Carl Gustav Rehnskiöld
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Count Count (feminine: countess) is a historical title of nobility in certain European countries, varying in relative status, generally of middling rank in the hierarchy of nobility. Pine, L. G. ''Titles: How the King Became His Majesty''. New York: ...
Carl Gustav Rehnskiöld (6 August 1651 – 29 January 1722) was a
Swedish Swedish or ' may refer to: Anything from or related to Sweden, a country in Northern Europe. Or, specifically: * Swedish language, a North Germanic language spoken primarily in Sweden and Finland ** Swedish alphabet, the official alphabet used by ...
Field Marshal Field marshal (or field-marshal, abbreviated as FM) is the most senior military rank, senior to the general officer ranks. Usually, it is the highest rank in an army (in countries without the rank of Generalissimo), and as such, few persons a ...
(''
fältmarskalk Fältmarskalk (field marshal) was a Swedish military rank equivalent to present day NATO OF-10. Sometimes written as generalfältmarskalk (General Field Marshal, or German equivalent '' Generalfeldmarschall''). The rank of field marshal, the hi ...
'') and Royal Councillor. He was mentor and chief military advisor to King
Charles XII of Sweden Charles XII, sometimes Carl XII () or Carolus Rex (17 June 1682 – 30 November 1718 Old Style and New Style dates, O.S.), was King of Sweden from 1697 to 1718. He belonged to the House of Palatinate-Zweibrücken, a branch line of the House of ...
, and served as deputy commander-in-chief of the Carolean Army, an army he assisted both in its education and development. Rehnskiöld grew up in
Swedish Pomerania Swedish Pomerania (; ) was a dominions of Sweden, dominion under the Sweden, Swedish Crown from 1630 to 1815 on what is now the Baltic Sea, Baltic coast of Germany and Poland. Following the Polish-Swedish War, Polish War and the Thirty Years' War ...
and studied at
Lund University Lund University () is a Public university, public research university in Sweden and one of Northern Europe's oldest universities. The university is located in the city of Lund in the Swedish province of Scania. The university was officially foun ...
under philosopher
Samuel von Pufendorf Samuel von Pufendorf (; ; 8 January 1632 – 26 October 1694) was a German people, German jurist, political philosopher, economist and historian. He was born Samuel Pufendorf and Nobility, ennobled in 1694; he was made a baron by Charles XI of ...
. He entered Swedish war service in 1673 and participated with distinction in the Battles of
Halmstad Halmstad () is a port, university, industrial and recreational urban areas of Sweden, city at the mouth of the Nissan (river), Nissan river, in the provinces of Sweden, province of Halland on the Sweden, Swedish west coast. Halmstad is the seat ...
,
Lund Lund (, ;"Lund"
(US) and
) is a city in the provinces of Sweden, province of Scania, southern Swed ...
, and
Landskrona Landskrona is a town in Scania, Sweden. Located on the shores of the Öresund, it occupies a natural port, which has lent the town at first military and subsequent commercial significance. Ferries operate from Landskrona to the island of Ven, an ...
during the
Scanian War The Scanian War (; ; ; ) was a part of the Northern Wars involving the union of Denmark–Norway, Electorate of Brandenburg, Brandenburg and Swedish Empire, Sweden. It was fought from 1675 to 1679 mainly on Scanian soil, in the former Danish ...
, where he was appointed Lieutenant-Colonel and Adjutant-General. After the war, he was commander of several regiments, observer and tutor to Duke Frederick IV during the
Nine Years' War The Nine Years' War was a European great power conflict from 1688 to 1697 between Kingdom of France, France and the Grand Alliance (League of Augsburg), Grand Alliance. Although largely concentrated in Europe, fighting spread to colonial poss ...
, and
Governor-General Governor-general (plural governors-general), or governor general (plural governors general), is the title of an official, most prominently associated with the British Empire. In the context of the governors-general and former British colonies, ...
of
Scania Scania ( ), also known by its native name of Skåne (), is the southernmost of the historical provinces of Sweden, provinces () of Sweden. Located in the south tip of the geographical region of Götaland, the province is roughly conterminous w ...
. In the
Great Northern War In the Great Northern War (1700–1721) a coalition led by the Tsardom of Russia successfully contested the supremacy of the Swedish Empire in Northern Europe, Northern, Central Europe, Central and Eastern Europe. The initial leaders of the ant ...
he was Charles XII's right-hand man in the operative organization of the Carolean Army and drafted the battle plans for the
landing at Humlebæk The Landing at Humlebæk took place on August 4, 1700, in the Swedish invasion of Denmark during the Great Northern War, Great Northern War 1700–1721. It was the first offensive during the war by the Swedish army, and it was directly led by Cha ...
and for the battles of
Narva Narva is a municipality and city in Estonia. It is located in the Ida-Viru County, at the Extreme points of Estonia, eastern extreme point of Estonia, on the west bank of the Narva (river), Narva river which forms the Estonia–Russia border, E ...
,
Düna The Daugava ( ), also known as the Western Dvina or the Väina River, is a large river rising in the Valdai Hills of Russia that flows through Belarus and Latvia into the Gulf of Riga of the Baltic Sea. The Daugava rises close to the source of t ...
and Kliszów. In the
Battle of Fraustadt The Battle of Fraustadt was fought on 2 February 1706 ( O.S.) / 3 February 1706 (Swedish calendar) / 13 February 1706 ( N.S.) between Sweden and Saxony-Poland and their Russian allies near Fraustadt (now Wschowa) in Poland. During the Battle of ...
in 1706, with his own independent army, he decisively defeated a Saxon-Russian Army under the command of Field Marshal Schulenburg. For his services, Rehnskiöld was appointed Field Marshal and the title of Count. During Charles XII's campaign against Russia, Rehnskiöld was in command during the
Battle of Holowczyn The Battle of Holowczyn (also spelled Holofzin or Golovchin) was fought in July 1708 between the Russian army, and the Swedish army, led by Charles XII of Sweden, only 26 years of age at the time. Despite difficult natural obstacles and superio ...
and the
siege of Veprik {{Infobox military conflict , conflict=Siege of Veprik , image= , caption=The Swedish assault of Veprik 1709 , partof=the Swedish invasion of Russia , date= 3–18 January 17093–18 January 1709 according to the Gregorian calendar. Also 23 Decem ...
, where he was severely injured. After Charles XII became incapacitated by a bullet wound, Rehnskiöld replaced him as commander-in-chief of the Swedish Army during the
Battle of Poltava The Battle of Poltava took place 8 July 1709, was the decisive and largest battle of the Great Northern War. The Russian army under the command of Tsar Peter I defeated the Swedish army commanded by Carl Gustaf Rehnskiöld. The battle would l ...
in 1709, where it suffered a decisive defeat. After the battle, Rehnskiöld became a prisoner of war in Russia and spent the years in captivity together with Count
Carl Piper Count Carl Piper (July 29, 1647, Stockholm – May 29, 1716, Schlüsselburg) was a Swedish statesman. He entered the foreign office after completing his academical course at Uppsala, accompanied Bengt Gabrielsson Oxenstierna on his embassage ...
by running a management office in
Moscow Moscow is the Capital city, capital and List of cities and towns in Russia by population, largest city of Russia, standing on the Moskva (river), Moskva River in Central Russia. It has a population estimated at over 13 million residents with ...
to assist the other Swedish prisoners of war. Rehnskiöld was exchanged in 1718 and arrived at the
siege of Fredriksten The siege of Fredriksten () was an attack on the Norwegian fortress of Fredriksten in the city of Fredrikshald (now Halden) by King Charles XII of Sweden. While inspecting his troops' lines, Charles XII was killed by a projectile. The Swedes b ...
just before Charles XII was shot to death. Rehnskiöld later served as commander in western Sweden and, suffering from an old shrapnel injury, died in 1722.


Childhood and Education (1651–1676)

Rehnskiöld was born on 6 August 1651 in
Stralsund Stralsund (; Swedish language, Swedish: ''Strålsund''), officially the Hanseatic League, Hanseatic City of Stralsund (German language, German: ''Hansestadt Stralsund''), is the fifth-largest city in the northeastern German federal state of Mecklen ...
in
Swedish Pomerania Swedish Pomerania (; ) was a dominions of Sweden, dominion under the Sweden, Swedish Crown from 1630 to 1815 on what is now the Baltic Sea, Baltic coast of Germany and Poland. Following the Polish-Swedish War, Polish War and the Thirty Years' War ...
. His parents were the government councillor of Pomerania, Gerdt Antoniison Rehnskiöld (1610−1658), originally Keffenbrinck, and Birgitta Torskeskål (died 1655), niece of
Baron Baron is a rank of nobility or title of honour, often Hereditary title, hereditary, in various European countries, either current or historical. The female equivalent is baroness. Typically, the title denotes an aristocrat who ranks higher than ...
Johan Adler Salvius Johan Adler Salvius (born in 1590 in Strängnäs; died on 24 August 1652 in Stockholm) was a Swedish baron of Örneholm, chancellor, confidant and representative of the Christina, Queen of Sweden at the peace negotiations at Osnabrück and respo ...
. Keffenbrinck's ancestors came from
Westphalia Westphalia (; ; ) is a region of northwestern Germany and one of the three historic parts of the state of North Rhine-Westphalia. It has an area of and 7.9 million inhabitants. The territory of the region is almost identical with the h ...
, and their seat was the castle of Rehne in the northern part of the Münsterland province. Gerdt Rehnskiöld initially served as a scribe in Kammarkollegium, and later as the authorized representative of the Crown at
King King is a royal title given to a male monarch. A king is an Absolute monarchy, absolute monarch if he holds unrestricted Government, governmental power or exercises full sovereignty over a nation. Conversely, he is a Constitutional monarchy, ...
Gustavus Adolphus Gustavus Adolphus (9 December N.S 19 December">Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates.html" ;"title="/nowiki>Old Style and New Style dates">N.S 19 December15946 November Old Style and New Style dates">N.S 16 November] 1632), also known in English as ...
' administrative entourage during the King's military campaign in Holy Roman Empire, Germany. Thanks to his efforts in the maintenance of the Swedish troops during the
Thirty Years War The Thirty Years' War, fought primarily in Central Europe between 1618 and 1648, was one of the most destructive conflicts in European history. An estimated 4.5 to 8 million soldiers and civilians died from battle, famine, or disease, whil ...
, he became a naturalized Swedish nobleman in 1639 by
Queen Kristina Christina (; 18 December O.S. 8 December">Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates.html" ;"title="nowiki/>Old Style and New Style dates">O.S. 8 December1626 – 19 April 1689), a member of the House of Vasa, was Monarchy of Sweden, Queen of Sweden from ...
and adopted the name Rehnskiöld after his family seat. He was also awarded the Griebenow, Willershusen, and Hohenwarth estates in Pomerania, as well as Stensättra farm in
Södermanland Södermanland ( ), locally Sörmland, sometimes referred to under its Latinisation of names, Latinized form Sudermannia or Sudermania, is a Provinces of Sweden, historical province (or ) on the south eastern coast of Sweden. It borders Österg ...
. In 1640, the Rehnskiöld family was introduced in the House of Nobility at number 270.Palmgren (1845), p. 48Rosander (2003), p. 262 Carl Gustav Rehnskiöld was the eighth of the Rehnskiölds' eleven children. After his father's death in 1658, Carl Gustav had two brothers and two sisters. The government councillor Philip Christoff von der Lancken and the regional councillor Joachim Cuhn von Owstien, both close friends to Gerdt Rehnskiöld before his death, received custody over the five siblings. The siblings suffered from financial hardship, partly due to Gerdt's money problems during the latter part of his life, and partly because of inheritance disputes between the five siblings and Gerdt Rehnskiöld's third wife and widow Anna Catharina Gärffelt. The guardians had granted her Birgitta Rehnskiöld's family jewelry and 14,000
riksdaler The Svenska riksdaler () was the name of a Swedish coin first minted in 1604. Between 1777 and 1873, it was the currency of Sweden. The daler, like the dollar,''National Geographic''. June 2002. p. 1. ''Ask Us''. was named after the German Thale ...
from the heritage. As a result, the siblings complained about their guardians' way of treating them and wrote several letters of complaint to the Swedish government. Carl Gustav Rehnskiöld's brother-in-law Anders Appelman later came to participate more actively in the upbringing of the five siblings, and gave funds to Carl Gustav's and his brothers' continued education. Carl Gustav Rehnskiöld undertook home education and entered
Lund University Lund University () is a Public university, public research university in Sweden and one of Northern Europe's oldest universities. The university is located in the city of Lund in the Swedish province of Scania. The university was officially foun ...
at the age of 20. Here he studied theology, history, language and philosophy. He participated in lectures with historian and philosopher
Samuel von Pufendorf Samuel von Pufendorf (; ; 8 January 1632 – 26 October 1694) was a German people, German jurist, political philosopher, economist and historian. He was born Samuel Pufendorf and Nobility, ennobled in 1694; he was made a baron by Charles XI of ...
, who took notice of the keen student and offered individual lessons under his tutelage. Pufendorf left a lasting impression. Rehnskiöld re-wrote Pufendorf's work ''Einleitung zur Historie der vornehmsten Reichen und Staaten in Europa'' (printed in
Frankfurt Frankfurt am Main () is the most populous city in the States of Germany, German state of Hesse. Its 773,068 inhabitants as of 2022 make it the List of cities in Germany by population, fifth-most populous city in Germany. Located in the forela ...
only in 1682), provided the manuscript with Pufendorf's personal comments, and kept it for the remainder of his life. Rehnskiöld joined the
Swedish Army The Swedish Army () is the army, land force of the Swedish Armed Forces of the Kingdom of Sweden. Beginning with its service in 1521, the Swedish Army has been active for more than 500 years. History Svea Life Guards dates back to the year 1 ...
at the age of 22, and in 1673 obtained a commission as
Ensign Ensign most often refers to: * Ensign (flag), a flag flown on a vessel to indicate nationality * Ensign (rank), a navy (and former army) officer rank Ensign or The Ensign may also refer to: Places * Ensign, Alberta, Alberta, Canada * Ensign, Ka ...
at
Captain Captain is a title, an appellative for the commanding officer of a military unit; the supreme leader or highest rank officer of a navy ship, merchant ship, aeroplane, spacecraft, or other vessel; or the commander of a port, fire or police depa ...
Reinhold Anrep's company in the
Närke-Värmland Regiment The Närke-Värmland Regiment () was a Swedish Army infantry regiment that traced its origins back to the 16th century. It was split into two new regiments in 1812. The regiment's soldiers were recruited from the provinces of Närke and Värmland ...
. Already in the following year, he was appointed
lieutenant A lieutenant ( , ; abbreviated Lt., Lt, LT, Lieut and similar) is a Junior officer, junior commissioned officer rank in the armed forces of many nations, as well as fire services, emergency medical services, Security agency, security services ...
at the Queen Dowager of the Realm's Horse Life Regiment. In July 1675, he transferred to the
Uppland Regiment The Uppland Regiment (), designation I 8, was a Swedish Army infantry regiment that traced its origins back to the 16th century. It was disbanded in 1957. The regiment's soldiers were originally recruited from the province of Uppland, and it was ...
, and on 12 February 1676 he became an officer of the prestigious Life Guards.


Scanian War (1676–1679)

During the early stages of the
Scanian War The Scanian War (; ; ; ) was a part of the Northern Wars involving the union of Denmark–Norway, Electorate of Brandenburg, Brandenburg and Swedish Empire, Sweden. It was fought from 1675 to 1679 mainly on Scanian soil, in the former Danish ...
, Rehnskiöld served at sea with a company of the Life Guards. He was then commanded ashore on the
Scania Scania ( ), also known by its native name of Skåne (), is the southernmost of the historical provinces of Sweden, provinces () of Sweden. Located in the south tip of the geographical region of Götaland, the province is roughly conterminous w ...
n
theater Theatre or theater is a collaborative form of performing art that uses live performers, usually actors to present experiences of a real or imagined event before a live audience in a specific place, often a stage. The performers may communi ...
and, during the night between 31 July and 1 August 1676, he carried out his first military operation at Tostebro. Along with parts of his company he conquered a Danish entrenched position after a short battle. When informed of this, King
Charles XI Charles XI or Carl (; ) was King of Sweden from 1660 until his death, in a period of Swedish history known as the Swedish Empire (1611–1721). He was the only son of King Charles X Gustav of Sweden and Hedwig Eleonora of Holstein-Gottorp. ...
made him Captain of the Life Guards, with whom he participated in the
Battle of Halmstad The Battle of Halmstad, also known as the Battle at Fyllebro, was fought on August 17, 1676, at Fyllebro, approximately southeast of the town of Halmstad in the province of Halland in southwest Sweden. It was the last battle in Halland between ...
on 17 August 1676.Konow (2001), pp. 24−27 Back in the Horse Life Regiment, this time as ''
ryttmästare ''Ryttmästare'' (from the German word ''Rittmeister'') was a military rank in the Swedish cavalry in the Swedish Army. The rank corresponded to the rank of captain in other service branches. The rank was abolished in 1972. History The military ...
'', Rehnskiöld participated in the
Battle of Lund The Battle of Lund, part of the Scanian War, was fought on December 4, 1676, in an area north of the city of Lund in Scania in southern Sweden, between the invading Denmark, Danish army and the army of Charles XI of Sweden. The Danish had an army ...
. After his squadron commander Lindhielm was wounded during the battle, Rehnskiöld replaced him and lead his squadron against the enemy. Charles XI was highly impressed by Rehnskiöld's bravery, promoting him on the battlefield to
major Major most commonly refers to: * Major (rank), a military rank * Academic major, an academic discipline to which an undergraduate student formally commits * People named Major, including given names, surnames, nicknames * Major and minor in musi ...
and transferring him to be Adjutant-General in the
General Staff A military staff or general staff (also referred to as army staff, navy staff, or air staff within the individual services) is a group of officers, Enlisted rank, enlisted, and civilian staff who serve the commanding officer, commander of a ...
under
Erik Dahlbergh Count Erik Jönsson Dahlbergh (10 October 1625 – 16 January 1703) was a Swedish military engineer, Governor-general, Field marshal and Master-general of the Ordinance. He rose to the level of nobility through his military competence. Acc ...
's guidance and supervision. When the Swedish Army retreated from Rönneberga in May 1677, he alternately commanded the
van A van is a type of road vehicle used for transporting goods or people. There is some variation in the scope of the word across the different English-speaking countries. The smallest vans, microvans, are used for transporting either goods or ...
- and
rearguard A rearguard or rear security is a part of a military force that protects it from attack from the rear, either during an advance or Withdrawal (military), withdrawal. The term can also be used to describe forces protecting lines, such as Line of c ...
s, participating in numerous skirmishes. His efforts won the praise of Dahlbergh, who called Rehnskiöld "one of the most promising young officers in the army" in the presence of Charles XI. In the
Battle of Landskrona The Battle of Landskrona was a battle in the Scanian War, fought between Denmark and Sweden. It occurred on ''Ylleshed'' moor, outside the town of Landskrona, in the province of Scania in what is now southern Sweden on 14 July 1677. Prelude O ...
, Rehnskiöld, along with his two companies, was surrounded by Danish elite units, and the Life Regiment's casualties were the highest among the Swedish regiments participating in the battle. On 5 November 1677, Rehnskiöld was promoted to lieutenant-colonel at the age of 26. He took effective command of the Queen Dowager of the Realm's Horse Life Regiment since its commander, General
Rutger von Ascheberg Count Rutger von Ascheberg (2 June 1621 – 17 April 1693), also known as Roger von Ascheberg was a Sweden, Swedish soldier born in Courland, an officer and civil servant who served as Lieutenant General in 1670, General in 1674, Swedish Field Mar ...
, was commanded elsewhere. Rehnskiöld became a long-standing friend to von Ascheberg, who was Charles XI's chief military advisor and mentor, and whom Rehnskiöld regarded as his teacher in the art of war.Palmgren (1845), p. 49Rosander (2003), p. 263 In the last two years of the war, Rehnskiöld served on the Norwegian front in
Bohuslän Bohuslän () is a Provinces of Sweden, Swedish province in Götaland, on the northernmost part of the country's west coast. It is bordered by Dalsland to the northeast, Västergötland to the southeast, the Skagerrak arm of the North Sea to the ...
and participated in the relief of
Bohus Fortress Bohus Fortress lies in Kungälv, Bohuslän, Sweden, north east from Hisingen where the Göta river splits into two branches ( north of Gothenburg). It commands the surrounding area from a cliff high, with the river forming a natural moat arou ...
, where his career came close to an abrupt end when he was fired upon by a fortified Norwegian force. At
Uddevalla Uddevalla is a Stad (Sweden), town in Västra Götaland County, Sweden. It’s the seat of Uddevalla Municipality. In 2015, it had a population of 34,781, making it the largest town fully in Bohuslän. Uddevalla is located where the river Bäveån ...
's
redoubt A redoubt (historically redout) is a Fortification, fort or fort system usually consisting of an enclosed defensive emplacement outside a larger fort, usually relying on Earthworks (engineering), earthworks, although some are constructed of ston ...
, he was the main reason that a Danish relief attempt was repelled.


Interlude before the Great Northern War (1679–1700)

In 1679, peace was concluded with Denmark and the Carolean army was demobilized. Rehnskiöld's rapid rate of promotion slowed: the rank of
colonel Colonel ( ; abbreviated as Col., Col, or COL) is a senior military Officer (armed forces), officer rank used in many countries. It is also used in some police forces and paramilitary organizations. In the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries, a colon ...
and raising his own
regiment A regiment is a military unit. Its role and size varies markedly, depending on the country, military service, service, or administrative corps, specialisation. In Middle Ages, Medieval Europe, the term "regiment" denoted any large body of l ...
had to wait. In peacetime, Rehnskiöld was acting Lieutenant-Colonel and Adjutant-General, and learnt much about
military logistics Military logistics is the discipline of planning and carrying out the movement, supply, and maintenance of military forces. In its most comprehensive sense, it is those aspects or military operations that deal with: * Design, development, Milita ...
which proved to be useful in the future. He remained a dutiful royal servant, being one of the "promising young men" mentioned by Charles XI in a letter to Dahlbergh in 1682. In 1689 he became Colonel of the German Foot Life Regiment, an enlisted
garrison A garrison is any body of troops stationed in a particular location, originally to guard it. The term now often applies to certain facilities that constitute a military base or fortified military headquarters. A garrison is usually in a city ...
regiment accommodated in
Landskrona Landskrona is a town in Scania, Sweden. Located on the shores of the Öresund, it occupies a natural port, which has lent the town at first military and subsequent commercial significance. Ferries operate from Landskrona to the island of Ven, an ...
,
Halmstad Halmstad () is a port, university, industrial and recreational urban areas of Sweden, city at the mouth of the Nissan (river), Nissan river, in the provinces of Sweden, province of Halland on the Sweden, Swedish west coast. Halmstad is the seat ...
,
Karlskrona Karlskrona (, , ) is a locality and the seat of Karlskrona Municipality, Blekinge County, Sweden with a population of 66,675 in 2018. It is also the capital of Blekinge County. Karlskrona is known as Sweden's only baroque city and is host to ...
,
Malmö Malmö is the List of urban areas in Sweden by population, third-largest city in Sweden, after Stockholm and Gothenburg, and the List of urban areas in the Nordic countries, sixth-largest city in Nordic countries, the Nordic region. Located on ...
, and
Helsingborg Helsingborg (, , ), is a Urban areas in Sweden, city and the seat of Helsingborg Municipality, Scania County, Scania (Skåne), Sweden. It is the second-largest city in Scania (after Malmö) and List of urban areas in Sweden by population, ninth ...
. With this position, he was made
Commandant Commandant ( or ; ) is a title often given to the officer in charge of a military (or other uniformed service) training establishment or academy. This usage is common in English-speaking nations. In some countries it may be a military or police ...
of
Landskrona Citadel Landskrona Citadel ( or ''Landskrona slott'') is situated in Landskrona, Scania, southern Sweden. Much of the original work is intact. Examples remain of all major parts of the fortification, which is uncommon in such an accessible area. The moat ...
.Konow (2001), pp. 28−31 During 1690 and 1691 the
Dutch Republic The United Provinces of the Netherlands, commonly referred to in historiography as the Dutch Republic, was a confederation that existed from 1579 until the Batavian Revolution in 1795. It was a predecessor state of the present-day Netherlands ...
negotiated with Sweden for volunteers to fight in the war against France. The Swedish King provided 6,000 men, and Rehnskiöld, with the King's blessing, traveled to the
Netherlands , Terminology of the Low Countries, informally Holland, is a country in Northwestern Europe, with Caribbean Netherlands, overseas territories in the Caribbean. It is the largest of the four constituent countries of the Kingdom of the Nether ...
in the late summer of 1691. For three months he served as a
military observer A military, also known collectively as armed forces, is a heavily armed, highly organized force primarily intended for warfare. Militaries are typically authorized and maintained by a sovereign state, with their members identifiable by a d ...
and military tutor to Prince Frederick of Holstein-Gottorp. Rehnskiöld reported to Charles XI on King
William III William III or William the Third may refer to: Kings * William III of Sicily () * William III of England and Ireland or William III of Orange or William II of Scotland (1650–1702) * William III of the Netherlands and Luxembourg (1817–1890) N ...
and the Grand Alliance's joint operations, and the lack of discipline among the Allied forces. Rehnskiöld had to personally intervene in a disciplinary trial between the young Swedish officers
Axel Gyllenkrok Axel Gyllenkrok, or ''Gyllenkrook'' (2 August 1664 – 17 September 1730) was a Swedish baron, military general, and governor of Gothenburg. He is best known as being the general quartermaster of King Charles XII of Sweden. He was the operation ...
and Carl Magnus Posse. They volunteered for the
French Army The French Army, officially known as the Land Army (, , ), is the principal Army, land warfare force of France, and the largest component of the French Armed Forces; it is responsible to the Government of France, alongside the French Navy, Fren ...
and tried to escape to the Allied camp in
Flanders Flanders ( or ; ) is the Dutch language, Dutch-speaking northern portion of Belgium and one of the communities, regions and language areas of Belgium. However, there are several overlapping definitions, including ones related to culture, la ...
, where they were arrested but were released after they protested. Charles XI ordered Rehnskiöld to express his stern dissatisfaction to the young officers; through their undisciplined course of action, they had earned the condemnation of the foreign soldiers and, according to the King, they should have acted in accordance with prevalent soldierly manners. On his return to Sweden in 1693 Rehnskiöld received the colonelcy of the Scanian Cavalry Regiment; he was made major-general of
cavalry Historically, cavalry (from the French word ''cavalerie'', itself derived from ''cheval'' meaning "horse") are groups of soldiers or warriors who Horses in warfare, fight mounted on horseback. Until the 20th century, cavalry were the most mob ...
in 1696. After von Ascheberg's death in April 1693, Rehnskiöld came to finish his work of renewing the old
allotment system The allotment system (; ) was a system used in Sweden for keeping a trained army at all times. This system came into use in around 1640, and was replaced by the modern Swedish Armed Forces conscription system in 1901. Two different allotment sy ...
, becoming Charles XI's chief military steward, and was employed in matters of tactics and education. In
Herrevad Abbey Herrevad Abbey () was a Cistercian monastery near Ljungbyhed in Klippan Municipality, Scania, in the south of present-day Sweden, but formerly in Denmark until 1658. It is now a country house known as Herrevad Castle (). History Herrevad A ...
and
Ljungbyhed Ljungbyhed is a urban areas of Sweden, locality situated in Klippan Municipality, Skåne County, Sweden, with 2,046 inhabitants in 2010. History Ljungbyhed was and is located in Riseberga ''socken'' and was part of the Riseberga ''landskommun'' af ...
he organized extensive training activities for his regiment, and worked hard making it well-equipped and combat effective. Under his tutelage, the Scanian Cavalry Regiment became a model regiment in the Swedish cavalry. When Charles XI died in 1697, he was succeeded by his son
Charles XII Charles XII, sometimes Carl XII () or Carolus Rex (17 June 1682 – 30 November 1718 Old Style and New Style dates, O.S.), was King of Sweden from 1697 to 1718. He belonged to the House of Palatinate-Zweibrücken, a branch line of the House of ...
. The new King granted Rehnskiöld the title of Baron, appointed him
Governor-General Governor-general (plural governors-general), or governor general (plural governors general), is the title of an official, most prominently associated with the British Empire. In the context of the governors-general and former British colonies, ...
of
Scania Scania ( ), also known by its native name of Skåne (), is the southernmost of the historical provinces of Sweden, provinces () of Sweden. Located in the south tip of the geographical region of Götaland, the province is roughly conterminous w ...
and
lieutenant-general Lieutenant general (Lt Gen, LTG and similar) is a military rank used in many countries. The rank traces its origins to the Middle Ages, where the title of lieutenant general was held by the second-in-command on the battlefield, who was normall ...
of cavalry.Konow (2001), pp. 39-44, 48 Rehnskiöld was instrumental in the development of Carolean combat tactics, based on the "national school" which itself derived from the offensive tactics designed by Gustavus Adolphus,
Johan Banér Johan Banér (23 June 1596 – 10 May 1641) was a Swedish field marshal in the Thirty Years' War. Early life Johan Banér was born at Djursholm Castle in Uppland. As a four-year-old he was forced to witness the execution of his father, the ...
and
Charles X Gustav Charles X Gustav, also Carl X Gustav (; 8 November 1622 – 13 February 1660), was King of Sweden from 1654 until his death. He was the son of John Casimir, Count Palatine of Kleeburg, John Casimir, Count Palatine of Palatinate-Kleeburg, Zweib ...
. Charles XI was a strong advocate of the national school, which was designed by Rutger von Ascheberg and Erik Dahlbergh. Their disciples, Rehnskiöld and Quartermaster General Carl Magnus Stuart, educated Charles XII in this kind of warfare, and when Stuart was appointed Governor-General of
Courland Courland is one of the Historical Latvian Lands in western Latvia. Courland's largest city is Liepāja, which is the third largest city in Latvia. The regions of Semigallia and Selonia are sometimes considered as part of Courland as they were ...
in 1701, Rehnskiöld became the King's chief military adviser and mentor. Rehnskiöld advocated that the
infantry Infantry, or infantryman are a type of soldier who specialize in ground combat, typically fighting dismounted. Historically the term was used to describe foot soldiers, i.e. those who march and fight on foot. In modern usage, the term broadl ...
should be organized into
battalion A battalion is a military unit, typically consisting of up to one thousand soldiers. A battalion is commanded by a lieutenant colonel and subdivided into several Company (military unit), companies, each typically commanded by a Major (rank), ...
s of 600 men, one-third
pikemen A pike is a long thrusting spear formerly used in European warfare from the Late Middle Ages and most of the early modern period, and wielded by foot soldiers deployed in pike square formation, until it was largely replaced by bayonet-equipped ...
and two-thirds
musketeer A musketeer ( ) was a type of soldier equipped with a musket. Musketeers were an important part of early modern warfare, particularly in Europe, as they normally comprised the majority of their infantry. The musketeer was a precursor to the rifl ...
s. They would carry out rapid marches with pikes and drawn swords after giving a close-range volley. The cavalry would be divided into companies of 125 men, which would charge in clustered wedge formations at full speed. This tactic was in stark contrast to the continental pattern, which advocated counter-marching during firing and
caracole The caracole or caracol (from the Spanish ''caracol'' - "snail") is a turning maneuver on horseback in dressage and, previously, in military tactics. In dressage, riders execute a caracole as a single half turn, either to the left or to the ...
tactics. The Swedish units would come from the same region and thus be able to create strong bonds between the soldiers and officers. Strict discipline and high morale among the troops would be maintained through the
Christian religion Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion, which states that Jesus is the Son of God and rose from the dead after his crucifixion, whose coming as the messiah (Christ) was prophesied in the Old Testament and chronicled in the New ...
, and the allegiance sworn to the King and to their regimental colors and standards. As Governor-General, Rehnskiöld asserted the Crown's interests in Scania through cultivation of crown land, forest management, and by counteracting a famine before a suspected bad harvest. He completed the province's military allotment and was tasked with setting the kingdom's plan of defense for a coming war with Denmark. Denmark had a tense relationship with the Duchy of Holstein-Gottorp to the south, which was allied with Sweden. Rehnskiöld advocated that the border provinces of the
Swedish Empire The Swedish Empire or the Great Power era () was the period in Swedish history spanning much of the 17th and early 18th centuries during which Sweden became a European great power that exercised territorial control over much of the Baltic regi ...
would constitute its strongest defense; each province would be defended by its own allotted regiments. The eastern provinces were reinforced with Finnish allotted regiments and over 100 permanent forts, guarded by enlisted garrison regiments. For the kingdom to have a successful defense the
Swedish Navy The Swedish Navy () is the maritime service branch of the Swedish Armed Forces. It is composed of surface and submarine naval units – the Fleet (), formally sometimes referred to as the Royal Navy () – as well as marine units, the Amph ...
must have dominion over the
Baltic Sea The Baltic Sea is an arm of the Atlantic Ocean that is enclosed by the countries of Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Germany, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Russia, Sweden, and the North European Plain, North and Central European Plain regions. It is the ...
, to provide troop transports and maintain supply lines. Since the army was short of
dragoon Dragoons were originally a class of mounted infantry, who used horses for mobility, but dismounted to fight on foot. From the early 17th century onward, dragoons were increasingly also employed as conventional cavalry and trained for combat wi ...
regiments, Rehnskiöld implored permission to set up his own regiment through recruitment, and, in 1700, he founded the Life Dragoon Regiment. Lieutenant-Colonel Hugo Johan Hamilton was appointed its
second-in-command Second-in-command (2i/c or 2IC) is a title denoting that the holder of the title is the second-highest authority within a certain organisation. Usage In the British Army or Royal Marines, the second-in-command is the deputy commander of a unit, f ...
. Rehnskiöld wanted to make it an elite unit fighting at the King's side, and it would consist only of men from mainland Sweden. In Scania, Rehnskiöld was the owner of Allerup and Torup farms. He owned the largest collection of oxen in all of Scania; 112 pairs in total. He was succeeded as Governor-General by
Magnus Stenbock Count Magnus Stenbock (22 May 1665 – 23 February 1717) was a Swedish field marshal (''Fältmarskalk'') and Privy Council of Sweden, Royal Councillor. A commander of the Caroleans, Carolean Army during the Great Northern War, he was a promin ...
in 1705. On 17 January 1697, Rehnskiöld married Elisabeth Funck, daughter of the assessor in Bergskollegium Johan Funck. Rehnskiöld was thus brother-in-law to Carl Magnus Stuart, who was married to his wife's older sister Margaretha Funck. In 1699, a daughter was born to the couple, who died before she was one year old. Rehnskiöld then left Sweden to embark on the
Great Northern War In the Great Northern War (1700–1721) a coalition led by the Tsardom of Russia successfully contested the supremacy of the Swedish Empire in Northern Europe, Northern, Central Europe, Central and Eastern Europe. The initial leaders of the ant ...
, reuniting with his wife on the spring of 1707 in the castle of
Altranstädt Altranstädt () is a village and former municipality in Saxony, Germany, now part of the town Markranstädt in the district of Leipzig. The village is historically famous for two treaties that were concluded there, the Treaty of Altranstädt (170 ...
.


Great Northern War (1700–1709)


Campaign in Denmark and the Baltics

The Great Northern War began on 12 February 1700. The
King King is a royal title given to a male monarch. A king is an Absolute monarchy, absolute monarch if he holds unrestricted Government, governmental power or exercises full sovereignty over a nation. Conversely, he is a Constitutional monarchy, ...
of
Poland Poland, officially the Republic of Poland, is a country in Central Europe. It extends from the Baltic Sea in the north to the Sudetes and Carpathian Mountains in the south, bordered by Lithuania and Russia to the northeast, Belarus and Ukrai ...
and
Elector Elector may refer to: * Prince-elector or elector, a member of the electoral college of the Holy Roman Empire, having the function of electing the Holy Roman Emperors * Elector, a member of an electoral college ** Confederate elector, a member of t ...
of
Saxony Saxony, officially the Free State of Saxony, is a landlocked state of Germany, bordering the states of Brandenburg, Saxony-Anhalt, Thuringia, and Bavaria, as well as the countries of Poland and the Czech Republic. Its capital is Dresden, and ...
,
Augustus II Augustus II the Strong (12 May 1670 – 1 February 1733), was Elector of Saxony from 1694 as well as King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania from 1697 to 1706 and from 1709 until his death in 1733. He belonged to the Albertine branch of the H ...
, crossed the
Düna The Daugava ( ), also known as the Western Dvina or the Väina River, is a large river rising in the Valdai Hills of Russia that flows through Belarus and Latvia into the Gulf of Riga of the Baltic Sea. The Daugava rises close to the source of t ...
river with his Saxon troops and besieged the city of
Riga Riga ( ) is the capital, Primate city, primate, and List of cities and towns in Latvia, largest city of Latvia. Home to 591,882 inhabitants (as of 2025), the city accounts for a third of Latvia's total population. The population of Riga Planni ...
in
Swedish Livonia Swedish Livonia () was a dominion of the Swedish Empire from 1629 until 1721. The territory, which constituted the southern part of modern Estonia (including the island of Ösel ceded by Denmark after the Treaty of Brömsebro) and the northe ...
. Riga was defended by Governor-General Erik Dahlbergh. Simultaneously,
King King is a royal title given to a male monarch. A king is an Absolute monarchy, absolute monarch if he holds unrestricted Government, governmental power or exercises full sovereignty over a nation. Conversely, he is a Constitutional monarchy, ...
Frederick IV of Denmark Frederick IV (Danish language, Danish: ''Frederik''; 11 October 1671 – 12 October 1730) was List of Danish monarchs, King of Denmark and List of Norwegian monarchs, Norway from 1699 until his death. Frederick was the son of Christian V of Denma ...
and his Danish troops invaded Holstein-Gottorp and laid
siege A siege () . is a military blockade of a city, or fortress, with the intent of conquering by attrition, or by well-prepared assault. Siege warfare (also called siegecrafts or poliorcetics) is a form of constant, low-intensity conflict charact ...
to
Tönning Tönning ( German; Low German ''Tünn'', ''Tönn'' or ''Tönnen''; Danish: ''Tønning''; North Frisian: ''Taning'') is a town in the district of Nordfriesland in the German state of Schleswig-Holstein. History Tönning was destroyed in the ...
on March.Rosander (2003), p. 264 Throughout the Swedish Empire the allotted regiments were mobilized and ordered to march to southern Sweden. The standing army consisted of 77,000 men, of which 10,000 were sent to the Norwegian border and 16,000 were gathered in Scania to fight against Denmark. Rehnskiöld was commander of the army's deployment in Scania, which he later commanded, and was appointed leader of the operational army headquarters, serving directly under the King. The Swedish
ministry of foreign affairs In many countries, the ministry of foreign affairs (abbreviated as MFA or MOFA) is the highest government department exclusively or primarily responsible for the state's foreign policy and relations, diplomacy, bilateral, and multilateral r ...
, under
Bengt Gabrielsson Oxenstierna Count Bengt Gabrielsson Oxenstierna (1623–1702) was a Swedish soldier and statesman who served as Foreign Minister from 1680 to 1697. He ensured Sweden's neutrality during this period and moved the country away from its traditional alliance ...
, advised Charles XII to relieve Livland, but the King chose to first avert the Danish threat, and Rehnskiöld passed the King's decision to Oxenstierna. In mid-July 1700, the Swedish Army command decided to land Swedish troops on
Zealand Zealand ( ) is the largest and most populous islands of Denmark, island in Denmark proper (thus excluding Greenland and Disko Island, which are larger in size) at 7,031 km2 (2715 sq. mi.). Zealand had a population of 2,319,705 on 1 Januar ...
. The main landing would be concentrated in
Køge Bugt Køge (, older spelling ''Kjøge'') is a Danish seaport on the coast of Køge Bugt (''Bay of Køge'') 39 km southwest of Copenhagen. It is the principal town and seat of Køge Municipality, Region Sjælland (Zealand), Denmark. In 2025, the ...
south of
Copenhagen Copenhagen ( ) is the capital and most populous city of Denmark, with a population of 1.4 million in the Urban area of Copenhagen, urban area. The city is situated on the islands of Zealand and Amager, separated from Malmö, Sweden, by the ...
under the command of Rehnskiöld, while a small unit would land at
Humlebæk Humlebæk is a town within the Municipalities of Denmark, municipality of Fredensborg Municipality, Fredensborg in North Zealand in Denmark, approximately 35 km north of Copenhagen. Humlebæk is located at the shore to Øresund and has a popu ...
south of
Helsingør Helsingør ( , ; ), classically known in English as Elsinore ( ), is a coastal city in northeastern Denmark. Helsingør Municipality had a population of 63,953 on 1 January 2025, making it the 23rd most populated municipality in Denmark. Helsin ...
, acting as a distraction. However, the landing at Køge Bugt was called off. Instead, Rehnskiöld and Carl Magnus Stuart planned the landing at Humlebæk, which would be carried out with the support of the Swedish battle fleet. The landing took place on 25 July. Rehnskiöld commanded the left wing of the Swedish landing forces while the King and Stuart commanded the right wing. The Danish defenders were quickly routed, and the Swedes established a bridgehead on Zealand. This forced Frederick IV to withdraw from the war on 8 August 1700 with the
peace of Travendal The Peace of Travendal was a peace treaty concluded at the outset of the Great Northern War on 18 August 1700 between the Swedish Empire, Denmark–Norway and Holstein-Gottorp in Traventhal.Weigley (2004), p.108 Denmark had to return Holstein-G ...
. Following Denmark's withdrawal from the war, the Swedish Army reassembled in Scania at the end of August to be transported to the Baltic front. Shortly before, Charles XII was informed that
Russia Russia, or the Russian Federation, is a country spanning Eastern Europe and North Asia. It is the list of countries and dependencies by area, largest country in the world, and extends across Time in Russia, eleven time zones, sharing Borders ...
n troops under
Tsar Tsar (; also spelled ''czar'', ''tzar'', or ''csar''; ; ; sr-Cyrl-Latn, цар, car) is a title historically used by Slavic monarchs. The term is derived from the Latin word '' caesar'', which was intended to mean ''emperor'' in the Euro ...
Peter I Peter I may refer to: Religious hierarchs * Saint Peter (c. 1 AD – c. 64–68 AD), a.k.a. Simon Peter, Simeon, or Simon, apostle of Jesus * Pope Peter I of Alexandria (died 311), revered as a saint * Peter I of Armenia (died 1058), Catholicos ...
had besieged the strategically important Swedish outpost of
Narva Narva is a municipality and city in Estonia. It is located in the Ida-Viru County, at the Extreme points of Estonia, eastern extreme point of Estonia, on the west bank of the Narva (river), Narva river which forms the Estonia–Russia border, E ...
in
Estonia Estonia, officially the Republic of Estonia, is a country in Northern Europe. It is bordered to the north by the Gulf of Finland across from Finland, to the west by the Baltic Sea across from Sweden, to the south by Latvia, and to the east by Ru ...
. The Swedish Army were shipped from
Karlshamn Karlshamn () is a locality and the seat of Karlshamn Municipality in Blekinge County, Sweden. It had 13,576 inhabitants in 2015, out of 31,846 in the municipality. Karlshamn received a Royal Charter and city privileges in 1664, when King Charles ...
to Pernau in Estonia on early October. Once informed about the Swedish landing, Augustus II ordered his troops to abandon the siege of Riga. With another threat stopped for the time being, Charles XII and Rehnskiöld left Pernau on 16 October and arrived at
Reval Tallinn is the capital and most populous city of Estonia. Situated on a bay in north Estonia, on the shore of the Gulf of Finland of the Baltic Sea, it has a population of (as of 2025) and administratively lies in the Harju ''maakond'' (co ...
on 25 October. At Wesenberg, east of Reval, Charles XII gathered all available Swedish units, a total of about 11,000 men. On 13 November the Swedish main army broke up and marched towards Narva. Many officers considered this venture too risky, since the Russian siege army was rumoured to number about 80,000 and the Swedish Army lacked supplies and reinforcements. After skirmishes with Russian reconnoitres the Swedes arrived at the outskirts of Narva on 20 November. Through reconnaissance the Swedes learned that the Russians, who were about 30,000 strong, had built a fortification system that stretched in a semicircle between the north and south sides of the city. Together with Quartermaster Lieutenant-General Gerdt Ehrenschantz and
artillery Artillery consists of ranged weapons that launch Ammunition, munitions far beyond the range and power of infantry firearms. Early artillery development focused on the ability to breach defensive walls and fortifications during sieges, and l ...
commander Johan Siöblad, Rehnskiöld drafted a simple battle plan that was never written on paper. The Swedes would attack with two
columns A column or pillar in architecture and structural engineering is a structural element that transmits, through compression, the weight of the structure above to other structural elements below. In other words, a column is a compression member ...
, consisting of both infantry and cavalry, against the central part of the fortification line. Each column would then move to the south and north along the line and roll up the Russian defense so that the Russian Army would be trapped in two pockets against the
Narva River The Narva, formerly also Narwa or Narova, flows north into the Baltic Sea and is the largest Estonian river by discharge. A similar length of land far to the south, together with it and a much longer intermediate lake, Lake Peipus, all togeth ...
. The Swedish artillery would support their advance. Rehnskiöld himself took charge of the left column while general
Otto Vellingk Count Otto Ottoson Vellingk (1649–1708) was a Swedish general during the Great Northern War. Biography He was born in Jama in Swedish Ingria to Otto Gotthardsson Vellingk and Christina Nilsdotter Mannersköld. In 1664, Vellingk became a li ...
commanded the right. Rehnskiöld's column was split into two groups, one under Major-General Georg Johan Maidel and the other under Colonel Magnus Stenbock. In the afternoon of 20 November, the two Swedish columns
advanced The Advanced Party (), otherwise known as the Advanced Association () was a liberal and centrist Zionist political association in Mandatory Palestine founded by several urban liberal Zionists. The party was founded in order to represent the voice ...
towards the Russian line. The Swedes, hidden by a heavy snowstorm that blew directly into the eyes of the Russians, breached the fortifications, causing a violent massacre and panic among the Russian troops. After a wild rout the Russian Army chose to surrender, and after negotiations were allowed to withdraw back to Russia. The Russians lost about 9,000 men during the battle, and their entire command was captured, while the Swedish casualties were estimated to be around 1,900 men. Peter I himself was not present at the battle, since he handed over the command of his army to Duke Charles Eugène de Croÿ, who became a prisoner of war. Many European nations were greatly impressed with the Swedish victory and congratulated the King and his army. Magnus Stenbock later praised Rehnskiöld for his efforts during the battle:


Campaign in Poland

The main Swedish army overwintered outside the town of
Dorpat Tartu is the second largest city in Estonia after Tallinn. Tartu has a population of 97,759 (as of 2024). It is southeast of Tallinn and 245 kilometres (152 miles) northeast of Riga, Latvia. Tartu lies on the Emajõgi river, which connects the ...
and the dilapidated
Laiuse Castle Laiuse Castle (Estonian language, Estonian: ''Laiuse ordulinnus'', ) was a Livonian Order castle in Laiusevälja, Jõgeva Parish, Estonia. The castle is now in ruins. History Laiuse Castle was the first castle in Estonia built to cope with fi ...
. In the spring, the army was reinforced by regiments from the Swedish mainland, raising their numbers to 24,000 men. In June the army broke up and marched south to Riga to attack Augustus II and his combined Saxon-Russian army, which was estimated to 38,000 men. On 7 July the Swedish main army stood outside Riga, and Charles XII and Rehnskiöld planned to cross the Düna river right next to the city. Augustus II entrenched his troops along the river, but they were uncertain whether the Swedes were going to cross at
Koknese Koknese () is a town in Aizkraukle Municipality in the Vidzeme region of Latvia, on the right bank of the Daugava River. It has a population of nearly 3,000. According to the provisions of the 2021 Latvian administrative reform, Koknese gained ...
or Riga, and decided to split their forces. Rehnskiöld drafted the battle plan together with Carl Magnus Stuart and Erik Dahlbergh. Dahlberg was tasked to obtain landing boats near Riga and construct floating batteries, embarked by infantry units that would land on the opposite beach and establish a bridgehead. A floating bridge had been constructed by Dahlbergh to transfer the cavalry across the river and pursue the Saxon troops. The cavalry was commanded by Rehnskiöld, while the infantry was commanded by the King accompanied by Lieutenant-General Bernhard von Liewen. On the morning of 9 July, 3,000 Swedish troops rowed towards the opposite beach. The Swedes torched some smaller boats and pushed them out into the river to obstruct the allies' view. However, because of strong currents, the floating bridge was destroyed and its repair was prolonged, forcing Rehnskiöld to improvise by transporting parts of his own Life Dragoon Regiment with rafts. The King's infantry established a bridgehead and repelled multiple Saxon attacks. Augustus II called a retreat and lost up to 2,000 men, while the Swedish casualties amounted to 500 men. The crossing was a success but became a strategic failure since the Swedes could not win a decisive victory over the Saxon troops.Ericson Wolke (2003), pp. 268−273Rosander (2003), p. 269 Having failed to defeat Augustus II in the Düna operation, Charles XII decided to carry out a military campaign on Polish territory to defeat Augustus' army, and secure his own back for an attack against Russia. In July 1702, Charles XII and his main army caught up with Augustus II at the village of Kliszów northeast of
Kraków , officially the Royal Capital City of Kraków, is the List of cities and towns in Poland, second-largest and one of the oldest cities in Poland. Situated on the Vistula River in Lesser Poland Voivodeship, the city has a population of 804,237 ...
. He was eager to attack Augustus II, but on Rehnskiöld's advice, waited for reinforcements from Lieutenant-General Carl Mörner's division, which arrived on 8 July. At the same time, Augustus waited for the Polish cavalry, which arrived the following day. Together with Lieutenant-Generals Bernhard von Liewen and Jakob Spens, Rehnskiöld drafted the battle plan. Augustus had around 24,000 Saxon-Polish troops covered by dense forest and vast swamps on the Nida river. The artillery was stationed at a height between the two wings, while the Saxon center was placed behind the artillery. The Swedish Army consisted of 12,000 troops. The main Swedish force would move parallel to the Saxon front line and perform a
flanking maneuver In military tactics, a flanking maneuver is a movement of an armed force around an enemy force's side, or flank, to achieve an advantageous position over it. Flanking is useful because a force's fighting strength is typically concentrated ...
towards the Saxon right wing. The Swedish right wing, led by Rehnskiöld, would defend itself against the Saxon frontal assault, led by Field Marshal Adam Heinrich von Steinau, before the Saxon troops had the time to regroup in order to repel the Swedish main force. On the morning of 9 July, the Swedish troops
advanced The Advanced Party (), otherwise known as the Advanced Association () was a liberal and centrist Zionist political association in Mandatory Palestine founded by several urban liberal Zionists. The party was founded in order to represent the voice ...
towards the Saxon front line. When the Polish cavalry began to attack the Swedish left wing and threatened to surround the main Swedish force, the Swedes were forced to regroup to face the Polish cavalry and managed to rout the cavalry. By ordering his troops to form
squares In geometry, a square is a regular polygon, regular quadrilateral. It has four straight sides of equal length and four equal angles. Squares are special cases of rectangles, which have four equal angles, and of rhombuses, which have four equal si ...
, Rehnskiöld successfully resisted Steinau's frontal attack, whose troops were forced to withdraw. The Swedish main forces advanced into the Saxon camp, took control of the Saxon artillery, and threatened to encircle the Saxon center. Augustus II was forced to withdraw, and lost about 4,000 men, with Swedish losses were estimated at 1,100 men. Among the dead was Rehnskiöld's nephew Frans Anton Rehnskiöld, who was Captain of the Life Guards, and Frederick IV, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, who commanded the Swedish left wing in their attack. Charles XII failed to hunt down Augustus II's retreating army and Augustus II's defeat was once again not decisive, as he was able to withdraw and organize new troops. As a result, Charles XII and the main Swedish army operated around Poland to destroy Augustus II's Polish resources and his Saxon division, while also persuading various nobility factions in Poland who opposed Augustus II to depose him as King. In December 1702 Rehnskiöld was commissioned with four infantry and nine cavalry regiments, about 10,000 men, operating independently from the Swedish main army. He was tasked with securing the negotiations between the various noble factions in
Warsaw Warsaw, officially the Capital City of Warsaw, is the capital and List of cities and towns in Poland, largest city of Poland. The metropolis stands on the Vistula, River Vistula in east-central Poland. Its population is officially estimated at ...
, and to collect money and food from the immediate vicinity to supply the Swedish troops
besieging A siege () . is a military blockade of a city, or fortress, with the intent of conquering by attrition, or by well-prepared assault. Siege warfare (also called siegecrafts or poliorcetics) is a form of constant, low-intensity conflict characte ...
the city of Thorn. He established headquarters near
Piotrków Trybunalski Piotrków Trybunalski (; also known by #Etymology, alternative names), often simplified to Piotrków, is a city in central Poland with 71,252 inhabitants (2021). It is the capital of Piotrków County and the second-largest city in the Łódź Voi ...
, while his troops were mostly stationed in different locations in
Greater Poland Greater Poland, often known by its Polish name Wielkopolska (; ), is a Polish Polish historical regions, historical region of west-central Poland. Its chief and largest city is Poznań followed by Kalisz, the oldest city in Poland. The bound ...
, where he kept a watchful eye towards the nobility factions fighting for Augustus II. During his debriefings to the royal headquarters, Rehnskiöld exchanged command with Major-General Arvid Axel Mardefelt. In April 1703 Rehnskiöld was promoted to General of cavalry, elevating his prestige during his negotiations with the Polish nobility factions which included Prince
James Louis Sobieski James Louis Henry Sobieski (Polish: ''Jakub Ludwik Henryk Sobieski''; French: ''Jacques Louis Henri de Sobieski''; 2 November 1667 – 19 December 1737) was a crown prince ( królewicz) of Poland in years 1674–1696 and duke on Oława in years 1 ...
,
magnate The term magnate, from the late Latin ''magnas'', a great man, itself from Latin ''magnus'', "great", means a man from the higher nobility, a man who belongs to the high office-holders or a man in a high social position, by birth, wealth or ot ...
Hieronim Augustyn Lubomirski Prince Hieronim Augustyn Lubomirski (1647–1706) was a Polish noble (szlachcic), magnate, politician and famed military commander. He was a Prince of the Holy Roman Empire SRI. Son of Grand Marshal and Hetman Jerzy Sebastian Lubomirski and ...
and
Cardinal Cardinal or The Cardinal most commonly refers to * Cardinalidae, a family of North and South American birds **''Cardinalis'', genus of three species in the family Cardinalidae ***Northern cardinal, ''Cardinalis cardinalis'', the common cardinal of ...
Michał Stefan Radziejowski Augustyn Michał Stefan Radziejowski (3 December 1645 – 13 October 1705) was an archbishop of Gniezno, bishop of Warmia, and cardinal primate of the Roman Catholic Church in Poland. He was the son of Hieronim Radziejowski. After the death of t ...
. In February 1704 the
Warsaw Confederation The Warsaw Confederation, also called the Compact of Warsaw, was a political-legal act signed in Warsaw on 28 January 1573 by the first Convocation Sejm (''Sejm konwokacyjny'') held in the Polish Commonwealth. Convened and deliberating as a co ...
congregated and agreed to depose Augustus II as King of Poland, since he had lost much of his influence in the kingdom. Rehnskiöld was given the task of securing their deliberations and preventing the troops of Augustus II from advancing eastwards.Konow (2001), pp. 81−83


War in Saxony

In the summer of 1705, Rehnskiöld received command of an army in Greater Poland, consisting of five infantry, three cavalry and five dragoon regiments: about 10,000 men in total. Rehnskiöld was tasked with protecting Charles XII and the Swedish main army's rear against Augustus II and his Saxon main army, who were mobilizing inside the Saxon border. The Saxon forces comprised a total of 25,000 men, reinforced by Russian auxiliaries and commanded by Field Marshal
Johann Matthias von der Schulenburg Marshal Johann Matthias Reichsgraf von der Schulenburg (8 August 1661 – 14 March 1747) was a German aristocrat and general of Brandenburg-Prussian background who served in the Saxon and Venetian armies in the early 18th century and found a se ...
. Rehnskiöld marched closer to the Saxon border along the
Vistula The Vistula (; ) is the longest river in Poland and the ninth-longest in Europe, at in length. Its drainage basin, extending into three other countries apart from Poland, covers , of which is in Poland. The Vistula rises at Barania Góra i ...
river and established winter quarters at
Poznań Poznań ( ) is a city on the Warta, River Warta in west Poland, within the Greater Poland region. The city is an important cultural and business center and one of Poland's most populous regions with many regional customs such as Saint John's ...
. In December he was appointed Royal Councillor and Field Marshal by Charles XII, but was not aware of this until he received a letter from the King in August 1706.Konow (2001), pp. 83−84, 88 The Swedish troops resumed their movements in mid-January 1706. Through reconnaissance and interrogation of Saxon prisoners and defectors, Rehnskiöld found out that the Saxons planned to conduct a twofold attack on his army: from the southwest by Schulenburg and from the northwest by a division led by Augustus II. Rehnskiöld moved quickly to attack Schulenburg's army and defeat it before Augustus II could arrive, despite being greatly outnumbered. On 31 January Rehnskiöld reached the village of Fraustadt near the Saxon border. Schulenburg's army was already there and occupied a strong position. Its center was formed of about 16,000 Saxon-Russian infantry, supported by 37 artillery pieces, with 4,000 Saxon cavalry units covering its flanks. Rehnskiöld had only 9,400 combatants, including 3,700 infantry units and 5,700 cavalry units. Outnumbering the Saxons in the number of cavalry units, he planned a risky
pincer movement The pincer movement, or double envelopment, is a maneuver warfare, military maneuver in which forces simultaneously attack both flanking maneuver, flanks (sides) of an enemy Military organization, formation. This classic maneuver has been im ...
, comprising a weak center consisting of infantry units and some cavalry squadrons, and two strong cavalry wings, the right-hand one led directly by Rehnskiöld. The Swedish center would face the Saxon frontal assault, while the cavalry wings would attack the Saxon flanks with full force, drive them off, and then attack the Saxon center in the rear. Rehnskiöld gave the attack signal at noon on 3 February 1706. The
battle of Fraustadt The Battle of Fraustadt was fought on 2 February 1706 ( O.S.) / 3 February 1706 (Swedish calendar) / 13 February 1706 ( N.S.) between Sweden and Saxony-Poland and their Russian allies near Fraustadt (now Wschowa) in Poland. During the Battle of ...
began with the two Swedish wings advancing faster than the center, making the Swedish battle line curved, which Schulenburg perceived as a sign of weakness. The Swedish wings, however, charged the Saxon flanks and drove off their cavalry. The Swedish wings encircled and enclosed the Saxon-Russian center, which soon disintegrated, forcing Schulenburg to retreat. Schulenburg himself managed to escape, but large parts of his army were cut down by the Swedish cavalry and the remnants were surrounded and captured. After two hours of battle, 7,377 men from Schulenburg's army had been killed and between 7,300 and 7,900 were taken prisoner; among these, about 2,000 were wounded. Of Rehnskiöld's troops, 400 were killed and 1,000 were wounded. Many of the Saxon prisoners were subsequently employed in the Swedish Army and formed a Bavarian regiment and a French and a
Swiss Swiss most commonly refers to: * the adjectival form of Switzerland * Swiss people Swiss may also refer to: Places * Swiss, Missouri * Swiss, North Carolina * Swiss, West Virginia * Swiss, Wisconsin Other uses * Swiss Café, an old café located ...
battalion respectively.Palmgren (1845), p. 51 Rehnskiöld's name was later tied to a massacre that was purported to have occurred shortly after the battle. According to testimony from a Lieutenant Joachim Matthiæ Lyth and Lieutenant-Colonel Nils Gyllenstierna, Rehnskiöld ordered the massacre of up to 500 Russian prisoners of war.Quennerstedt (1903), p. 31 His order was condemned by Swedish historians such as Eirik Hornborg, Sverker Oredsson, and
Peter Englund Peter Mikael Englund (born 4 April 1957) is a Swedish author and historian. He focuses on writing non-fiction books and essays, mostly about the Swedish Empire and other historical events. Englund is known for his accessible writing style, whic ...
. Other historians such as August Quennerstedt and
Gustaf Adlerfelt Gustaf Adlerfelt (1671 – June 28, 1709) was a Swedish historical writer born near Stockholm, brother of Pehr Adlerfelt. He was appointed by Charles XII "gentleman of the court" and afterwards accompanied him to his military campaigns, and wri ...
considered that the massacre did not take place on Rehnskiöld's orders, but rather, might have occurred during the desperate situation in the final stages of the battle. Historians
Henning Hamilton Count Henning Ludvig Hugo Hamilton (16 January 1814 – 15 January 1886) was a Swedish count, politician, government official and author. His father was Gustaf Wathier Hamilton. Today he is perhaps best remembered for the so-called ''Hamilton ...
and Oskar Sjöström questioned even the existence of the massacre. Both considered that the other historians had misinterpreted or confused this event with the Swedish cavalry's pursuit of the broken Saxon-Russian infantry, who suffered enormous casualties.Sjöström (2008), pp. 288−290Konow (2001), pp. 92−94 Likewise, historian Jan von Konow questioned the certainty of Joachim Lyth's testimony. The victory at Fraustadt had a crippling effect in Denmark, Russia and Saxony, and caused shock waves around Europe. In France, the victory was celebrated, and
Prussia Prussia (; ; Old Prussian: ''Prūsija'') was a Germans, German state centred on the North European Plain that originated from the 1525 secularization of the Prussia (region), Prussian part of the State of the Teutonic Order. For centuries, ...
n policy immediately became friendlier to the Swedes. In June the same year, Rehnskiöld was made Count (in 1719, the count's branch of the Rehnskiöld family was introduced at the House of Nobility under number 48). With the main Saxon army defeated, the Swedish Army had the opportunity to move into Saxony and force Augustus II out of the war. In August, Charles XII reunited with Rehnskiöld's army. The joint army moved through Imperial
Silesia Silesia (see names #Etymology, below) is a historical region of Central Europe that lies mostly within Poland, with small parts in the Czech Silesia, Czech Republic and Germany. Its area is approximately , and the population is estimated at 8, ...
, and by September, the Swedes had successfully occupied Saxony without resistance. The
Treaty of Altranstädt (1706) The Treaty of Altranstädt was concluded between Charles XII of Sweden and Augustus the Strong of Saxony and Poland–Lithuania, on 13 October 1706, during the Great Northern War. Augustus had to renounce his claims to the Polish throne and hi ...
was concluded between Sweden and Saxony on 14 September. Under Swedish terms, Augustus II was forced to break all ties with his allies, renounce his claims to the Polish crown, and accept
Stanisław Leszczyński Stanisław I Leszczyński (Stanisław Bogusław; 20 October 1677 – 23 February 1766), also Anglicized and Latinized as Stanislaus I, was twice King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania, and at various times Prince of Deux-Ponts, Duk ...
as the new King.Sjöström (2009), chap. 16 The Swedish Army stayed for one year in Saxony, seizing substantial taxes from the Saxon estates for its maintenance. During this time, Charles XII's headquarters in Altranstädt became a center for festivities and banquets, as well as one of the focal points of European politics. Princes, diplomats and military personnel from all over Western Europe traveled to Altranstädt to meet the victorious King and his troops. The renowned English General, the
Duke of Marlborough General John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough, 1st Prince of Mindelheim, 1st Count of Nellenburg, Prince of the Holy Roman Empire, (26 May 1650 – 16 June 1722 O.S.) was a British army officer and statesman. From a gentry family, he ...
, who was one of the visitors persuaded Charles XII not to interfere in the
War of the Spanish Succession The War of the Spanish Succession was a European great power conflict fought between 1701 and 1714. The immediate cause was the death of the childless Charles II of Spain in November 1700, which led to a struggle for control of the Spanish E ...
, which took place simultaneously with the Great Northern War. Determined, Charles XII mustered his army to go east towards his final opponent, Tsar Peter and Russia.


Campaign in Russia

The Swedish Army left Saxony in August 1707 to march east towards Russian territory. The army was largely newly recruited and well-equipped, numbering about 40,000 men. Rehnskiöld acted as Field Marshal and stood closest to the King at its high command. Rehnskiöld and the army command were unaware of Charles XII's plans for the campaign, which the King kept to himself, but agreed upon a preliminary march towards Russia's capital
Moscow Moscow is the Capital city, capital and List of cities and towns in Russia by population, largest city of Russia, standing on the Moskva (river), Moskva River in Central Russia. It has a population estimated at over 13 million residents with ...
, where Peter I had gathered most of his forces. Charles XII ordered the commander of the "Army of Courland" in the Baltic provinces, General
Adam Ludwig Lewenhaupt Adam Ludwig Lewenhaupt (15 April 1659 – 12 February 1719) was a Swedish general, particularly known for his participation in the Great Northern War. Biography He was born on 15 April 1659 in a Swedish fortified camp near Copenhagen. He atten ...
, to join the main army in the march against Moscow. Lewenhaupt and the Army of Courland were also tasked with obtaining supplies and wagons for onward transport to the Swedish main army. Awaiting Lewenhaupt's troops, the main army advanced slowly towards the Russian border. At the end of January 1708, they arrived at
Grodno Grodno, or Hrodna, is a city in western Belarus. It is one of the oldest cities in Belarus. The city is located on the Neman, Neman River, from Minsk, about from the Belarus–Poland border, border with Poland, and from the Belarus–Lithua ...
, which was occupied by 9,000 men of Peter I's army. Charles XII and Rehnskiöld attacked with 800 cavalry units, and the Russian troops withdrew after a short but fierce battle. Later in the evening, Russian troops sneaked into the city to surprise the Swedes; Rehnskiöld ended up in the middle of the attacking troops, but was not recognized because of the dark sky and managed to get to safety. The attack was repelled, and the Russians were forced to retreat. Later in the year, during the crossing of the Vabitj River at the town of Holowczyn in July 1708, the Swedish vanguard encountered a Russian army in fortified positions on the opposite shore. In the
battle of Holowczyn The Battle of Holowczyn (also spelled Holofzin or Golovchin) was fought in July 1708 between the Russian army, and the Swedish army, led by Charles XII of Sweden, only 26 years of age at the time. Despite difficult natural obstacles and superio ...
, Charles XII commanded the infantry while Rehnskiöld commanded the cavalry. The Russian troops under Field Marshal
Boris Sheremetev Count Boris Petrovich Sheremetev (; – ) was a Russian diplomat and field marshal (Russian Empire), general field marshal during the Great Northern War. He became the first Russian count in 1706. His children included Pyotr Sheremetev and Nat ...
and Prince
Alexander Danilovich Menshikov Prince Alexander Danilovich Menshikov (; – ) was a Russian statesman, whose official titles included Generalissimo, Prince of the Russian Empire and Duke of Izhora ( Duke of Ingria), Prince of the Holy Roman Empire, Duke of Cosel. A highl ...
were pushed back after eight hours of struggle; however the Russian Army managed to escape mostly intact so the battle was not a decisive strategic victory. Following the battle of Holowczyn, Charles remained for nine weeks in
Mogilev Mogilev (; , ), also transliterated as Mahilyow (, ), is a city in eastern Belarus. It is located on the Dnieper, Dnieper River, about from the Belarus–Russia border, border with Russia's Smolensk Oblast and from Bryansk Oblast. As of 2024, ...
and the nearby areas to the east, between the
Dnieper The Dnieper or Dnepr ( ), also called Dnipro ( ), is one of the major transboundary rivers of Europe, rising in the Valdai Hills near Smolensk, Russia, before flowing through Belarus and Ukraine to the Black Sea. Approximately long, with ...
and its tributary
Sozh The Sozh (, ; ; ) is a river flowing in Russia, Belarus, and Ukraine. It is a left bank tributary of the Dnieper. The Sozh passes through Gomel, the second largest city in Belarus. The river is crossed by the Sozh Floating Bridge at Karma and ...
, awaiting Lewenhaupt's late arrival. Lewenhaupt's mission was exceptionally complicated, and halfway to the main army he was intercepted by a Russian army under Peter I's personal command. The resulting battle at Lesnaya on 29 September ended in a draw, with both armies suffering heavy losses. In order to prevent the supply train from falling into Russian hands, Lewenhaupt decided to burn the wagons and the bulk of the supplies, continuing his march with half of his troops. On 23 October, Lewenhaupt eventually united with the main army, but only with 6,500 men and without the necessary supplies. Throughout the campaign, Rehnskiöld held a fierce rivalry with the Marshal of the Realm, Count
Carl Piper Count Carl Piper (July 29, 1647, Stockholm – May 29, 1716, Schlüsselburg) was a Swedish statesman. He entered the foreign office after completing his academical course at Uppsala, accompanied Bengt Gabrielsson Oxenstierna on his embassage ...
, who had accompanied Charles XII as chief of the perambulating chancellery since 1700. The tense relationship between Rehnskiöld and Piper dated back to the Swedish Army's march on Saxony. Both men desired the King's favor: as the senior civilian army official Piper sought to persuade the King not to make reckless actions, whilst Rehnskiöld, as second-in-command of the army supported the King's offensive plans. The antagonism between the two, in combination with their fiery temperament and pride in their own abilities, made them unable to reason with each other without an intermediary, a role usually filled by Quartermaster General Axel Gyllenkrok. Their relationship would eventually cause discord and division within the Swedish headquarters, as well as hopelessness and anxiety within the army. Rehnskiöld discussed which road the army would take from Tatarsk with Gyllenkrok. The army suffered from lack of food supplies and had to move to areas where they could resupply. Peter I had adopted
scorched earth A scorched-earth policy is a military strategy of destroying everything that allows an enemy military force to be able to fight a war, including the deprivation and destruction of water, food, humans, animals, plants and any kind of tools and i ...
tactics, rendering the Swedish march against Moscow ever more difficult. During a
council of war A council of warSeveria Severia (, ; ) or Siveria ( / , ''Siveria'' / ''Sivershchyna'') is a historical region in present-day southwest Russia, northern Ukraine, and eastern Belarus. The largest part lies in modern Russia, while the central part of the region is the c ...
, in the direction of
Little Russia Little Russia, also known as Lesser Russia, Malorussia, or Little Rus', is a geographical and historical term used to describe Ukraine. At the beginning of the 14th century, the patriarch of Constantinople accepted the distinction between wha ...
. There the Swedes would be able to establish reliable winter quarters and receive supplies and reinforcements through Charles' alliance with
Ivan Mazepa Ivan Stepanovych Mazepa (; ; ) was the Hetman of the Zaporozhian Host and the Left-bank Ukraine in 1687–1708. The historical events of Mazepa's life have inspired Cultural legacy of Mazeppa, many literary, artistic and musical works. He was ...
,
Hetman ''Hetman'' is a political title from Central and Eastern Europe, historically assigned to military commanders (comparable to a field marshal or imperial marshal in the Holy Roman Empire). First used by the Czechs in Bohemia in the 15th century, ...
of the
Zaporozhian Cossacks The Zaporozhian Cossacks (in Latin ''Cossacorum Zaporoviensis''), also known as the Zaporozhian Cossack Army or the Zaporozhian Host (), were Cossacks who lived beyond (that is, downstream from) the Dnieper Rapids. Along with Registered Cossa ...
. Upon learning about Mazepa's alliance with Charles XII, Peter I sent an army under Prince Menshikov to conquer and burn down Mazepa's capital
Baturyn Baturyn (, ) is a historic city in Chernihiv Oblast (province) of northern Ukraine. It is located in Nizhyn Raion (district) on the banks of the Seym River. It hosts the administration of Baturyn urban hromada, one of the hromadas of Ukraine. P ...
. The Cossacks who did not support Mazepa chose
Ivan Skoropadsky Ivan Skoropadsky (; ; 1646 – ) was a Cossack Hetman of the Zaporizhian Host from 1708 to 1722, and the successor to the Hetman Ivan Mazepa. Biography Born into a noble Cossack family in Humań, Podolia, Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1 ...
as the new Hetman on 11 November 1708. Thus, Mazepa lost much of his support in the country and brought the Swedes only a few thousand Cossacks, without the great army and the rich food resources he previously promised. During The Great Frost of December 1708 thousands of Swedish and Russian soldiers succumbed to the cold. The Swedish Army set up camp around Gadyat in early December. Near the town was the fortress of Veprik, which was occupied by a Russian garrison of 1,500 men and blocked the Swedish advance. Charles XII decided that Veprik should be conquered.
The assault ''The Assault'' (original title in Dutch: ''De aanslag'') is a 1982 novel by Dutch author Harry Mulisch. Random House published an English translation by Claire Nicolas White in 1985. It covers 35 years in the life of the lone survivor of a nig ...
, on 7 January 1709, was led by Rehnskiöld. He planned that Swedish cannons would bombard the fortress ramparts, after which three columns of 3,000 men would climb the ramparts from different directions using storm ladders and cut down the Russian defenders. The first assault failed, as the defenders used several methods to slow down and fend off the Swedish columns. During the second assault, Rehnskiöld was hit in the chest by a bullet from a falconet, forcing him to hand over command to Major-General
Berndt Otto Stackelberg Friherre Berndt Otto von Stackelberg (14 May 1662 – 29 August 1734), also known as Berndt Otto Stackelberg the Elder, was a Swedish field marshal (''fältmarskalk'') and nobleman. Stackelberg fought in the Great Northern War as a subordinate ...
. This assault was also fruitless, but the two sides agreed upon a truce. Since the Russian garrison had used almost all their ammunition, their Commandant chose to surrender. The Swedish losses counted to 1,000 men killed and 600 wounded. Rehnskiöld recovered slightly after six weeks, but his shrapnel injury would never be fully healed. The Swedish Army remained in the areas around Veprik until late February. They marched south to a strong position between Dnieper's tributaries
Vorskla The Vorskla (; ) is a river that runs from Belgorod Oblast in Russia southwards into northeastern Ukraine, where it joins the Dnieper. Geography The river's source is on the western slopes of the Central Russian Upland north of Belgorod. Wi ...
and Psel, to gain reinforcements from Poland and Mazepa's Cossacks. Rehnskiöld was commissioned to stay with nine infantry and cavalry regiments in the areas around Gadyat and Veprik, shielding the main army against attacks from the north. Rehnskiöld's troops reunited with the main army in early March and at the southern part of Vorskla, the Swedish Army arrived at the fortified city of
Poltava Poltava (, ; , ) is a city located on the Vorskla, Vorskla River in Central Ukraine, Central Ukraine. It serves as the administrative center of Poltava Oblast as well as Poltava Raion within the oblast. It also hosts the administration of Po ...
. In order to occupy the Russians and lure them into the field, Charles XII laid siege to Poltava in May 1709. The city was defended by a 4,200-man garrison. Peter I marched to relieve the city with an army of 74,000 Russian regulars and irregulars. During a reconnaissance on 17 June, Charles XII was struck by a
stray bullet A stray bullet is a bullet that, after being fired from a gun, hits an unintended target. Such a shooting accident may occur due to missing a target when hunting or sport-shooting or celebrating wedding A wedding is a ceremony in which two ...
, injuring his foot badly enough that he was unable to stand. News of his injury tempted the Tsar to dare a field battle. Peter I crossed the
Vorskla River The Vorskla (; ) is a river that runs from Belgorod Oblast in Russia southwards into northeastern Ukraine, where it joins the Dnieper. Geography The river's source is on the western slopes of the Central Russian Upland north of Belgorod. Wit ...
and constructed a fortified camp north of Poltava. Between the Russian and Swedish troops was a wide-open field, where two woods formed a passage which the Russians defended by building six redoubts across the gap. In addition, Peter I ordered another four redoubts to be built so that the ten redoubts would form a T-shaped barricade, providing flanking fire against a Swedish advance. Despite his injury, Charles XII would not neglect an opportunity to put up a battle against the Tsar, and commanded Rehnskiöld to attack.


Battle of Poltava

The opposing forces at Poltava comprised about 16,000 Swedish soldiers and 40,000 Russian. Rehnskiöld replaced the King as commander-in-chief; Lewenhaupt commanded the infantry and Major-General
Carl Gustaf Creutz Carl Gustaf Creutz (25 January 1660 − 12 March 1728) was a Swedish general. He served as a page of Charles XI and experienced the Scanian War and by 1691 he was a captain in the Life Regiment of Horse. The Great Northern War began in 1700 a ...
the cavalry. The battle plan was constructed by Rehnskiöld in consultation with the King, while Gyllenkrok established the formation plan. The 8,170 strong Swedish infantry was divided into four columns, which would carry out a surprise attack against the Russian redoubts before dawn and bypass them. The 7,800 strong Swedish cavalry would follow the infantry, divided into six columns. After the infantry bypassed the redoubts, they would march to the wide field in front of the Russian field camp, to a position at a ford near the village of Petrovka and northwest of Peter's fortified army, while simultaneously, the Swedish cavalry would drive off the Russian cavalry. From that position, the gathered Swedish Army would march to the right and form itself into battle formation. If the maneuver succeeded, Peter's fortified army would be trapped in their own camp, with the steep river bank behind them and the Swedish Army in front of them, blocking their line of retreat at Petrovka. If they would not accept the Swedes' challenge, they would eventually starve to death. The four infantry columns would be commanded by Major-Generals Axel Sparre, Berndt Otto Stackelberg, Carl Gustaf Roos and Anders Lagercrona. The King accompanied the eastern column on the left wing in a stretcher. Shortly before midnight on 28 June, Rehnskiöld ordered his troops to decamp and advance towards the Russian redoubts in the cover of darkness. Disorder arose in some of the columns, with Rehnskiöld having a vicious exchange with Lewenhaupt: The Russians discovered the Swedes' presence and sounded the alarm, and the Swedes lost the element of surprise. After a council of war between the King, Rehnskiöld and Gyllenkrok, Rehnskiöld ordered the infantry columns to regroup and continue the advance. It was already daylight, and the Swedes discovered the entire Russian cavalry stationed behind the redoubts. The cavalry tried to storm the Swedish columns but the Swedish cavalry fended them off; the Russians were forced to retreat and were pursued by the Swedish cavalry. With the field empty, the Swedish infantry marched towards the Russian redoubts, the foremost of which were conquered after a short battle. The attacks against the other redoubts caused large casualties among the columns, especially for Ross’ column, which was forced to retreat to a nearby forest and would later surrender. In the meantime, the other columns passed the remaining redoubts and marched to the open field in front of the Russian field camp, but Rehnskiöld had already lost one third of his infantry. At the same time, the Swedish cavalry had chased the Russian cavalry past the field camp and further north. The Russian cavalry were close to being driven off towards a deep sink in the terrain covered by stony wetlands, when Rehnskiöld ordered the Swedish cavalry to interrupt the hunt and re-assemble with the infantry.Konow (2001), pp. 123−126 At nine o'clock, the Russian infantry marched out from the fortified camp and formed into battle formation. Prior to the final battle, 4,000 Swedish soldiers gathered in a line against 22,000 Russian soldiers who were set up into two lines. Rehnskiöld ordered Lewenhaupt to attack the Russian lines with his infantry, but since the Swedish cavalry did not arrive in time, the Swedish infantry was broken and the remnants routed. The King, Lewenhaupt and most of the cavalry escaped, united with the siege troops and the baggage train, and marched south along the Vorskla River. Rehnskiöld, Piper and the survivors from the infantry were captured by the Russians. 6,900 Swedes were killed or wounded in the battle, and 2,800 were captured. The Russians lost 1,345 men with 3,290 wounded. A couple of days after the battle, Lewenhaupt and the 20,000 soldiers and non-combatants remaining from the Carolean Army, surrendered to Prince Menshikov at the village of
Perevolochna Perevolochna () is a former fortress and town in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and Cossack Hetmanate, and later a village in Poltava Oblast. Before the establishment of Kamianske Water Reservoir in the 1960s, here also existed a river cr ...
at the ford of the Dnieper. The King, Mazepa and about 1,000 men managed to cross the river and headed to the
Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire (), also called the Turkish Empire, was an empire, imperial realm that controlled much of Southeast Europe, West Asia, and North Africa from the 14th to early 20th centuries; it also controlled parts of southeastern Centr ...
, where Charles stayed for several years before returning to Sweden at the end of 1715. With the main Swedish army destroyed, both Denmark-Norway and Saxony-Poland returned to the war against Sweden.
Hannover Hanover ( ; ; ) is the capital and largest city of the States of Germany, German state of Lower Saxony. Its population of 535,932 (2021) makes it the List of cities in Germany by population, 13th-largest city in Germany as well as the fourth-l ...
and Prussia also joined the alliance against Sweden, and together with Russia, the countries attacked the Swedish dominions around the Baltic Sea. The battle of Poltava and the subsequent surrender marked the beginning of Sweden's final defeat in the war. Rehnskiöld's failure as commander during the battle has been a subject of debate among historians. They stated that Rehnskiöld was in mental imbalance, as evidenced by his scolding of Lewenhaupt, his second-in-command. Psychologically, Rehnskiöld's task as commander-in-chief was stressful and almost impossible due to the King's presence and oversight. von Konow raises two major mistakes Rehnskiöld made during the battle. The first was that he organized no
reconnaissance In military operations, military reconnaissance () or scouting is the exploration of an area by military forces to obtain information about enemy forces, the terrain, and civil activities in the area of operations. In military jargon, reconnai ...
of the Russian redoubts that were built the night before the battle and had not informed his subordinates about his plan of attack, causing great confusion in the Swedish high command. The second was his decision to stop the Swedish cavalry's pursuit of the retreating Russian cavalry, which was close to being driven against steep gorges north of the battlefield. Historians have speculated about the reason for this order. Opinions have differed from approval, since Rehnskiöld would not take the risk of losing contact with his cavalry during the battle's decisive point, and strongly condemning, because the elimination of the Russian cavalry could have determined the entire battle in favor of the Swedes.


Prisoner of war (1709–1718)

Shortly after the battle, Rehnskiöld and the other captive Swedish officers were brought to the Russian camp. Rehnskiöld, Piper and four Swedish generals were taken to Menshikov's tent, where they surrendered their swords to the Tsar. Peter I asked Rehnskiöld about the King's health, since the Russians believed he was among the dead, and Rehnskiöld replied that he believed the King was alive and well. Pleased with his reply, Peter returned him his sword. Later the Tsar ordered a banquet with the captured Swedish generals, asking several questions of Rehnskiöld and the other generals, and proposing a toast to his Swedish "teachers in the art of war". During late autumn 1709, Rehnskiöld and the captured Swedish army were transported to Moscow, where Peter I arranged a massive
victory parade A victory parade is a parade held to celebrate a victory. Numerous military and sport victory parades have been held. Military victory parades Among the most famous parades are the victory parades celebrating the end of the First World War and ...
on 22 December. The prisoners of war were arranged in ranks, with Rehnskiöld and Piper walking among the last. After the parade, the Swedish prisoners were distributed to cities and prison camps around Russia. Rehnskiöld and Piper moved into Avram Lopuchin's house in Moscow. During a dinner Rehnskiöld had an argument with Piper and Lewenhaupt, where Piper criticized Rehnskiöld's leadership during the battle of Poltava and blamed him for the loss. Piper's insults provoked Rehnskiöld to the point of violence. Lewenhaupt and Gyllenkrok separated them, and Rehnskiöld began accusing Lewenhaupt and the other officers for expressing criticism towards Charles XII: A few days later Lewenhaupt proposed, first to Piper and later to Rehnskiöld, that they should reconcile so that their hostile relationship would not affect the other Swedish officers. In the presence of Swedish generals and colonels, Rehnskiöld and Piper settled their differences. Both remained in Moscow and established a collaboration to help the Swedish prisoners of war and satisfy their interests. With the approval of the Russian authorities they established a management office in the city, through which all contact with the Swedish authorities was routed. They worked hard to raise money for the Swedish prisoners through funds sent from the State Treasury in
Stockholm Stockholm (; ) is the Capital city, capital and List of urban areas in Sweden by population, most populous city of Sweden, as well as the List of urban areas in the Nordic countries, largest urban area in the Nordic countries. Approximately ...
; however, over the years these transfers became increasingly sporadic.Konow (2001), pp. 135−137Norrhem (2010), pp. 133−139 Due to the lack of support from the Swedish authorities for their captured countrymen, Rehnskiöld and the Swedish officers were forced to request allowances from the Tsar in 1714. However, the Tsar decided to exacerbate the conditions of subsistence for the Swedish officers as a punishment for Rehnskiöld's and Piper's earlier inflexibility before the Senate in
Saint Petersburg Saint Petersburg, formerly known as Petrograd and later Leningrad, is the List of cities and towns in Russia by population, second-largest city in Russia after Moscow. It is situated on the Neva, River Neva, at the head of the Gulf of Finland ...
, where threats of reprisals were required to compel them to sign the exchange act between the Swedish Commandant Nils Stromberg and the Russian General Adam Veyde, a matter in which they had no authority. The Tsar's resentment over reports of the treatment of Russian prisoners of war in Sweden was a contributing factor to this decision. Piper was imprisoned in
Shlisselburg Fortress The Oreshek Fortress (; Schlüsselburg Fortress, ) is one of a series of fortifications built in Oreshek (now known as Shlisselburg) on Orekhovy Island in Lake Ladoga, near the modern city of Saint Petersburg in Russia. The first fortress was bui ...
, where he fell ill and died in 1716. Rehnskiöld was forced to take care of the management office by himself. He wrote letters of complaint to the Swedish authorities regarding the misery of the Swedish prisoners around Russia. With the rapid spread of
pietism Pietism (), also known as Pietistic Lutheranism, is a movement within Lutheranism that combines its emphasis on biblical doctrine with an emphasis on individual piety and living a holy Christianity, Christian life. Although the movement is ali ...
among the prisoners Rehnskiöld formed an ecclesiastical board in Moscow, from which captive chaplains were sent out to the Swedish prison camps. Rehnskiöld himself decided the biblical texts for the four set days for intercession. After a long time without any effort from the Swedish side, the matter of getting Rehnskiöld exchanged from captivity was raised in the spring of 1718, when Russia commenced peace negotiations with Sweden in Lövö village on
Vårdö Vårdö is an island municipality of Åland, an autonomous territory of Finland. The municipality has a population of () and covers an area of of which is water. The population density Population density (in agriculture: Standing stock (di ...
in
Åland Åland ( , ; ) is an Federacy, autonomous and Demilitarized zone, demilitarised region of Finland. Receiving its autonomy by a 1920 decision of the League of Nations, it is the smallest region of Finland by both area () and population (30,54 ...
. Rehnskiöld came to be involved in the matter of succession in Sweden on the initiative of
Georg Heinrich von Görtz Georg Heinrich von Görtz, Baron of Schlitz (1668 – 19 February 1719), diplomat in Swedish service, was born in Holstein and educated at Jena. Early life Born into an old and prominent German noble family from Fulda, he was the eldest of f ...
from Holstein-Gottorp, who had served as Swedish "grand-vizier" since 1716 and was responsible for the peace talks. Charles XII had no heirs, so Görtz wanted Rehnskiöld on his side to strengthen his own position in the Holstein Party, in which Görtz held great influence. Görtz and his party wanted to make
Charles Frederick, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp Charles Frederick, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Gottorp () (30 April 1700 – 18 June 1739) was a Sweden, Prince of Sweden and Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Gottorp and an important member of European royalty. His dynasty, the Dukes of Schleswig-Holst ...
heir to the Swedish throne, in order to counteract the pressure from the Hessian party, whose choice for heir to the throne was
landgrave Landgrave (, , , ; , ', ', ', ', ') was a rank of nobility used in the Holy Roman Empire, and its former territories. The German titles of ', ' ("margrave"), and ' ("count palatine") are of roughly equal rank, subordinate to ' ("duke"), and su ...
Frederick Frederick may refer to: People * Frederick (given name), the name Given name Nobility = Anhalt-Harzgerode = * Frederick, Prince of Anhalt-Harzgerode (1613–1670) = Austria = * Frederick I, Duke of Austria (Babenberg), Duke of Austria fro ...
of
Hesse-Kassel The Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel (), spelled Hesse-Cassel during its entire existence, also known as the Hessian Palatinate (), was a state of the Holy Roman Empire. The state was created in 1567 when the Landgraviate of Hesse was divided upon t ...
,
Prince consort A prince consort is the husband of a monarch who is not a monarch in his own right. In recognition of his status, a prince consort may be given a formal title, such as ''prince''. Most monarchies do not allow the husband of a queen regnant to be ...
to Charles XII's sister Princess
Ulrika Eleonora Ulrika Eleonora or Ulrica Eleanor (23 January 1688 – 24 November 1741), also known as Ulrika Eleonora the Younger, was Queen of Sweden from 5 December 1718 until her abdication on 29 February 1720 in favour of Frederick, her husband. Upon his ...
. After pressure from the Swedish side, Peter I gave the order on 17 September to send Rehnskiöld to Lövö, where he would be exchanged with Major-General Ivan Trubetskoy and Count
Avtonom Golovin General Avtonom Mikhailovich Golovin () (October 7, 1667 – July 3, 1720) was a Russian military leader and an associate of Peter the Great. Biography When tsar Peter I of Russia was a young boy, Avtonom Golovin served him as a room stolnik. ...
. Rehnskiöld arrived at Lovö on 14 October, where he entrusted Görtz's secretary, Andreas Stambke, to convince Charles Frederick to marry a daughter to Peter I in order to bolster relations between Sweden and Russia. On 30 October the exchange was finalized and Rehnskiöld was finally released.


The last years (1718–1722)

Immediately after his release, Rehnskiöld went to Stockholm and met with Görtz. Later, Rehnskiöld went to Charles XII's headquarters in
Tistedalen Tistedalen is a part of Halden in Østfold, Norway. Originally located four kilometers from the city center, the area started growing up around the sawmill industry and has now been engulfed by Halden, although it still maintains some separate ide ...
in Norway, where the King commenced his second Norwegian campaign by laying siege to the fortress of
Fredriksten Fredriksten is a fortress in the city of Halden in Norway. History This Fortresses was constructed by Denmark-Norway in the 17th century as a replacement for the border fortress at Bohus, which had been lost when the province of Bohuslän was ...
. Rehnskiöld arrived at the end of November 1718, and the reunion with the King was claimed as "one of his last joys in life". Both had a long conversation on 28 November, regarding the current operational situation in Norway and the peace talks with Russia, about which Rehnskiöld obtained fresh information. Two days later, on the evening of 30 November, Charles was shot by a projectile and immediately killed. The King's sudden death forced Prince Frederick, appointed ''
Generalissimo ''Generalissimo'' ( ), also generalissimus, is a military rank of the highest degree, superior to field marshal and other five-star ranks in the states where they are used. Usage The word (), an Italian term, is the absolute superlative ...
'' of the army, to call for a council of war, where the Swedes decided that the army must abandon the siege and return to Sweden. The report on the death of Charles XII was signed by Rehnskiöld and Field Marshal Carl Mörner and sent to the Privy Council in Stockholm. Furthermore, Frederick ordered the arrest of Görtz on 2 December, since the Hessian party sought to seize the upper hand in the matter of succession, which they gained with the death of Charles XII. Görtz was taken to Stockholm, where he was sentenced to death at the
Svea Court of Appeal Svea Court of Appeal (), located in Stockholm, is one of six appellate courts in the Swedish legal system, as well as the oldest Swedish court currently in use (the Supreme Court being constituted only in 1789, over 150 years later). It is loca ...
and beheaded on 19 February 1719. With Görtz's death, the negotiations with Russia were discontinued and the war went on for another three years.Rosander (2003), p. 273 Another council of war took place in
Strömstad Strömstad is a Urban areas in Sweden, locality and the seat of Strömstad Municipality, Västra Götaland County, Sweden with 6,288 inhabitants in 2010. For historical reasons, Strömstad is called a Stad (Sweden), ''city'' despite its small popu ...
on 14 January 1719. The reason for this was that a considerable sum of 100,000 riksdaler arrived from the war commissioner, and Prince Frederick wanted to distribute the money to the high command of the army, in order to win influential votes in the matter of succession. Rehnskiöld himself received 12,000 riksdaler, which he saw as a recognition for his time in Russian captivity. Rehnskiöld later entered the Privy Council in Stockholm. When the soldiers carrying the King's body arrived in Stockholm on 27 January, they were received by the council members Rehnskiöld,
Arvid Horn Count Arvid Bernhard Horn af Ekebyholm (6 April 166418 April 1742) was a Swedish general, diplomat and politician, a member of the noble Horn family. He served twice as president of the Privy Council Chancellery of Sweden, privy council chancel ...
and Gustaf Cronhielm. On 26 February Charles XII was buried in the
Riddarholm Church Riddarholmen Church () is the church of the former medieval Greyfriars Monastery in Stockholm, Sweden. The church serves as the final resting place of most Swedish monarchs. Description Riddarholmen Church is located on the island of Riddarhol ...
; Rehnskiöld carried the royal spire during a long procession from
Karlberg Palace Karlberg Palace () is a palace by the Karlberg Canal in Solna Municipality in Sweden, adjacent to Stockholm's Vasastaden district. The palace, built in 1630,Solna: Huvudsta today houses the Military Academy Karlberg. In the palace park are fou ...
to
Riddarholmen Riddarholmen (, "The Knights' Islet") is a small islet in central Stockholm, Sweden. The island forms part of Gamla Stan, the old town, and houses a number of private palaces dating back to the 17th century. The main landmark is the church Riddarh ...
. Due to the kingdom's critical state of weakness, Rehnskiöld was appointed commander in western Sweden to protect these regions from Danish attacks. Rehnskiöld travelled between Uddevalla and Gothenburg for inspection, strengthening the defenses in the cities and fortresses in Bohuslän and Scania. On 10 July, Danish forces landed at Strömstad, and a Danish-Norwegian main army of 30,000 men crossed the border at Svinesund and advanced south without resistance. Shortly after, Strömstad was taken and Frederick IV set up his headquarters there. In Bohuslän, Rehnskiöld had 5,000 men at his disposal and ordered them to burn down supply depots to prevent them from falling into Danish hands. He gathered his troops and fortified his position in Uddevalla, with the intent to defend the road connections towards Vänersborg and Dalsland. Rehnskiöld later learned about Commandant Henrich Danckwardt's Attack on Marstrand, surrender of Carlsten Fortress and decided to stay in Uddevalla despite the threat of being cut off by Danish forces, who could be landed north of Gothenburg. The Danish-Norwegian army in Strömstad, however, returned to Norway at the end of August. Rehnskiöld proceeded to Scania and defended it from an invasion threat. On 28 October 1719, an armistice was agreed with Denmark, and a Treaty of Frederiksborg, peace treaty was signed in Frederiksborg Castle, Frederiksborg on 3 July 1720. On 30 August 1721, following pressure from the Russians, the war was finally concluded by the Treaty of Nystad between Sweden and Russia. The Russians Russian Pillage of 1719–21, raided the east coast of Sweden since 1719. After the peace, Sweden ceased to be a major power in Europe. When Ulrika Eleonora was appointed Sweden's ruling queen in 1719, she wanted her husband Frederick to become her co-ruler, but this was rejected by the Riksdag of the Estates. In 1720 she decided to step down as ruling queen, and on 24 March 1720, Frederick was appointed King. He was crowned Frederick I of Sweden, Frederick I on 3 May in Stockholm, and as the oldest member of the Privy Council, Rehnskiöld assisted archbishop Mattias Steuchius in placing the crown upon Frederick's head. Rehnskiöld participated in the Riksdag meetings between 1719 and 1720, including Council assemblies, but made no further public appearances. In January 1722, Frederick I summoned Rehnskiöld to Kungsör. Rehnskiöld fell ill during the journey and was taken to Läggesta railway station, Läggesta Inn outside of Mariefred. Having high fever and spitting blood, his declining health indicated that he was suffering from his old shrapnel injury from Veprik. He died on 29 January the same year, and with his death, both the noble and the count's branch of the Rehnskiöld family was extinguished. The funeral took place on 15 March at Storkyrkan in Stockholm. The officiant was Chaplain Jöran Nordberg, who had followed Rehnskiöld and the army from 1703 to 1715.Konow (2001), pp. 146−147Palmgren (1845), p. 57Rosander (2003), p. 274 Rehnskiöld's widow, Elisabeth, married Imperial Count Erasmus Ernst Fredrik von Küssow in 1724, and died on 23 November 1726.


See also

*List of Swedish field marshals


Notes


References


Works cited

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * {{DEFAULTSORT:Rehnskiold, Carl Gustav 1651 births 1722 deaths People from Stralsund People from Swedish Pomerania People from the Swedish Empire Field marshals of Sweden Members of the Privy Council of Sweden Governors-general of Sweden Swedish military personnel of the Nine Years' War Swedish military personnel of the Great Northern War Swedish nobility Swedish barons Swedish counts 17th-century Swedish military personnel 18th-century Swedish military personnel Swedish prisoners of war Battle of Poltava Prisoners of war held by Russia Caroleans Lund University alumni