlo Venlo () is a List of cities in the Netherlands by province, city and List of municipalities of the Netherlands, municipality in southeastern Netherlands, close to the border with Germany. It is situated in the province of Limburg (Netherlands), ...
quickly surrendered.
Moers Moers (; older form: ''Mörs''; Dutch language, Dutch: ''Murse'', ''Murs'' or ''Meurs'') is a German List of cities and towns in Germany, city on the western bank of the Rhine, close to Duisburg. Moers belongs to the district of Wesel (distric ...
, whose count, Vincent von Moers, was the leader of the resistance, yielded to Charles's artillery. The only serious conflict was the siege of Nijmegen, which only surrendered after inflicting severe losses on the Burgundian army. After the successful conquest of Guelders, Charles imposed heavy taxes and replaced the aldermen in the region. Charles gave more power to the ducal judicial officers to control the rebellious cities and to impose a centralised administration. The Burgundian state under Charles was divided into two separate areas, the
Duchy of Burgundy The Duchy of Burgundy (; ; ) was a medieval and early modern feudal polity in north-western regions of historical Burgundy. It was a duchy, ruled by dukes of Burgundy. The Duchy belonged to the Kingdom of France, and was initially bordering th ...
in the south and
Flanders Flanders ( or ; ) is the Dutch language, Dutch-speaking northern portion of Belgium and one of the communities, regions and language areas of Belgium. However, there are several overlapping definitions, including ones related to culture, la ...
in the north. To unify them, Charles needed the
Duchy of Lorraine The Duchy of Lorraine was a principality of the Holy Roman Empire which existed from the 10th century until 1766 when it was annexed by the kingdom of France. It gave its name to the larger present-day region of Lorraine in northeastern France ...
and
Alsace Alsace (, ; ) is a cultural region and a territorial collectivity in the Grand Est administrative region of northeastern France, on the west bank of the upper Rhine, next to Germany and Switzerland. In January 2021, it had a population of 1,9 ...
. On 21 March 1469, he received
Sigismund, Archduke of Austria Sigismund (26 October 1427 – 4 March 1496), a member of the House of Habsburg, was List of rulers of Austria, Duke of Austria from 1439 (elevated to Archduke in 1477) until his death. As a scion of the Habsburg Leopoldian line, he ruled over F ...
to his court to negotiate the purchase of Sigismund's lands in
Upper Alsace Upper Alsace (southern Alsace) was a landgraviate of the Holy Roman Empire centred on Ensisheim and Landser, north of the County of Ferrette (Pfirt). The counts of Habsburg ruled the territory from the 1130s down to its cession to France in ...
. Sigismund was in a desperate financial situation and eagerly agreed to sell. With this purchase, Charles acquired a claim to the city of Ferrette, close to the Swiss border, alarming the
Swiss Confederacy The Old Swiss Confederacy, also known as Switzerland or the Swiss Confederacy, was a loose confederation of independent small states (, German or ), initially within the Holy Roman Empire. It is the precursor of the modern state of Switzerlan ...
. Charles's rights and income from his new territories were severely limited because most of the land rights were mortgaged to local nobles. Charles's deputy in the area, Peter von Hagenbach, imposed harsh taxes on the people. Soon, several towns of Alsace formed a league against Hagenbach. For the most part, Charles ignored the area.


Meeting the Emperor at Trier

Charles greatly desired to transform the Duchy of Burgundy into a kingdom, to free it from the limitations of vassalage to the French crown and to enhance his personal stature. The only way for Charles to realise such a transformation was within the framework of the Holy Roman Empire. At Charles's request, Sigismund of Austria proposed Charles to be the next
king of the Romans King of the Romans (; ) was the title used by the king of East Francia following his election by the princes from the reign of Henry II (1002–1024) onward. The title originally referred to any German king between his election and coronatio ...
, the title of the successor of the emperor, with the marriage between the Emperor's son and the Charles's daughter as an inducement. As one of the richest men in the Europe, and also an ally of the rebellious princes in the empire, the
Hungarians Hungarians, also known as Magyars, are an Ethnicity, ethnic group native to Hungary (), who share a common Culture of Hungary, culture, Hungarian language, language and History of Hungary, history. They also have a notable presence in former pa ...
, and the Bohemians, Charles was a coveted ally for Emperor Frederick III, who agreed to receive him at
Trier Trier ( , ; ), formerly and traditionally known in English as Trèves ( , ) and Triers (see also Names of Trier in different languages, names in other languages), is a city on the banks of the Moselle (river), Moselle in Germany. It lies in a v ...
. In October 1473, both parties reached Trier: the Emperor with his son Maximilian and 2,500 horsemen, while the Burgundian entourage consisted of 13,000 men at arms (including artillery), Burgundian nobility, bishops, and treasures and relics. Despite all the grandeur, Frederick III was disappointed that Charles had not brought his daughter, amidst rumours spread by
Habsburg The House of Habsburg (; ), also known as the House of Austria, was one of the most powerful dynasties in the history of Europe and Western civilization. They were best known for their inbreeding and for ruling vast realms throughout Europe d ...
adversaries alleging that Mary was physically defective. Charles wished to become the king of the Romans and to succeed Frederick as emperor. In return, Maximilian would inherit the Burgundian State, and later become emperor. In addition, Charles wanted to become a
prince-elector The prince-electors ( pl. , , ) were the members of the Electoral College of the Holy Roman Empire, which elected the Holy Roman Emperor. Usually, half of the electors were archbishops. From the 13th century onwards, a small group of prince- ...
, taking the
Bohemian Bohemian or Bohemians may refer to: *Anything of or relating to Bohemia Culture and arts * Bohemianism, an unconventional lifestyle, originally practised by 19th–20th century European and American artists and writers. * Bohemian style, a ...
seat in the
Electoral College An electoral college is a body whose task is to elect a candidate to a particular office. It is mostly used in the political context for a constitutional body that appoints the head of state or government, and sometimes the upper parliament ...
, and be recognised as the duke of Guelders. Although Charles received recognition for his possession of the Duchy of Guelders, he still was not recognised as king of the Romans, in part because Frederick III was convinced that the prince-electors would not vote for Charles to receive the title. During the conference, Charles ignored and alienated the prince-electors. When he realised how much he needed their support, Charles tried to impress them with displays of his wealth, but the Germans were not swayed. Charles's decision to only interact with the emperor, and not the prince-electors, was a fatal mistake, showing an utter ignorance of German political norms. As an alternative, Frederick III proposed to elevate the Duchy of Burgundy to a kingdom; Charles accepted. The two parties planned for Frederick III to crown Charles in the
Trier Cathedral The High Cathedral of Saint Peter in Trier (), or Trier Cathedral (), is a Roman Catholic cathedral in Trier, Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. It is the oldest cathedral in Germany and the largest religious structure in Trier, notable for its long l ...
on 25 November. However, the next day the Emperor secretly departed from Trier, embarking on the
Moselle The Moselle ( , ; ; ) is a river that rises in the Vosges mountains and flows through north-eastern France and Luxembourg to western Germany. It is a bank (geography), left bank tributary of the Rhine, which it joins at Koblenz. A sm ...
at dawn. Charles became enraged, locked himself in his room and smashed the furniture to pieces. But he did not break the betrothal between Maximilian and Mary, hoping that he could still become a king.


Policies


Legislation

Upon his ascension as duke in 1468, Charles sought to dismantle the jurisdiction of the
Parlement of Paris The ''Parlement'' of Paris () was the oldest ''parlement'' in the Kingdom of France, formed in the 14th century. Parlements were judicial, rather than legislative, bodies and were composed of magistrates. Though not representative bodies in the p ...
as the highest juridical power within his country. The cities and institutions in Burgundy relied on the parlement for challenging legal decisions. This irritated the Dukes of Burgundy who detested any reliance on France. Philip the Good had established an itinerant, but less powerful, court of justice that travelled all across the country. Charles established a central sovereign court in
Mechelen Mechelen (; ; historically known as ''Mechlin'' in EnglishMechelen has been known in English as ''Mechlin'', from where the adjective ''Mechlinian'' is derived. This name may still be used, especially in a traditional or historical context. T ...
under his 1473 ordinance of
Thionville Thionville (; ; ) is a city in the northeastern French Departments of France, department of Moselle (department), Moselle. The city is located on the left bank of the river Moselle (river), Moselle, opposite its suburb Yutz. History Thionvi ...
. The city would house the new Court of Auditors, which previously resided in Lille and Brussels. The language of this parliament was French, with two-thirds of its personnel being Burgundian. The Mechelen parliament only held authority in the
Low Countries The Low Countries (; ), historically also known as the Netherlands (), is a coastal lowland region in Northwestern Europe forming the lower Drainage basin, basin of the Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt delta and consisting today of the three modern "Bene ...
. In the Burgundian mainlands, Charles established another parliament whose seat moved between
Beaune Beaune (; in Burgundian: ''Beane'') is widely considered to be the wine capital of Burgundy in the Côte d'Or department in eastern France. It is located between Lyon and Dijon. Beaune is one of the key wine centers in France, and a major ...
and Dole. In Charles's own words, the proper administration of justice was "the soul and the spirit of the public entity." He was recognised as the first sovereign to make a serious effort to impose peace and justice upon the Low Countries, and he was regarded as "a prince of Justice" by historian Andreas van Haul, a century after his death. However,
Georges Chastellain Georges Chastellain (c. 1405 or c. 1415 – 20 March 1475), Burgundian chronicler and poet, was a native of Aalst in Flanders. Chastellain's historical works are valuable for the accurate information they contain. As a poet he was famous am ...
criticized Charles for his lack of mercy while imposing justice. Charles damaged his relations with his people by inspecting and regulating every aspect of their lives, and he was unnecessarily harsh. Charles wanted to reduce the influence of the local aldermen, who were viewed by the commoners as the local court, and he undermined the Mechelen parliament. To both increase his grip on the seats of justice and to fill up his treasury, Charles dismissed the aldermen and sold their offices to the highest bidders; only the wealthiest subjects came to hold those positions. Many institutions protested against these practices, but Charles persisted because he constantly needed to fund his armies.


Religion

Charles the Bold was religious, and regarded himself as more devout and pious than any ruler of his day. He considered his sovereignty as bestowed upon him by God and thus owed his power to God alone. From a young age, Charles chose
Saint George Saint George (;Geʽez: ጊዮርጊስ, , ka, გიორგი, , , died 23 April 303), also George of Lydda, was an early Christian martyr who is venerated as a saint in Christianity. According to holy tradition, he was a soldier in the ...
as his
patron saint A patron saint, patroness saint, patron hallow or heavenly protector is a saint who in Catholicism, Anglicanism, Eastern Orthodoxy or Oriental Orthodoxy is regarded as the heavenly advocate of a nation, place, craft, activity, class, clan, fa ...
. He kept a sword purported to have belonged to Saint George in his treasury, and he revered other warrior saints, such as
Saint Michael Michael, also called Saint Michael the Archangel, Archangel Michael and Saint Michael the Taxiarch is an archangel and the warrior of God in Christianity, Judaism, and Islam. The earliest surviving mentions of his name are in third- and second- ...
. He commissioned a
prayer book A prayer book is a book containing prayers and perhaps devotional readings, for private or communal use, or in some cases, outlining the liturgy of religious services. Books containing mainly orders of religious services, or readings for them are ...
, from Lieven van Lathem, which was completed in 1469. The opening
diptych A diptych (, ) is any object with two flat plates which form a pair, often attached by a hinge. For example, the standard notebook and school exercise book of the ancient world was a diptych consisting of a pair of such plates that contained a ...
of the manuscript, as well as two other pieces, demonstrate Charles's devotion to Saint George. In Margaret of York's copy of ''La Vie de Sainte Colette'', she and Charles are shown as devotees of
Saint Anne According to apocrypha, as well as Christianity, Christian and Islamic tradition, Saint Anne was the mother of Mary, mother of Jesus, Mary, the wife of Joachim and the maternal grandmother of Jesus. Mary's mother is not named in the Bible's Gosp ...
. Multiple modern scholars, such as Jeffrey Chipps Smith, have made a connection between the saint and the duke from the fact that both were married three times. According to Nancy Bradley Warren, the portrayal of Charles and Saint Anne may have been a way to legitimise his marriage to Margaret and reassure those who were dubious regarding an alliance with England. Throughout his reign, Charles faced multiple requests to pledge his men to a crusade against the
Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire (), also called the Turkish Empire, was an empire, imperial realm that controlled much of Southeast Europe, West Asia, and North Africa from the 14th to early 20th centuries; it also controlled parts of southeastern Centr ...
.
Pope Sixtus IV Pope Sixtus IV (or Xystus IV, ; born Francesco della Rovere; (21 July 1414 – 12 August 1484) was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 9 August 1471 until his death in 1484. His accomplishments as pope included ...
sent three instructions to the
papal legate 300px, A woodcut showing Henry II of England greeting the Pope's legate. A papal legate or apostolic legate (from the ancient Roman title '' legatus'') is a personal representative of the Pope to foreign nations, to some other part of the Catho ...
at the Burgundian court, Lucas de Tollentis, directing him to encourage Charles to undertake a crusade against the Ottomans. Tollentis reported to the Pope on 23 June 1472 that Charles was "resolved in our favour", and the welfare of
Christendom The terms Christendom or Christian world commonly refer to the global Christian community, Christian states, Christian-majority countries or countries in which Christianity is dominant or prevails.SeMerriam-Webster.com : dictionary, "Christen ...
was never far from his mind. Charles may have considered an expedition to the east as the climax of his life's work; however, during his lifetime, he never undertook a crusade nor did he make preparations for it as his father had. Only for a short time, between late 1475 and early 1476, did he seriously consider a crusade and that was only after a meeting with
Andreas Palaiologos Andreas Palaiologos (; 17 January 1453 – June 1502), sometimes anglicized to Andrew Palaeologus, was the eldest son of Thomas Palaiologos, Despot of the Morea. Thomas was a brother of Constantine XI Palaiologos, the final Byzantine empero ...
, the deposed Despot of the Morea, who agreed to cede his claim as the Emperor of Trebizond and
Constantinople Constantinople (#Names of Constantinople, see other names) was a historical city located on the Bosporus that served as the capital of the Roman Empire, Roman, Byzantine Empire, Byzantine, Latin Empire, Latin, and Ottoman Empire, Ottoman empire ...
to Charles.


Diplomacy

Charles the Bold pursued a risky and aggressive foreign policy. Trying to have as many allies as possible, he considered everyone, aside from Louis XI, as his ally. In 1471, he made a list of his nineteen allies. He increased the number to twenty-four by the next year and had twenty-six allies in 1473, in contrast to Louis XI's fifteen allies. Some of these relations, such as with
Scotland Scotland is a Countries of the United Kingdom, country that is part of the United Kingdom. It contains nearly one-third of the United Kingdom's land area, consisting of the northern part of the island of Great Britain and more than 790 adjac ...
, were only formalities. The kings of Scotland and
Denmark Denmark is a Nordic countries, Nordic country in Northern Europe. It is the metropole and most populous constituent of the Kingdom of Denmark,, . also known as the Danish Realm, a constitutionally unitary state that includes the Autonomous a ...
would also sign treaties with Louis XI and appear on his list of allies. Initially, Charles was hesitant about an alliance with
Matthias Corvinus Matthias Corvinus (; ; ; ; ; ) was King of Hungary and King of Croatia, Croatia from 1458 to 1490, as Matthias I. He is often given the epithet "the Just". After conducting several military campaigns, he was elected King of Bohemia in 1469 and ...
, the
king of Hungary The King of Hungary () was the Monarchy, ruling head of state of the Kingdom of Hungary from 1000 (or 1001) to 1918. The style of title "Apostolic King of Hungary" (''Magyarország apostoli királya'') was endorsed by Pope Clement XIII in 1758 ...
. However, the mutual friendship with the
Kingdom of Naples The Kingdom of Naples (; ; ), officially the Kingdom of Sicily, was a state that ruled the part of the Italian Peninsula south of the Papal States between 1282 and 1816. It was established by the War of the Sicilian Vespers (1282–1302). Until ...
brought Burgundy and Hungary closer to each other, and in his pursuit to ally with Frederick III's opponents, Charles made contact with Matthias. Charles hoped that by supporting Matthias' claim to the
Kingdom of Bohemia The Kingdom of Bohemia (), sometimes referenced in English literature as the Czech Kingdom, was a History of the Czech lands in the High Middle Ages, medieval and History of the Czech lands, early modern monarchy in Central Europe. It was the pr ...
, Matthias would back him in the electoral college. In November 1474, the two successfully concluded a treaty by which they agreed to partition the Holy Roman Empire between themselves, with Charles becoming the king of the Romans and having the lands along the Rhine under his authority while Matthias would acquire Breslau and Bohemia. In 1473, through negotiations with the new Duke of Lorraine, René II, Charles obtained the right to pass his armies through the duke's lands, and assign Burgundian captains to important fortifications in Lorraine, essentially turning the duchy into a Burgundian
protectorate A protectorate, in the context of international relations, is a State (polity), state that is under protection by another state for defence against aggression and other violations of law. It is a dependent territory that enjoys autonomy over ...
. Among Charles's other allies were Amadeus IX,
Duke of Savoy The titles of the count of Savoy, and then duke of Savoy, are titles of nobility attached to the historical territory of Savoy. Since its creation, in the 11th century, the House of Savoy held the county. Several of these rulers ruled as kings at ...
, whose wife, Yolande of Valois, Louis XI's sister, drove the duchy into an alliance with Burgundy on the basis of their shared dislike of Louis XI. The intense rivalry between Louis XI and Charles kept both rulers always prepared for an eventual war. The suspicious death of Charles of Valois, Duke of Berry, the king's brother, in 1472, prompted Charles to raise arms to avenge his ally's death, stating that Berry had been poisoned by Louis. After a short conflict, the two ceased their fighting in the winter 1473 without any talk of peace. Neither would declare war on the other for the rest of their reigns. In 1468, Charles and Louis tried to make peace, which astonished the rest of France. Their peace talks soon turned into hostility once Charles learned that Louis had his hands in a recent rebellion in Liége. Afterwards, Charles imprisoned Louis in the city of Péronne and coerced him into signing a treaty favourable to Burgundy, with conditions such as forfeiting the Duke of Burgundy from paying homage, guarantying Charles's sovereignty over Picardy, and abolishing French jurisdiction over Burgundian subjects. Louis reluctantly agreed to all the demands and signed the Treaty of Péronne. However, the crown did not abide by the treaty terms and Franco-Burgundian relations remained poor.


In Italy

At the start of Louis XI's reign, Italy's triple alliance between the
Duchy of Milan The Duchy of Milan (; ) was a state in Northern Italy, created in 1395 by Gian Galeazzo Visconti, then the lord of Milan, and a member of the important Visconti of Milan, Visconti family, which had been ruling the city since 1277. At that time, ...
, the
Republic of Florence The Republic of Florence (; Old Italian: ), known officially as the Florentine Republic, was a medieval and early modern state that was centered on the Italian city of Florence in Tuscany, Italy. The republic originated in 1115, when the Flor ...
, and the
Kingdom of Naples The Kingdom of Naples (; ; ), officially the Kingdom of Sicily, was a state that ruled the part of the Italian Peninsula south of the Papal States between 1282 and 1816. It was established by the War of the Sicilian Vespers (1282–1302). Until ...
, allowed the influence of France grow in the peninsula, for Milan and Florence were long-standing allies of Louis. To remedy this, Charles enlarged Burgundy's
sphere of influence In the field of international relations, a sphere of influence (SOI) is a spatial region or concept division over which a state or organization has a level of cultural, economic, military, or political exclusivity. While there may be a formal a ...
in Italy to dwarf that of France. The first Burgundian alliance with an Italian ruler was with King
Ferdinand I of Naples Ferdinand I (2 June 1424 – 25 January 1494), also known as Ferrante, was king of Naples from 1458 to 1494. The only son, albeit illegitimate, of Alfonso the Magnanimous, he was one of the most influential and feared monarchs in Europe at the ...
, a ruler admired by both Charles and Louis. Ferdinand was the legitimised bastard of Alfonso I, and the Pope did not recognize his claim to the throne. Meanwhile,
René of Anjou René of Anjou (; ; 16 January 1409 – 10 July 1480) was Duke of Anjou and Count of Provence from 1434 to 1480, who also reigned as King of Naples from 1435 to 1442 (then Aragonese conquest of Naples, deposed). Having spent his last years in Aix ...
, the deposed King of Naples, persistently sought his title back. In the constant fear of an invasion from René or his heirs with the support of Louis XI, Ferdinand allied himself with Charles, who made Ferdinand a member of the Order of the Golden Fleece in 1473. Charles constantly toyed with the idea of marrying his daughter, Mary, to Ferdinand's second son, Frederick of Naples, who visited the Burgundian court in 1469 and 1470. In 1474, when war with Louis XI was on the horizon, Ferdinand's participation was dependent on his son's marriage to Mary. Charles hinted at his willingness to give his daughter's hand to Frederick, and Ferdinand dispatched his son to Burgundy on 24 October 1474. Although Frederick became a lieutenant and close military advisor to Charles, he failed in his ultimate mission of marrying Mary. The Duchy of Milan was France's most important ally in the Italian peninsula; Milan's ruler, Galeazzo Maria Sforza was attached to the King of France through his marriage with Louis' niece,
Bona of Savoy Bona of Savoy, Duchess of Milan (10 August 1449 – 23 November 1503) was Duchess of Milan as the second spouse of Galeazzo Maria Sforza, Duke of Milan. She served as regent of Milan during the minority of her son 1476–1481. Life Early life ...
. Charles tried to form an alliance with Milan. In 1470, he offered Galeazzo membership in the Order of the Golden Fleece, on the premise of an alliance, but was rejected. One time he even included Milan on one of his lists of allies, which caused Galeazzo to protest. To bring Galeazzo into alliance, Charles started a rumour that he wished to conquer Milan. Concerns about a probable war, and Charles's bringing diplomatic pressure to isolate Milan from France, persuaded Galeazzo to sign a treaty, on 30 January 1475 at
Moncalieri Moncalieri (; ) is a ''comune'' (municipality) of 56,134 inhabitants (31 January 2022) about directly south of downtown Turin (to whose Metropolitan City of Turin, Metropolitan City it belongs), in Piedmont, Italy. It is the most populous suburb ...
, that formed an alliance between Savoy, Burgundy, and Milan. As a result of this treaty, diplomatic relations between the two duchies were established, and Galeazzo sent Giovanni Pietro Panigarola as his envoy to Burgundy. Charles's relation with the
Republic of Venice The Republic of Venice, officially the Most Serene Republic of Venice and traditionally known as La Serenissima, was a sovereign state and Maritime republics, maritime republic with its capital in Venice. Founded, according to tradition, in 697 ...
was based on his willingness to launch a crusade against the Turks. With Ferdinand of Naples's insistence, the
senate of Venice The Senate (), formally the ''Consiglio dei Pregadi'' or ''Rogati'' (, ), was the main deliberative and legislative body of the Republic of Venice. Establishment The Venetian Senate was founded in 1229, or less likely shortly before that date. ...
agreed to a treaty against the King of France on 20 March 1472. From then on, Venice constantly urged Charles to uphold his part of the bargain and support them in their war with the Ottomans. Charles's inaction led to gradual estrangement from Venice. For instance, when he wanted to recruit the Venetian ''
condottiero Condottieri (; singular: ''condottiero'' or ''condottiere'') were Italian military leaders active during the Middle Ages and the early modern period. The term originally referred specifically to commanders of mercenary companies, derived from the ...
'' Bartolomeo Colleoni (who would have brought with him 10,000 men at arms) to his ranks, the Venetian government did not allow Colleoni to go. Charles spent two years negotiating with the Venetian ambassadors, but in the end, was unsuccessful in convincing them. By 1475, the alliance between Venice and Burgundy had ceased to seem like a genuine union. The Italian peninsula saw a shift in spheres of influence after the Treaty of Moncalieri in 1475. Charles the Bold triumphantly replaced Louis XI as the dominant influence in Italian politics, with three of four major secular powers in the region—Milan, Naples, and Venice—all aligned with him. Only Florence remained a French ally, though they remained neutral toward Charles on the basis of their mutual alliance with Venice. Charles successfully eliminated any possible Italian support for France, and now could count on the support of his Italian allies if a war with France ensued. However, from 1472, relations with France amounted to a truce, and remained as such during rest of Charles's reign.


Arts

The Burgundian court under Charles the Bold was famous and magnificent. It was seen as a place to learn arts and etiquette and where chivalry and courtly life were more intact than in the rest of the Europe. For this reason, the Burgundian court was the host to many young noblemen and princes from all across the continent. Even future generations admired Charles's court. Philip II, for instance, at the urging of his father,
Charles V Charles V may refer to: Kings and Emperors * Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor (1500–1558) * Charles V of Naples (1661–1700), better known as Charles II of Spain * Charles V of France (1338–1380), called the Wise Others * Charles V, Duke ...
, introduced the "ceremonial of the court of Burgundy" into Spain, using
Olivier de la Marche Olivier de la Marche (1425–1502) was a courtier, soldier, chronicler and poet in the last decades of the independent Duchy of Burgundy. He was close to Charles the Bold, and after his death held the important position of maître d'hotel to his ...
's account of Charles the Bold's court. Charles's Burgundian court thus became the idealized courtly life that sparked inspiration throughout 17th century Spain. While Charles's court did not differ much from those of his contemporaries, certain special features increased the court's appeal: the number of knights and nobles, the sacred image of the ruler who was distant from other courtiers, and the splendour of the court. Charles, like his predecessors, displayed his glamour through extravagant
patronage Patronage is the support, encouragement, privilege, or financial aid that an organization or individual bestows on another. In the history of art, art patronage refers to the support that princes, popes, and other wealthy and influential people ...
of the arts. During Charles's reign, the production of
illuminated manuscript An illuminated manuscript is a formally prepared manuscript, document where the text is decorated with flourishes such as marginalia, borders and Miniature (illuminated manuscript), miniature illustrations. Often used in the Roman Catholic Churc ...
s flourished. After his ascension in 1467, Charles provided considerable funds for projects left incomplete after his father's death and commissioned new projects as well. As a patron of Renaissance humanism, he commissioned the translation of
Quintus Curtius Rufus Quintus Curtius Rufus (; ) was a Ancient Rome, Roman historian, probably of the 1st century, author of his only known and only surviving work, ''Historiae Alexandri Magni'', "Histories of Alexander the Great", or more fully ''Historiarum Alex ...
's '' Histories of Alexander the Great'' into French to replace the inadequate '' Roman d'Alexandre en prose''. He commissioned the Portuguese Vasco de Lucena and Jehan de Chesne to respectively translate
Xenophon Xenophon of Athens (; ; 355/354 BC) was a Greek military leader, philosopher, and historian. At the age of 30, he was elected as one of the leaders of the retreating Ancient Greek mercenaries, Greek mercenaries, the Ten Thousand, who had been ...
's ''
Cyropaedia The ''Cyropaedia'', sometimes spelled ''Cyropedia'', is a partly fictional biography of Cyrus the Great, the founder of Persia's Achaemenid Empire. It was written around 370 BC by Xenophon, the Athens, Athenian-born soldier, historian, and studen ...
'' and
Caesar Gaius Julius Caesar (12 or 13 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC) was a Roman general and statesman. A member of the First Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in the Gallic Wars before defeating his political rival Pompey in a civil war. He ...
's '' De bello Gallico'' into French. In 1468, he commissioned Guillaume Fillastre to compose a "didactic chronicle" called ''Histoire de Toison d'Or'' containing moral and didactic stories of
Jason Jason ( ; ) was an ancient Greek mythological hero and leader of the Argonauts, whose quest for the Golden Fleece is featured in Greek literature. He was the son of Aeson, the rightful king of Iolcos. He was married to the sorceress Med ...
,
Jacob Jacob, later known as Israel, is a Hebrew patriarch of the Abrahamic religions. He first appears in the Torah, where he is described in the Book of Genesis as a son of Isaac and Rebecca. Accordingly, alongside his older fraternal twin brother E ...
,
Gideon Gideon (; ) also named Jerubbaal and Jerubbesheth, was a military leader, judge and prophet whose calling and victory over the Midianites is recounted in of the Book of Judges in both the Hebrew Bible and the Christian Bible. Gideon was th ...
,
Mesha King Mesha (Moabite language, Moabite: , vocalized as: ; Hebrew: מֵישַׁע ''Mēšaʿ'') was a king of Moab in the 9th century BC, known most famously for having the Mesha Stele inscribed and erected at Dhiban, Dibon, Jordan. In this inscrip ...
,
Job Work, labor (labour in Commonwealth English), occupation or job is the intentional activity people perform to support the needs and desires of themselves, other people, or organizations. In the context of economics, work can be seen as the huma ...
, and
David David (; , "beloved one") was a king of ancient Israel and Judah and the third king of the United Monarchy, according to the Hebrew Bible and Old Testament. The Tel Dan stele, an Aramaic-inscribed stone erected by a king of Aram-Dam ...
. He employed the finest calligraphers and illuminators to engross his ordinances; the Ordinance of 1469 was illuminated by Nicolas Spierinc and was distributed among Charles's courtiers. His prayer book illuminated by Lieven van Lathem is considered a masterpiece of Flemish illumination that influenced great illuminators such as the Master of Mary of Burgundy. Charles and his wife Margaret were patrons of Simon Marmion, who illuminated a
breviary A breviary () is a liturgical book used in Christianity for praying the canonical hours, usually recited at seven fixed prayer times. Historically, different breviaries were used in the various parts of Christendom, such as Aberdeen Breviar ...
and a
panel painting A panel painting is a painting made on a flat panel of wood, either a single piece or a number of pieces joined together. Until canvas became the more popular support medium in the 16th century, panel painting was the normal method, when not pain ...
for them. Charles was a patron of music and was a capable musician. In his 1469 ordinance, Charles gave a clear view of what his musical entourage should be: a
concert band A concert band, also called a wind band, wind ensemble, wind symphony, wind orchestra, symphonic band, the symphonic winds, or symphonic wind ensemble, is a performing ensemble consisting of members of the woodwind instrument, woodwind, brass ...
, ceremonial trumpeters,
chamber music Chamber music is a form of classical music that is composed for a small group of Musical instrument, instruments—traditionally a group that could fit in a Great chamber, palace chamber or a large room. Most broadly, it includes any art music ...
ians, an organist, and the chapel musicians, whose music had more variety than that of Philip the Good's chapel. He brought his chapel with himself on his campaigns and had choristers sing a new song to him every night in his chambers. Charles was a patron of the composer Antoine Busnois, who became his choirmaster; his court musicians also included Hayne van Ghizeghem and Robert Morton. His favourite song was ''
L'homme armé "L'homme armé" () is a secular song from the Late Middle Ages, of the Burgundian School. According to Allan W. Atlas, "the tune circulated in both the Mixolydian mode and Dorian mode (transposed to G)." It was the most popular tune used for mus ...
'', a song that may have been written for him. Charles composed a
motet In Western classical music, a motet is mainly a vocal musical composition, of highly diverse form and style, from high medieval music to the present. The motet was one of the preeminent polyphonic forms of Renaissance music. According to the Eng ...
that was sung in the
Cambrai Cathedral Cambrai Cathedral () is a Catholic church located in Cambrai, Nord, France, and is the seat of the Archbishop of Cambrai. The cathedral was registered as a ''monument historique'' on 9 August 1906. It was built between 1696 and 1703, on the si ...
, presumably in the presence of
Guillaume Du Fay Guillaume Du Fay ( , ; also Dufay, Du Fayt; 5 August 1397 – 27 November 1474) was a composer and music theorist of early Renaissance music, who is variously described as French or Franco-Flemish. Considered the leading European composer of h ...
, one of the most well-known composers of his era. Among his other works were
chanson A (, ; , ) is generally any Lyrics, lyric-driven French song. The term is most commonly used in English to refer either to the secular polyphonic French songs of late medieval music, medieval and Renaissance music or to a specific style of ...
s and secular songs. Although no pieces from his motet or chansons remain, two songs are attributed to him: (''of the Duke of Burgundy'') and (''Duke Charles''). Both are from Italian songbooks wherein no name of the composers is mentioned. Nevertheless, the songs have uncanny similarities to each other: in voice ranges, in their use of pitch C, their
musical form In music, ''form'' refers to the structure of a musical composition or musical improvisation, performance. In his book, ''Worlds of Music'', Jeff Todd Titon suggests that a number of organizational elements may determine the formal structure of a ...
(), and both songs start with the phrase ''Ma dame''. According to the
musicologist Musicology is the academic, research-based study of music, as opposed to musical composition or performance. Musicology research combines and intersects with many fields, including psychology, sociology, acoustics, neurology, natural sciences, f ...
David Fallows David Fallows (born 20 December 1945) is an English Musicology, musicologist specializing in music of the late medieval music, Middle Ages and early Renaissance music, Renaissance, as well as the performance practice of music. He is a leader in ...
, with such similar traits, the songs are most likely both composed by Charles in the 1460s. Charles also liked to sing; however, he did not have a good singing voice.


Military

When Charles became the Duke of Burgundy, his army functioned under a feudalistic system, with most of its men either recruited through summons or hired under contract. The majority of his army consisted of French nobles, and their retainers, and English archers; this army suffered from an inefficient distribution of resources and slow movement. Having lived through a period of peace under Philip the Good, the army scarcely trained and was unprepared. Furthermore, in comparison to other armies of Europe, their structure was outdated. To remedy these problems, Charles issued a series of military ordinances, between 1468 and 1473, that not only would revolutionise the Burgundian army, but also would influence every European army in the 16th century. The first of these ordinances, addressed to the Marshal of Burgundy, contains instructions on who could be recruited to the army and describes the personnel of the artillery: namely, masons, assistants, cannoneers, and carpenters. The second ordinance, issued at
Abbeville Abbeville (; ; ) is a commune in the Somme department and in Hauts-de-France region in northern France. It is the of one of the arrondissements of Somme. Located on the river Somme, it was the capital of Ponthieu. Geography Location A ...
in 1471, proclaimed the formation of a
standing army A standing army is a permanent, often professional, army. It is composed of full-time soldiers who may be either career soldiers or conscripts. It differs from army reserves, who are enrolled for the long term, but activated only during wars ...
, called , made up of 1250
lances fournies The lance fournie (French: "equipped lance") was a medieval equivalent to the modern army squad that would have accompanied and supported a man-at-arms (a heavily armoured horseman popularly known as a "knight") in battle. These units formed compa ...
, who were accompanied by 1200 crossbows, 1250 handgunners, and 1250 pikemen. A squad consisted of a man-at-arms, a mounted page, a mounted swordsman, three horse archers, a crossbowmen, and a pikeman. Charles designed a uniform for each of the companies (
Cross of Burgundy The Cross of Burgundy (; ; ; ; ; Portuguese language, Portuguese: ''Cruz de Borgonha'') is a saw-toothed (wiktionary:raguly, raguly) form of the Saltire, Cross of Saint Andrew, the patron saint of Burgundy, and a historical banner and battle fla ...
inscribed on the ducal colours). He also designed an overlapping military hierarchy that sought to preclude the infighting between captains and their subordinates that would arise in a pyramidal hierarchy. The last of these ordinances, issued at Thionville, marked the culmination of Charles's martial administration. The organisation of a squad was categorised to the merest detail; specific battle marches were created to keep order between the men; a soldier's equipment were explained in detail, and discipline among the ranks was regarded as of the utmost importance. Charles forbade individual soldiers to have a camp follower, instead, he permitted each company of 900 to have 30 women in their ranks who would attend to them. He set brutal rules against defaulters and deserters. In 1476, he appointed Jehan de Dadizele to arrest deserters. Those guilty of encouraging soldiers to desert were to be executed and the deserters were to return to the army. Charles intended for his soldiers to tutor their compatriots about these new conditions in private settings without a disciplinarian presiding over them. Charles's erratic pace in promulgating new, detailed reforms every few years was too much for his captains and men-at-arms to sufficiently implement. Charles's ordinances were mostly inspired by Xenophon's ''Cyropaedia''. After observing how
Cyrus the Great Cyrus II of Persia ( ; 530 BC), commonly known as Cyrus the Great, was the founder of the Achaemenid Empire. Achaemenid dynasty (i. The clan and dynasty) Hailing from Persis, he brought the Achaemenid dynasty to power by defeating the Media ...
achieved the willing obedience of his subjects, Charles became obsessed with discipline and order among his men-at-arms. He applied Xenophon's comments in the Abbeville ordinance, thus ensuring that through a complex
chain of command A command hierarchy is a group of people who carry out orders based on others' authority within the group. Military chain of command In a military context, the chain of command is the line of authority and responsibility along which orders ...
, his soldiers would both command and obey. The influence of
Vegetius Publius (or Flavius) Vegetius Renatus, known as Vegetius (), was a writer of the Later Roman Empire (late 4th century). Nothing is known of his life or station beyond what is contained in his two surviving works: ''Epitoma rei militaris'' (also r ...
's '' De re militari'' is also quite apparent in Charles's writings. Vegetius suggested that soldiers were to be recruited from men offering themselves to a martial life; afterwards, they would swear an oath to stay loyal to the duke. Charles adapted both ideas in his 1471 ordinance. Charles's 1473 ordinance included exercises from Vegetius to keep soldiers disciplined and prepared. The Burgundian standing army struggled with recruitment. Although the army had enough men-at-arms, pikemen, and mounted archers, it lacked
culverin A culverin was initially an ancestor of the hand-held arquebus, but the term was later used to describe a type of medieval and Renaissance cannon. The word is derived from the antiquated "culuering" and the French (from " grass snake", follo ...
s and foot archers. To solve this problem, Charles diversified his army and recruited from other nationalities. Italian mercenaries were his favourite and by 1476 filled most of his ranks. Despite the constant warning from military authors of the past against the recruitment of mercenaries, contemporary chronicler
Jean Molinet Jean Molinet (1435 – 23 August 1507) was a French poet, chronicler, and composer. He is best remembered for his prose translation of '' Roman de la rose''. Born in Desvres, which is now part of France, he studied in Paris. He entered th ...
praised Charles for his brilliant solution, saying that he was favoured by both heaven and earth and thus above the "commandments of philosophers".


Burgundian Wars


League of Constance

Over the span of five years, Charle's deputy in Upper Alsace, Peter von Hagenbach, alienated his Alsatian subjects; antagonized the neighbouring Swiss Confederacy, who felt threatened by his rule; and showed aggressive intentions towards the city of
Mulhouse Mulhouse (; ; Alsatian language, Alsatian: ''Mìlhüsa'' ; , meaning "Mill (grinding), mill house") is a France, French city of the European Collectivity of Alsace (Haut-Rhin department, in the Grand Est region of France). It is near the Fran ...
. As a result, the Swiss sought alliances with German towns and Louis XI. By February 1473, a handful of free cities had combined to end Burgundian rule in Alsace. The cities of
Strasbourg Strasbourg ( , ; ; ) is the Prefectures in France, prefecture and largest city of the Grand Est Regions of France, region of Geography of France, eastern France, in the historic region of Alsace. It is the prefecture of the Bas-Rhin Departmen ...
,
Colmar Colmar (; ; or ) is a city and commune in the Haut-Rhin department and Alsace region of north-eastern France. The third-largest commune in Alsace (after Strasbourg and Mulhouse), it is the seat of the prefecture of the Haut-Rhin department ...
,
Basel Basel ( ; ), also known as Basle ( ), ; ; ; . is a city in northwestern Switzerland on the river Rhine (at the transition from the High Rhine, High to the Upper Rhine). Basel is Switzerland's List of cities in Switzerland, third-most-populo ...
, and
Sélestat Sélestat (; Alsatian language, Alsatian: ''Schlettstàdt''; German: ''Schlettstadt'') is a Communes of France, commune in the Grand Est region of France. An administrative division (Subprefectures in France, sous-préfecture) of the Bas-Rhin Depa ...
offered money to Sigismund of Austria to buy back Alsace from Charles; but Charles was determined to keep it and refused to sell. To emphasize his claim, Charles toured the province around Christmas 1473, reportedly with an army. He tried to make peace with the Swiss, who questioned his sincerity. Charles's threats prompted the Swiss to ally themselves with their former enemy, Sigismund. In April 1474, the rebelling Alsatian cities and the Swiss formed the League of Constance to drive Charles and Peter von Hagenbach from Alsace, and rebellion quickly broke out. The league overthrew Hagenbach, put him on trial, and on 9 May executed him. Upon hearing this news, Charles was enraged. In August, he sent an army led by Peter's brother, Stefan von Hagenbach, into Alsace. After Charles refused again to give up control of Alsace, the League of Constance officially declared war on him. Hagenbach's death might be considered the catalyst to the conflict now called the "
Burgundian Wars The Burgundian Wars (1474–1477) were a conflict between the Burgundian State and the Old Swiss Confederacy and its allies. Open war broke out in 1474, and the Duke of Burgundy, Charles the Bold, was defeated three times on the battlefield in th ...
".


Siege of Neuss

When Alsace rose up against Burgundian authority, Charles was already preoccupied with another campaign, in Cologne. Charles aided the
Archbishop of Cologne The Archbishop of Cologne governs the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Cologne in western North Rhine-Westphalia. Historically, the archbishop was ''ex officio'' one of the prince-electors of the Holy Roman Empire and ruled the Electorate of Cologne ...
, Ruprecht against a rebellion, hoping to turn the
electorate Electorate may refer to: * The people who are eligible to vote in an election, especially their number e.g. the term ''size of (the) electorate'' * The dominion of a prince-elector in the Holy Roman Empire until 1806 * An electoral district ...
into a Burgundian protectorate. He held peace talks at Maastricht on 14 May 1474, which failed. From 22 June, he planned to lay siege to Colognian cities and force Ruprecht's subjects to accept the latter's terms. The first of his targets was the city of
Neuss Neuss (; written ''Neuß'' until 1968; ; ) is a city in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. It is on the west bank of the Rhine opposite Düsseldorf. Neuss is the largest city within the Rhein-Kreis Neuss district. It is primarily known for its ...
, which Charles needed to control in order to guarantee Burgundian supply lines for an attack on Cologne. Neuss was expected to fall within a few days, and many contemporary historians feared its fall would open up Germany to the Burgundians. On 28 July 1474, Charles's army reached the southern gate of Neuss. Its artillery immediately began bombardment to breach the walls. To isolate the city, Charles assigned men to every gate, blockaded the river across Neuss with fifty boats, and secured the two isles adjacent to the city. Despite all attempts, communications between Neuss and the outside world continued. In September, the Burgundian night watch caught a man swimming in the river with a letter detailing Emperor Frederick's intention to attack the Burgundian besiegers. Upon learning of Frederick's plan, Charles intensified the barrage, and attempted to drain the city's
moat A moat is a deep, broad ditch dug around a castle, fortification, building, or town, historically to provide it with a preliminary line of defence. Moats can be dry or filled with water. In some places, moats evolved into more extensive water d ...
by diverting the River Erft and sinking overloaded barges into the Rhine. Residents of Neuss endured the constant bombardment, and refused to surrender even though their food had been reduced from cows to snails and weeds. Their resistance gained admiration from all the contemporary chronicles. Emperor Frederick was slow to amass an army. When he had gathered 20,000 German forces in Spring 1475, he took seventeen days to march from Cologne to Zons, their encampment. Charles was constantly petitioned by his brother-in-law, Edward IV of England, to leave the siege and join Edward in fighting the French. But in the face of the Emperor's forces, Charles did not want to withdraw and lose face. The Emperor had no desire to fight the Burgundians and limited his involvement in the conflict to a few skirmishes. The conflict quickly came to an end after an emissary from the Pope threatened both sides with
excommunication Excommunication is an institutional act of religious censure used to deprive, suspend, or limit membership in a religious community or to restrict certain rights within it, in particular those of being in Koinonia, communion with other members o ...
, and all parties signed a peace treaty on 29 May 1475. Charles left Neuss on 27 June. The city had been so badly damaged that it was on the verge of surrender. His propagandists presented him as the Caesar of their age who had brought a humiliating defeat on the German forces. After signing the peace treaty, hundreds of German soldiers lined up to see him. According to one chronicle, many of them threw themselves at Charles and worshipped him. However, the Siege of Neuss cost Burgundy dearly in army strength and strategic opportunities. Besides the number of men and equipment lost, this siege also cost Charles a chance to destroy Louis XI and France. Edward IV, after seeing no support from his ally, agreed to sign the Treaty of Picquigny with Louis XI; the terms of the treaty included a seven-year truce and a marriage alliance between the two kingdoms. Charles had to sign a treaty with Louis as well, so that he would be free to march south and deal with the League of Constance, whose members now also included René II of Lorraine.


Battle of Grandson

Charles commenced his full-fledged invasion against the Swiss and their allies immediately after signing the peace treaty with Louis XI. Splitting his army into two parts, he advanced through Lorraine with no resistance and captured the capital city of Nancy. At the beginning of 1476, Charles besieged the recently captured castle of Grandson which was fortified by a garrison from
Bern Bern (), or Berne (), ; ; ; . is the ''de facto'' Capital city, capital of Switzerland, referred to as the "federal city".; ; ; . According to the Swiss constitution, the Swiss Confederation intentionally has no "capital", but Bern has gov ...
. Despite the many relief forces sent to defeat the Burgundians, the Swiss were unable to relieve the city from the siege, and Charles recaptured Grandson, executing all of the Bernese garrison as retaliation for Swiss brutality in Burgundian towns. On 1 March, Charles, expecting the Swiss army to march towards him for a battle, decided to leave Grandson and head northwards for a mountain pass north of the town of Concise. As he had foreseen, the Swiss army marched from
Neuchâtel Neuchâtel (, ; ; ) is a list of towns in Switzerland, town, a Municipalities of Switzerland, municipality, and the capital (political), capital of the cantons of Switzerland, Swiss canton of Neuchâtel (canton), Neuchâtel on Lake Neuchâtel ...
, with their vanguard, made up of eight thousand men, several hours ahead of the rest of their army. The vanguard reached the mountain pass first and surprised the Burgundian army. Charles quickly rallied his troops, ordered his artillery to fire at the enemy lines, and then launched an attack. Meanwhile, the Swiss had knelt down to pray, which the Burgundians may have mistaken for submission, which only motivated the Burgundians more for the attack. The initial charge, commanded by , Lord of Grandson, failed to penetrate the Swiss defensive line, with Louis himself killed in the process. Charles then made a second attack. In order to lure the enemy further down the valley to give his artillery a better target, Charles soon retreated. However, the rest of Charles's army mistook his tactical retreat for a complete withdrawal. Around this time, the rest of the Swiss army had reached the valley, announcing their arrival by bellowing their horns. The Burgundians panicked and abandoned their positions, ignoring Charles's pleas to stay in line.; The panicking army even forsook their camp at Grandson, leaving it for the Swiss to capture. The
Battle of Grandson The Battle of Grandson was fought on 2 March 1476, during the Burgundian Wars, and resulted in a major defeat for Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundian State, Burgundy, at the hands of the Old Swiss Confederacy. Background In 1475, the town of ...
became a humiliating defeat for Charles the Bold, as his army's cowardice had caused him the loss of many valuable treasures and all of his artillery and supplies. For two or three days after the battle, Charles refused any food or drink. By 4 March, he began to reorganize his army in hopes of giving battle two weeks later.


Battle of Morat

Charles retreated to
Lausanne Lausanne ( , ; ; ) is the capital and largest List of towns in Switzerland, city of the Swiss French-speaking Cantons of Switzerland, canton of Vaud, in Switzerland. It is a hilly city situated on the shores of Lake Geneva, about halfway bet ...
, where he reorganised his army. He demanded more artillery and men-at-arms from his lands; in Dijon, anything made of metal was melted to make cannon; in occupied Lorraine, he confiscated all artillery. He received funds from all his allies, and men from Italy, Germany, England, and
Poland Poland, officially the Republic of Poland, is a country in Central Europe. It extends from the Baltic Sea in the north to the Sudetes and Carpathian Mountains in the south, bordered by Lithuania and Russia to the northeast, Belarus and Ukrai ...
came to join his army. At the end of May, he had amassed 20,000 men in Lausanne, outnumbering the local population. He trained these men from 14 to 26 May while he himself grew sicker by the day, resulting in stagnation among his troops. With the supply lines delayed, and the payment long overdue, Charles's army had to cut costs. Many horse archers went on foot instead. The army, though magnificent in appearance, was incohesive and unstable. On 27 May, Charles and his army began their slow march towards the fortress of Morat. His main objective was the city of Bern; to eliminate all support for the city, he first needed to conquer Morat. He arrived at Morat on 9 June and immediately besieged the fortress. By 19 June, after several assaults on the fortress and with several of its walls destroyed, Morat sent a message to Bern, asking for help. On 20 June, the (''oath companion'') arrived at Morat. The forces were larger than the army at Grandson; the Swiss commanders estimated themselves to be 30,000 men, while recent historians believe it was 24,000. Charles expected a decisive battle in the wake of 21 June but no attack came. The Swiss instead attacked the following day, 22 June, a holy day attributed to the Ten thousand martyrs, catching the slumbering Burgundians by surprise. Charles was too slow in organizing his troops for a counterattack: he himself tarried in putting on his armour, and before his men finished taking their positions, the Swiss army had already reached them. The Burgundian army soon abandoned their posts and fled for their lives. The battle was a total victory for the Swiss, and a slaughter of the fleeing Burgundian army ensued. Many retreated into Lake Morat and drowned. Some climbed the walnut trees, and were shot dead with
arquebus An arquebus ( ) is a form of long gun that appeared in Europe and the Ottoman Empire during the 15th century. An infantryman armed with an arquebus is called an arquebusier. The term ''arquebus'' was applied to many different forms of firearms ...
es and
hand cannon The hand cannon ( or ), also known as the gonne or handgonne, is the first true firearm and the successor of the fire lance. It is the oldest type of small arms, as well as the most mechanically simple form of metal barrel firearms. Unlike match ...
s. The Swiss showed no mercy to men who surrendered. They killed knights, soldiers, and high officials alike. Charles himself fled with his men and rode for days until he reached Gex, Ain. The Milanese ambassador, Panigarola, reported that Charles laughed and made jokes after his defeat at Morat. He refused to believe he was defeated and continued to think God was on his side.


Death


Battle of Nancy

While Charles may have wanted to continue the war against the Swiss, his plans changed drastically when Nancy was reconquered by René II on 6 October. In need of money, Charles took a large loan from the Medici bank with which he assembled 10,000 hastily gathered men. The rest of his army consisted of the Italian mercenaries under the command of the , the Burgundian garrison in Nancy, and 8,000 reinforcements from the
Netherlands , Terminology of the Low Countries, informally Holland, is a country in Northwestern Europe, with Caribbean Netherlands, overseas territories in the Caribbean. It is the largest of the four constituent countries of the Kingdom of the Nether ...
. Charles arrived before Nancy at 11 October and by 22 October had begun bombarding the city walls. The siege continued throughout the harsh winter. Charles was hoping that he could enter the city before any of Rene's allies came to raise the siege. Meanwhile, René spent November and December negotiating with the Swiss to hire an army of mercenaries and with Louis XI to pay the Swiss. He was eventually successful with both and marched towards Nancy from Basel on 26 December with 9,000 Swiss mercenaries. Between 31 December and 3 January 1477, the Count of Campobasso and his Italian mercenaries deserted the Burgundians. They joined René and fought the Burgundians in the forthcoming battle. On 5 January, in heavy snow, René and his army marched towards the Burgundian position. The snow obscured their movements, and they outflanked the Burgundian army by marching around towards their front, where Charles had not placed pickets. Around noon they attacked the Burgundians, whose artillery was too slow to engage with the quickly approaching army. Charles tried to rally his men, but to no avail, for the Burgundians were already fleeing from the battlefield. Meanwhile, the Alsatian and Swiss infantry encircled Charles and his horsemen. In the River Meurthe he fell from his horse, and was struck on his head with a
halberd A halberd (also called halbard, halbert or Swiss voulge), is a two-handed polearm that was in prominent use from the 13th to 16th centuries. The halberd consists of an axe blade topped with a spike mounted on a long shaft. It may have a hook or ...
, which pierced his helmet and went into his skull. Half of the Burgundian army died during the battle or while retreating. Only those who escaped the fifty kilometers to
Metz Metz ( , , , then ) is a city in northeast France located at the confluence of the Moselle (river), Moselle and the Seille (Moselle), Seille rivers. Metz is the Prefectures in France, prefecture of the Moselle (department), Moselle Departments ...
survived.


Burial

The corpse of Charles the Bold was found two days after the battle, when it was found lying on the ice-bound river, with half of his head frozen. It took a group consisting of Charles's Roman
valet A valet or varlet is a male servant who serves as personal attendant to his employer. In the Middle Ages and Ancien Régime, ''valet de chambre'' was a role for junior courtiers and specialists such as artists in a royal court, but the term "va ...
, his Portuguese personal physician, his chaplain,
Olivier de la Marche Olivier de la Marche (1425–1502) was a courtier, soldier, chronicler and poet in the last decades of the independent Duchy of Burgundy. He was close to Charles the Bold, and after his death held the important position of maître d'hotel to his ...
, and two of his bastard brothers to identify the corpse through a missing tooth, ingrown toenail, and long fingernails. His body was moved to Nancy with full honours, where it was displayed for five days. René buried him in the Saint-George
collegiate church In Christianity, a collegiate church is a church where the daily office of worship is maintained by a college of canons, a non-monastic or "secular" community of clergy, organised as a self-governing corporate body, headed by a dignitary bearing ...
of Nancy. In Artois, people refused to believe he was dead; they believed he had escaped to Germany to undergo seven years of penance, and would reappear again. Margaret of York, Charles's wife, requested the return of his body, but René refused. Over 70 years after Charles's death, on 22 September 1550,
Charles V Charles V may refer to: Kings and Emperors * Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor (1500–1558) * Charles V of Naples (1661–1700), better known as Charles II of Spain * Charles V of France (1338–1380), called the Wise Others * Charles V, Duke ...
exhumed the body and brought it to
Luxembourg Luxembourg, officially the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, is a landlocked country in Western Europe. It is bordered by Belgium to the west and north, Germany to the east, and France on the south. Its capital and most populous city, Luxembour ...
to strengthen his claim over Burgundy. Three years later, Charles's bones were again exhumed to their final resting place, the Church of Our Lady, Bruges, beside his daughter, Mary of Burgundy. In 1559, Philip II ordered the construction of a monument over the tomb of Charles, which was completed in 1563. Philip would hold masses for the repose of the soul of Charles and commemorated the date of his death, 5 January.


Aftermath

Louis XI learned of Charles's death even before it reached Burgundy; he took advantage of the lack of leadership to invade Burgundy through Picardy, Artois, and
Mâcon Mâcon (), historically Anglicization, anglicised as Mascon, is a city in east-central France. It is the Prefectures of France, prefecture of the Departments of France, department of Saône-et-Loire in Bourgogne-Franche-Comté. Mâcon is home t ...
only three weeks after the Battle of Nancy. Ghent rose in rebellion, executing two of Charles's closest collaborators, William Hugonet and Guy of Brimeu. Charles's former conquests, Liége and Guelders, rapidly sought their independence, and in Luxembourg a struggle broke out about whether to recognize Mary of Burgundy as Charles's successor. Sigismund of Austria and the Swiss vied for
Franche-Comté Franche-Comté (, ; ; Frainc-Comtou dialect, Frainc-Comtou: ''Fraintche-Comtè''; ; also ; ; all ) is a cultural and Provinces of France, historical region of eastern France. It is composed of the modern departments of France, departments of Doub ...
; Holland, Zeeland, Frisia, and Hainault were claimed by the Count Palatine and the Duke of Bavaria. Mary, the sole child of Charles, and Margaret of York, his widow, were confronted by a crisis. To secure her legitimacy as ruler, Mary signed the Great Privilege on 11 February 1477 and restored powers to the States General in
Flanders Flanders ( or ; ) is the Dutch language, Dutch-speaking northern portion of Belgium and one of the communities, regions and language areas of Belgium. However, there are several overlapping definitions, including ones related to culture, la ...
, Brabant, Hainaut, and
Holland Holland is a geographical regionG. Geerts & H. Heestermans, 1981, ''Groot Woordenboek der Nederlandse Taal. Deel I'', Van Dale Lexicografie, Utrecht, p 1105 and former provinces of the Netherlands, province on the western coast of the Netherland ...
. To secure an alliance with the Habsburgs, Mary married Maximilian, son of Holy Roman Emperor Frederick III, in August 1477. Maximilian used a combination of diplomacy and military strength to defend and regain territories from Louis XI, though France kept the geographic Duchy of Burgundy; he also quelled several internal revolts to preserve a great deal of the Burgundian State. Mary died on 27 March 1482, and passed her lands and the title of Duke of Burgundy to her son and heir,
Philip Philip, also Phillip, is a male name derived from the Macedonian Old Koine language, Greek (''Philippos'', lit. "horse-loving" or "fond of horses"), from a compound of (''philos'', "dear", "loved", "loving") and (''hippos'', "horse"). Prominen ...
.


Historiography and legacy

Charles the Bold's untimely death directly led to the sudden collapse of the Burgundian State. He had no legitimate male heir to succeed him and he did not provide a capable husband for his daughter that he could train and prepare for succession. He was obsessed with uniting the "lands over there" (Low Countries) and the "lands over here" (
Burgundy Burgundy ( ; ; Burgundian: ''Bregogne'') is a historical territory and former administrative region and province of east-central France. The province was once home to the Dukes of Burgundy from the early 11th until the late 15th century. ...
proper) through
Lorraine Lorraine, also , ; ; Lorrain: ''Louréne''; Lorraine Franconian: ''Lottringe''; ; ; is a cultural and historical region in Eastern France, now located in the administrative region of Grand Est. Its name stems from the medieval kingdom of ...
, and sought to forge a national identity independent from that of the French. He spent his few years as the Duke of Burgundy in securing a crown and forging a new kingdom to unite his subjects, and to enhance his own glory. However, his efforts inadvertently united his German enemies under the banner of a "German nation" opposing Charles, whom they called "The Grand Turk of the West". Charles's death marks a significant moment in the modern history of Lorraine; in Nancy, the victory of René II is still remembered fondly. The Swiss victory at Morat was a confirmation of their national identity, a mark of pride, and a preservation of their independence. The Battle of Morat contributed to the decline of feudalism and heralded the end to the concept of chivalry. German-language historiography treats Charles ambivalently; he is seen both as a tragic representative of the fall of the Middle Ages, and as an immoral and flawed prince. Until recently, Swiss literature generally presented Charles negatively. Charles's death and the crisis of 1477 was an inspiration to two authors,
Olivier de La Marche Olivier de la Marche (1425–1502) was a courtier, soldier, chronicler and poet in the last decades of the independent Duchy of Burgundy. He was close to Charles the Bold, and after his death held the important position of maître d'hotel to his ...
and , who wrote ''Le chevalier délibéré'' and ''Den droom van Rouere op die doot van hertoge Kaerle van Borgonnyen saleger gedachten'', respectively, about his death. The hatred between Charles the Bold and Louis XI was an inspiration for the 17th-century French moralistic dialogues by authors such as
François Fénelon François de Salignac de la Mothe-Fénelon, PSS (), more commonly known as François Fénelon (6 August 1651 – 7 January 1715), was a French Catholic archbishop, theologian, poet and writer. Today, he is remembered mostly as the author of ' ...
, who in his ''Dialogues of the dead'' portrays Charles and Louis reconciling by drinking from the
River Styx In Greek mythology, Styx (; ; lit. "Shuddering"), also called the River Styx, is a goddess and one of the rivers of the Greek Underworld. Her parents were the Titans Oceanus and Tethys, and she was the wife of the Titan Pallas and the mothe ...
.


Notes


References


Bibliography


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Articles

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Encyclopedias

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External links

* {{DEFAULTSORT:Bold, Charles the
Charles Charles is a masculine given name predominantly found in English language, English and French language, French speaking countries. It is from the French form ''Charles'' of the Proto-Germanic, Proto-Germanic name (in runic alphabet) or ''* ...
Nobility of the Burgundian Netherlands
Charles Charles is a masculine given name predominantly found in English language, English and French language, French speaking countries. It is from the French form ''Charles'' of the Proto-Germanic, Proto-Germanic name (in runic alphabet) or ''* ...
1433 births 1477 deaths 15th-century dukes of Brabant 15th-century rebels 15th-century dukes of Limburg 15th-century monarchs of Luxembourg 15th-century counts of Flanders 15th-century counts of Hainaut 15th-century margraves of Namur People from the Burgundian State
Charles Charles is a masculine given name predominantly found in English language, English and French language, French speaking countries. It is from the French form ''Charles'' of the Proto-Germanic, Proto-Germanic name (in runic alphabet) or ''* ...
People from Dijon
Charles Charles is a masculine given name predominantly found in English language, English and French language, French speaking countries. It is from the French form ''Charles'' of the Proto-Germanic, Proto-Germanic name (in runic alphabet) or ''* ...
Charles Charles is a masculine given name predominantly found in English language, English and French language, French speaking countries. It is from the French form ''Charles'' of the Proto-Germanic, Proto-Germanic name (in runic alphabet) or ''* ...
Charles Charles is a masculine given name predominantly found in English language, English and French language, French speaking countries. It is from the French form ''Charles'' of the Proto-Germanic, Proto-Germanic name (in runic alphabet) or ''* ...
Charles Charles is a masculine given name predominantly found in English language, English and French language, French speaking countries. It is from the French form ''Charles'' of the Proto-Germanic, Proto-Germanic name (in runic alphabet) or ''* ...
Charles Charles is a masculine given name predominantly found in English language, English and French language, French speaking countries. It is from the French form ''Charles'' of the Proto-Germanic, Proto-Germanic name (in runic alphabet) or ''* ...
Charles Charles is a masculine given name predominantly found in English language, English and French language, French speaking countries. It is from the French form ''Charles'' of the Proto-Germanic, Proto-Germanic name (in runic alphabet) or ''* ...
Charles Charles is a masculine given name predominantly found in English language, English and French language, French speaking countries. It is from the French form ''Charles'' of the Proto-Germanic, Proto-Germanic name (in runic alphabet) or ''* ...
Charles Charles is a masculine given name predominantly found in English language, English and French language, French speaking countries. It is from the French form ''Charles'' of the Proto-Germanic, Proto-Germanic name (in runic alphabet) or ''* ...
Charles Charles is a masculine given name predominantly found in English language, English and French language, French speaking countries. It is from the French form ''Charles'' of the Proto-Germanic, Proto-Germanic name (in runic alphabet) or ''* ...
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